The document discusses Geoffrey Leech's classification of meaning into 7 types:
1. Conceptual meaning refers to logical or denotative meaning.
2. Connotative meaning refers to aspects of meaning beyond conceptual content.
3. Social meaning refers to information conveyed about social context of language use.
4. Affective meaning refers to feelings and attitudes conveyed by speaker/writer.
5. Reflected meaning arises from association between multiple senses of a word.
6. Collocative meaning refers to associations from words occurring in similar contexts.
7. Thematic meaning refers to how organization, ordering, focus and emphasis convey meaning.
Semantic roles describe the relationship between participants and the main verb in a clause. The main semantic roles are agent, patient, theme, experiencer, goal, instrument, and locative. The agent performs the action, the patient undergoes the action, the theme is affected by the action, the experiencer experiences the action, the goal is the location or entity towards which an action is directed, the instrument is used to carry out an action, and the locative specifies the place where an action occurs. Examples are provided to illustrate each semantic role.
This document discusses componential analysis, which is a method proposed by structural semanticists to analyze word meanings. It breaks down a word's meaning into semantic features or components. Componential analysis provides insight into word meanings and relationships between related words. It analyzes dimensions like gender, age, etc. for related words. Plus and minus signs indicate whether a feature is present or absent in a word's meaning. Componential analysis has advantages like determining meaning acceptability and analyzing polysemy. However, it does not handle all semantic relations equally well.
The document discusses various lexical semantic relations between words such as synonyms, antonyms, hyponyms, homophones, polysemy, and collocations. It defines each relation and provides examples to illustrate how the meaning of words can be related or contrasted in multiple ways. The key relations covered are synonyms (words with similar meanings), antonyms (opposite meanings), hyponyms (a specific example of a general category), and polysemy (a single word with multiple related meanings).
This document defines and provides examples of different semantic roles including agent, patient or theme, instrument, experiencer, and location. It explains that semantic roles describe the underlying relationship that participants have with the main verb in a clause. For example, in the sentence "The boy kicked the ball", the boy is the agent performing the action of kicking, while the ball is the theme or patient that is affected by the action. The document also introduces feature notation as a method to express the existence or non-existence of semantic properties using plus and minus signs, such as [+HUMAN] to denote entities that are human.
Pragmatics studies how utterances are used and interpreted based on context. It examines linguistic context like other words used, physical context like location, and how deixis requires shared knowledge. Speech act theory analyzes locutionary meaning, illocutionary intention, and perlocutionary effect. Cooperation theory proposes maxims for conversation like being relevant and clear. Pragmatic analysis considers how meaning relates to situation, people, context, and shared information.
Componential analysis, procedural steps in componential analysis of meaning , linguistic basis, and Componential analysis contribution to the study of meaning
1. Definition of referents and referring expression.
2. example of referents and referring expression
3. Extension and Intension
4. Some different kinds of referents
4.1 unique and non unique referents
4.2 concrete and abstract
4.3 countable and uncountable
5. Different ways of referring
5.1 Generic and non-generic reference
5.2 Specific and non-specific reference
5.3 Definite and indefinite reference
6. Deixis
7. Example of deixis
8. Anaphora
9. Shifts in ways of referring
10. referential ambiguity
This document discusses pragmatics and its relationship to linguistics. It defines pragmatics as the study of meaning as it relates to speakers, addressees, context and knowledge of language use. Pragmatics focuses on utterances within a given context. Unlike grammar, pragmatics allows humans into the analysis and looks at principles rather than rules. It deals with processes rather than products. The document provides several definitions of pragmatics and outlines its distinction from semantics and syntax.
Semantic roles describe the relationship between participants and the main verb in a clause. The main semantic roles are agent, patient, theme, experiencer, goal, instrument, and locative. The agent performs the action, the patient undergoes the action, the theme is affected by the action, the experiencer experiences the action, the goal is the location or entity towards which an action is directed, the instrument is used to carry out an action, and the locative specifies the place where an action occurs. Examples are provided to illustrate each semantic role.
This document discusses componential analysis, which is a method proposed by structural semanticists to analyze word meanings. It breaks down a word's meaning into semantic features or components. Componential analysis provides insight into word meanings and relationships between related words. It analyzes dimensions like gender, age, etc. for related words. Plus and minus signs indicate whether a feature is present or absent in a word's meaning. Componential analysis has advantages like determining meaning acceptability and analyzing polysemy. However, it does not handle all semantic relations equally well.
The document discusses various lexical semantic relations between words such as synonyms, antonyms, hyponyms, homophones, polysemy, and collocations. It defines each relation and provides examples to illustrate how the meaning of words can be related or contrasted in multiple ways. The key relations covered are synonyms (words with similar meanings), antonyms (opposite meanings), hyponyms (a specific example of a general category), and polysemy (a single word with multiple related meanings).
This document defines and provides examples of different semantic roles including agent, patient or theme, instrument, experiencer, and location. It explains that semantic roles describe the underlying relationship that participants have with the main verb in a clause. For example, in the sentence "The boy kicked the ball", the boy is the agent performing the action of kicking, while the ball is the theme or patient that is affected by the action. The document also introduces feature notation as a method to express the existence or non-existence of semantic properties using plus and minus signs, such as [+HUMAN] to denote entities that are human.
Pragmatics studies how utterances are used and interpreted based on context. It examines linguistic context like other words used, physical context like location, and how deixis requires shared knowledge. Speech act theory analyzes locutionary meaning, illocutionary intention, and perlocutionary effect. Cooperation theory proposes maxims for conversation like being relevant and clear. Pragmatic analysis considers how meaning relates to situation, people, context, and shared information.
Componential analysis, procedural steps in componential analysis of meaning , linguistic basis, and Componential analysis contribution to the study of meaning
1. Definition of referents and referring expression.
2. example of referents and referring expression
3. Extension and Intension
4. Some different kinds of referents
4.1 unique and non unique referents
4.2 concrete and abstract
4.3 countable and uncountable
5. Different ways of referring
5.1 Generic and non-generic reference
5.2 Specific and non-specific reference
5.3 Definite and indefinite reference
6. Deixis
7. Example of deixis
8. Anaphora
9. Shifts in ways of referring
10. referential ambiguity
This document discusses pragmatics and its relationship to linguistics. It defines pragmatics as the study of meaning as it relates to speakers, addressees, context and knowledge of language use. Pragmatics focuses on utterances within a given context. Unlike grammar, pragmatics allows humans into the analysis and looks at principles rather than rules. It deals with processes rather than products. The document provides several definitions of pragmatics and outlines its distinction from semantics and syntax.
This document discusses the seven types of meaning in semantics according to Geoffrey Leech:
1. Conceptual meaning refers to the literal or dictionary definition of a word.
2. Connotative meaning involves the social and cultural values associated with a word.
3. Social meaning depends on aspects of society and dialect.
4. Affective meaning refers to the emotions and attitudes conveyed.
5. Reflective meaning involves multiple conceptual meanings from a single sense.
6. Collocative meaning consists of associations acquired based on common words in the environment.
7. Thematic meaning is communicated through how the message is organized, ordered and emphasized.
1. Sense relation is a paradigmatic relation between words or predicates that results from the semantic relatedness between forms and meanings.
2. There are several types of sense relations, including synonymy (words with the same meaning), polysemy (words with multiple meanings), hyponymy (more specific terms that fall under a more general term), and antonyms (words with opposite meanings).
3. Semantics is the study of meaning in language. Word meanings can be classified in different ways, including referential, associative, connotative, social, affective, and reflected meanings.
This document discusses linguistic politeness and various models of politeness. It defines politeness as linguistic structures that express a speaker's attitude in a pragmatic rather than semantic way. Interactions involve both conveying meaning and observing social rules shaped by distance and closeness between participants. Watts groups standard behaviors like "thank you" and address terms under the term "politic behavior" which society expects in certain situations. The document outlines politeness models including Lakoff's social norm model, Leech's conversational maxim model, Fraser and Nolen's conversational contract model, and Brown and Levinson's face theory of politeness involving face-threatening acts and strategies to maintain one's own and others' positive and negative face.
what is stylistics and its levels 1.Phonological level 2.Graphological leve...RajpootBhatti5
This document discusses stylistics and its levels of analysis. It defines stylistics as the study and interpretation of texts from a linguistic perspective, focusing on literature but also other written texts. There are five main levels of stylistics analysis:
1. Phonological level - Analyzes sounds, pronunciation, rhythm, etc.
2. Graphological level - Examines handwriting, fonts, punctuation, spelling.
3. Grammatical level - Looks at parts of speech, abbreviations, verbs, and the language of newspaper headlines.
4. Pragmatics level - Studies context, meaning, presuppositions, and speech acts.
5. Conversation/discourse analysis - Analyzes
Systemic functional linguistics (SFL) views language as a social semiotic system used to exchange meanings in social contexts. SFL was developed by Michael Halliday to study the relationship between language and its functions in social settings. It treats grammar as a meaning-making resource and considers how language evolves under the pressure of functions it must serve in society. SFL analyzes language through three metafunctions - the ideational to express experience, the interpersonal to enact social relationships, and the textual to create coherent messages.
This document discusses the concepts of reference and sense in linguistics. Reference deals with the relationship between language and real-world entities, while sense relates to the system of relationships between linguistic elements themselves. Referring expressions identify entities, with referring and non-referring expressions defined. Referents can be unique, variable, concrete, abstract, countable or non-countable. Sense involves the meanings and relationships between words and phrases. Ambiguous, anomalous, contradictory and paraphrased sentences are examined.
This document discusses theories of politeness from a socio-pragmatic perspective. It outlines Brown and Levinson's influential theory of politeness from 1978, which proposes that politeness arises from people's desire to protect each other's "face" or public self-image. Brown and Levinson identify two types of face - positive face, which is the desire to be approved of, and negative face, which is the desire to not be imposed on. They suggest politeness strategies like indirect speech acts that mitigate potential threats to another's face. The document also reviews other approaches to politeness including social norm, conversational contact, and maxims approaches.
The document presents an overview of deixis, which refers to linguistic expressions whose meaning depends on the context of the utterance. It discusses the main categories of deixis, including person deixis (pronouns like I, you), place deixis (demonstratives like this, that), time deixis (temporal adverbs like now, then), discourse deixis (words referring to parts of the discourse), and social deixis (expressions encoding social relationships). Key points are that deictic expressions cannot be understood without context and indicate something relative to the speaker.
Deixis refers to linguistic expressions that can only be interpreted based on contextual information like who is speaking, their location, or the time. There are several types of deixis:
1. Person deixis refers to pronouns like I, you, he, she that indicate speakers and addressees.
2. Place or spatial deixis uses words like here, there, this, that to indicate locations relative to the speaker.
3. Time or temporal deixis includes words like now, then, tomorrow to reference times in relation to the moment of speaking.
4. Other types include discourse deixis which references elements within a conversation or text, and social deixis which reflects social relationships
Morphophonemics is the study of variations in the form of morphemes due to phonetic factors or sound changes. When morphemes are combined, their pronunciation can change based on morphological and phonological rules. For example, in English the plural morpheme is realized as /-s/, /-z/, or /-əz/ depending on the final sound of the preceding word. These varying forms are called allomorphs and are conditioned by phonological rules at morpheme boundaries.
This document discusses several theories of meaning:
- Referential theory claims words refer to real objects, but some words like "nobody" have no referent.
- Use theory argues meaning depends on a word's conventional use rather than reference.
- Speech act theory proposes words can perform actions like promising or requesting.
- Hermeneutic theory interprets meaning through analyzing related concepts within a text.
- Postmodern theory rejects objective meanings and emphasizes context and interpretation.
The document summarizes paradigmatic and syntagmatic relations in linguistics. It discusses how paradigmatic relations describe substitutional relationships between linguistic units, while syntagmatic relations refer to the sequential order of units. The document also provides examples of these relations at different linguistic levels and notes that syntagmatic relations are generally stronger. It then discusses semantic fields and how words with related meanings form clusters.
The slides contain a short account of the relationship between discourse analysis and interactional sociolinguistics linguistics. They also provide a short account of different approaches to politeness. The influence of Gumperz and Goffman on politeness and facework is highlighted.
This document provides an overview of semantics and pragmatics, discussing their similarities and differences. Both are subfields of linguistics that deal with meaning, but semantics focuses on literal word and sentence meanings, while pragmatics examines how context contributes to meaning. Key differences include pragmatics considering social and situational contexts versus just text for semantics. Theories like Grice's implicature and Austin's sense and force further separated the fields by highlighting how pragmatics examines implied versus literal meanings and how utterances can perform actions.
This document provides an outline for a course on discourse grammar. It introduces discourse grammar as a framework that analyzes spoken and written language using terms like theme, rheme, reference and anaphoric. It discusses the texture of a text, including unity of structure and unity of texture. It also covers various aspects of cohesion like reference items, substitution, ellipsis, and lexical cohesion. Finally, it defines theme and rheme in clauses.
This document provides a stylistic analysis of the poem "i carry your heart with me" by E.E. Cummings. It analyzes the poem's style at the graphological, syntactic, lexical, and phonological levels. At the graphological level, it examines the stanza structure and formatting. At the syntactic level, it analyzes grammar and sentence structure. At the lexical level, it considers word choice and parts of speech. At the phonological level, it analyzes sound patterns like rhyme, alliteration and assonance. The conclusion is that Cummings beautifully describes an ideal, selfless love through his creative style and rhythm.
The Role of context (Discourse Analysis)Faiza Sandhu
The document discusses the importance of context in discourse analysis. It makes three key points:
1. A discourse analyst must consider the context in which a piece of discourse occurs, as context helps establish the meanings of linguistic elements. Context provides information about participants, time, location, and relationships between utterances.
2. Interpreting language requires understanding reference, presupposition, implicature, and inference based on the context. Determining implied versus literal meaning depends on context.
3. Several scholars, including Firth and Hymes, developed frameworks for systematically analyzing the elements of context, including participants, objects, settings, interactions, and how context influences meaning. Thoroughly understanding context is essential for discourse analysis
The document discusses various key concepts in semantics, including:
- Semantics is the study of meaning in language. It examines how meaning is constructed and interpreted.
- Semantic roles describe the functions that words play in sentences, such as agent, theme, and experiencer.
- Relationships between words include synonyms, antonyms, hyponyms, homophony, and polysemy. Synonyms have similar meanings, antonyms have opposite meanings, hyponyms have a broader term that includes them, and polysemy refers to a word having multiple related meanings.
- Richard Montague pioneered formal semantics which used logic to represent meanings of sentences. Semantics analyzes meaning at various linguistic levels
The document discusses various theories and models of translation shifts. It describes Vinay and Darbelnet's model which identifies two translation strategies - direct translation and oblique translation. It also discusses Catford's theory of level and category shifts. Additionally, it summarizes Van Leuven-Zwart's comparative and descriptive model of translation shifts which examines shifts at the micro and macro levels. The document provides details on different translation techniques like transposition, modulation, equivalence, and adaptation.
Stylistics is the scientific study of style in literary texts. It explores how readers interact with and are affected by language use in texts. Stylistics has links to linguistics and literary studies. It examines various linguistic features like phonology, lexicon, and syntax that influence a text's meaning. Stylistics has several branches that study different aspects of style, including lexical, phonological, grammatical, and individual author styles. The goal is to better understand language and literary works through analyzing stylistic devices and their effects.
This document provides an overview of semantics and the different types and components of meaning. It discusses the following:
- The major branches of linguistics including semantics, which is concerned with the study of meanings.
- Components of lexical meaning including designation (basic meaning), connotation (additional information or attributes), and range of application (restrictions on a word's use).
- Ogden and Richards' meaning triangle which shows the relationship between words, concepts, and referents.
- Geoffrey Leech's seven types of meaning: conceptual, connotative, social, affective, reflected, collocative, and thematic.
- Examples are provided to illustrate designation, connotation, range
Mona Baker's strategies for translation. Chapter 2ssusere6b7f7
This document discusses different types of lexical meaning and strategies for dealing with non-equivalence between words in translation. It outlines four main types of lexical meaning: propositional meaning, expressive meaning, presupposed meaning, and evoked meaning. Propositional meaning relates to the truth or falsity of what words refer to, expressive meaning relates to attitude rather than reference, presupposed meaning includes selectional and collocational restrictions, and evoked meaning arises from dialectal or register variation. The document also discusses problems that can arise from non-equivalence at the word level during translation, such as culture-specific concepts, differences in lexicalization or meaning distinctions between languages. Common strategies for dealing with non
This document discusses the seven types of meaning in semantics according to Geoffrey Leech:
1. Conceptual meaning refers to the literal or dictionary definition of a word.
2. Connotative meaning involves the social and cultural values associated with a word.
3. Social meaning depends on aspects of society and dialect.
4. Affective meaning refers to the emotions and attitudes conveyed.
5. Reflective meaning involves multiple conceptual meanings from a single sense.
6. Collocative meaning consists of associations acquired based on common words in the environment.
7. Thematic meaning is communicated through how the message is organized, ordered and emphasized.
1. Sense relation is a paradigmatic relation between words or predicates that results from the semantic relatedness between forms and meanings.
2. There are several types of sense relations, including synonymy (words with the same meaning), polysemy (words with multiple meanings), hyponymy (more specific terms that fall under a more general term), and antonyms (words with opposite meanings).
3. Semantics is the study of meaning in language. Word meanings can be classified in different ways, including referential, associative, connotative, social, affective, and reflected meanings.
This document discusses linguistic politeness and various models of politeness. It defines politeness as linguistic structures that express a speaker's attitude in a pragmatic rather than semantic way. Interactions involve both conveying meaning and observing social rules shaped by distance and closeness between participants. Watts groups standard behaviors like "thank you" and address terms under the term "politic behavior" which society expects in certain situations. The document outlines politeness models including Lakoff's social norm model, Leech's conversational maxim model, Fraser and Nolen's conversational contract model, and Brown and Levinson's face theory of politeness involving face-threatening acts and strategies to maintain one's own and others' positive and negative face.
what is stylistics and its levels 1.Phonological level 2.Graphological leve...RajpootBhatti5
This document discusses stylistics and its levels of analysis. It defines stylistics as the study and interpretation of texts from a linguistic perspective, focusing on literature but also other written texts. There are five main levels of stylistics analysis:
1. Phonological level - Analyzes sounds, pronunciation, rhythm, etc.
2. Graphological level - Examines handwriting, fonts, punctuation, spelling.
3. Grammatical level - Looks at parts of speech, abbreviations, verbs, and the language of newspaper headlines.
4. Pragmatics level - Studies context, meaning, presuppositions, and speech acts.
5. Conversation/discourse analysis - Analyzes
Systemic functional linguistics (SFL) views language as a social semiotic system used to exchange meanings in social contexts. SFL was developed by Michael Halliday to study the relationship between language and its functions in social settings. It treats grammar as a meaning-making resource and considers how language evolves under the pressure of functions it must serve in society. SFL analyzes language through three metafunctions - the ideational to express experience, the interpersonal to enact social relationships, and the textual to create coherent messages.
This document discusses the concepts of reference and sense in linguistics. Reference deals with the relationship between language and real-world entities, while sense relates to the system of relationships between linguistic elements themselves. Referring expressions identify entities, with referring and non-referring expressions defined. Referents can be unique, variable, concrete, abstract, countable or non-countable. Sense involves the meanings and relationships between words and phrases. Ambiguous, anomalous, contradictory and paraphrased sentences are examined.
This document discusses theories of politeness from a socio-pragmatic perspective. It outlines Brown and Levinson's influential theory of politeness from 1978, which proposes that politeness arises from people's desire to protect each other's "face" or public self-image. Brown and Levinson identify two types of face - positive face, which is the desire to be approved of, and negative face, which is the desire to not be imposed on. They suggest politeness strategies like indirect speech acts that mitigate potential threats to another's face. The document also reviews other approaches to politeness including social norm, conversational contact, and maxims approaches.
The document presents an overview of deixis, which refers to linguistic expressions whose meaning depends on the context of the utterance. It discusses the main categories of deixis, including person deixis (pronouns like I, you), place deixis (demonstratives like this, that), time deixis (temporal adverbs like now, then), discourse deixis (words referring to parts of the discourse), and social deixis (expressions encoding social relationships). Key points are that deictic expressions cannot be understood without context and indicate something relative to the speaker.
Deixis refers to linguistic expressions that can only be interpreted based on contextual information like who is speaking, their location, or the time. There are several types of deixis:
1. Person deixis refers to pronouns like I, you, he, she that indicate speakers and addressees.
2. Place or spatial deixis uses words like here, there, this, that to indicate locations relative to the speaker.
3. Time or temporal deixis includes words like now, then, tomorrow to reference times in relation to the moment of speaking.
4. Other types include discourse deixis which references elements within a conversation or text, and social deixis which reflects social relationships
Morphophonemics is the study of variations in the form of morphemes due to phonetic factors or sound changes. When morphemes are combined, their pronunciation can change based on morphological and phonological rules. For example, in English the plural morpheme is realized as /-s/, /-z/, or /-əz/ depending on the final sound of the preceding word. These varying forms are called allomorphs and are conditioned by phonological rules at morpheme boundaries.
This document discusses several theories of meaning:
- Referential theory claims words refer to real objects, but some words like "nobody" have no referent.
- Use theory argues meaning depends on a word's conventional use rather than reference.
- Speech act theory proposes words can perform actions like promising or requesting.
- Hermeneutic theory interprets meaning through analyzing related concepts within a text.
- Postmodern theory rejects objective meanings and emphasizes context and interpretation.
The document summarizes paradigmatic and syntagmatic relations in linguistics. It discusses how paradigmatic relations describe substitutional relationships between linguistic units, while syntagmatic relations refer to the sequential order of units. The document also provides examples of these relations at different linguistic levels and notes that syntagmatic relations are generally stronger. It then discusses semantic fields and how words with related meanings form clusters.
The slides contain a short account of the relationship between discourse analysis and interactional sociolinguistics linguistics. They also provide a short account of different approaches to politeness. The influence of Gumperz and Goffman on politeness and facework is highlighted.
This document provides an overview of semantics and pragmatics, discussing their similarities and differences. Both are subfields of linguistics that deal with meaning, but semantics focuses on literal word and sentence meanings, while pragmatics examines how context contributes to meaning. Key differences include pragmatics considering social and situational contexts versus just text for semantics. Theories like Grice's implicature and Austin's sense and force further separated the fields by highlighting how pragmatics examines implied versus literal meanings and how utterances can perform actions.
This document provides an outline for a course on discourse grammar. It introduces discourse grammar as a framework that analyzes spoken and written language using terms like theme, rheme, reference and anaphoric. It discusses the texture of a text, including unity of structure and unity of texture. It also covers various aspects of cohesion like reference items, substitution, ellipsis, and lexical cohesion. Finally, it defines theme and rheme in clauses.
This document provides a stylistic analysis of the poem "i carry your heart with me" by E.E. Cummings. It analyzes the poem's style at the graphological, syntactic, lexical, and phonological levels. At the graphological level, it examines the stanza structure and formatting. At the syntactic level, it analyzes grammar and sentence structure. At the lexical level, it considers word choice and parts of speech. At the phonological level, it analyzes sound patterns like rhyme, alliteration and assonance. The conclusion is that Cummings beautifully describes an ideal, selfless love through his creative style and rhythm.
The Role of context (Discourse Analysis)Faiza Sandhu
The document discusses the importance of context in discourse analysis. It makes three key points:
1. A discourse analyst must consider the context in which a piece of discourse occurs, as context helps establish the meanings of linguistic elements. Context provides information about participants, time, location, and relationships between utterances.
2. Interpreting language requires understanding reference, presupposition, implicature, and inference based on the context. Determining implied versus literal meaning depends on context.
3. Several scholars, including Firth and Hymes, developed frameworks for systematically analyzing the elements of context, including participants, objects, settings, interactions, and how context influences meaning. Thoroughly understanding context is essential for discourse analysis
The document discusses various key concepts in semantics, including:
- Semantics is the study of meaning in language. It examines how meaning is constructed and interpreted.
- Semantic roles describe the functions that words play in sentences, such as agent, theme, and experiencer.
- Relationships between words include synonyms, antonyms, hyponyms, homophony, and polysemy. Synonyms have similar meanings, antonyms have opposite meanings, hyponyms have a broader term that includes them, and polysemy refers to a word having multiple related meanings.
- Richard Montague pioneered formal semantics which used logic to represent meanings of sentences. Semantics analyzes meaning at various linguistic levels
The document discusses various theories and models of translation shifts. It describes Vinay and Darbelnet's model which identifies two translation strategies - direct translation and oblique translation. It also discusses Catford's theory of level and category shifts. Additionally, it summarizes Van Leuven-Zwart's comparative and descriptive model of translation shifts which examines shifts at the micro and macro levels. The document provides details on different translation techniques like transposition, modulation, equivalence, and adaptation.
Stylistics is the scientific study of style in literary texts. It explores how readers interact with and are affected by language use in texts. Stylistics has links to linguistics and literary studies. It examines various linguistic features like phonology, lexicon, and syntax that influence a text's meaning. Stylistics has several branches that study different aspects of style, including lexical, phonological, grammatical, and individual author styles. The goal is to better understand language and literary works through analyzing stylistic devices and their effects.
This document provides an overview of semantics and the different types and components of meaning. It discusses the following:
- The major branches of linguistics including semantics, which is concerned with the study of meanings.
- Components of lexical meaning including designation (basic meaning), connotation (additional information or attributes), and range of application (restrictions on a word's use).
- Ogden and Richards' meaning triangle which shows the relationship between words, concepts, and referents.
- Geoffrey Leech's seven types of meaning: conceptual, connotative, social, affective, reflected, collocative, and thematic.
- Examples are provided to illustrate designation, connotation, range
Mona Baker's strategies for translation. Chapter 2ssusere6b7f7
This document discusses different types of lexical meaning and strategies for dealing with non-equivalence between words in translation. It outlines four main types of lexical meaning: propositional meaning, expressive meaning, presupposed meaning, and evoked meaning. Propositional meaning relates to the truth or falsity of what words refer to, expressive meaning relates to attitude rather than reference, presupposed meaning includes selectional and collocational restrictions, and evoked meaning arises from dialectal or register variation. The document also discusses problems that can arise from non-equivalence at the word level during translation, such as culture-specific concepts, differences in lexicalization or meaning distinctions between languages. Common strategies for dealing with non
Discourse analysis refers to studying language use beyond the sentence level, including conversational exchanges and written texts. There are several approaches to discourse analysis from different disciplines. These include speech act theory (language as action), conversation analysis (structure of dialogue), interactional sociolinguistics (context and social identities), ethnography of communication (culture and communication), pragmatics (meaning based on context), and variation analysis (linguistic structures in texts). Each approach provides a distinct perspective for analyzing discourse in social contexts.
This document discusses textual analysis and discourse analysis for social research. It covers several key topics:
- Texts are seen as parts of social events that are shaped by both social structures and social agents. Agents have causal powers to shape texts but are also socially constrained.
- Discourses represent parts of the world from a particular perspective. To identify discourses, one analyzes themes and perspectives represented in texts.
- Clauses can be analyzed from a representational perspective focusing on processes, participants, and circumstances. Social events can be represented at different levels of abstraction from concrete to abstract. Elements of events are selectively represented according to principles of recontextualization.
This document discusses various concepts related to communication, language, and meaning. It defines semantics as the study of meaning and distinguishes between three subfields: lexical semantics, grammatical semantics, and logical semantics. It also discusses different units of analysis including words, utterances, sentences, and propositions. Finally, it outlines different dimensions of meaning such as reference versus sense, denotation versus reference, descriptive versus non-descriptive meaning, and literal versus non-literal meaning. Contextual meaning is also discussed as important for disambiguation.
Semantics is the study of meaning in language. It examines how meaning is constructed and changed through words, phrases, sentences and larger texts. The summary explores key aspects of semantics including how meaning can change over time due to factors like chance, new needs or uses of language, scientific terminology, and taboo words. It also discusses different types of meaning such as lexical vs grammatical, referential vs non-referential, denotative vs connotative, and how meaning can be analyzed.
This document discusses the seven types of meaning in semantics, focusing on conceptual and connotative meaning. Conceptual meaning is based on principles of contrastiveness and constituent structure, examining features of words. Connotative meaning involves individual associations with words, including social, affective, reflected, collocative, and thematic meanings. Social meaning varies by factors like age, sex, and culture. Affective meaning conveys attitude. Reflected meaning arises from multiple senses of a word. Collocative meaning involves words that commonly occur together. Thematic meaning considers how word order impacts entailment.
An in depth analysis of the manifestation of emotions and ideas through simil...Alexander Decker
This document discusses the use of similes in literature. It provides background on different types of meanings in language and defines similes as a figure of speech that makes an explicit comparison between two things using words like "like" or "as". The document then discusses various classifications of similes and their functions, including conveying meaning efficiently and having psychological or emotional effects on readers. Finally, it outlines questions that will guide an analysis of the similes used by author Somerset Maugham in his short stories to understand the objects/phenomena compared, meanings created, and intended effects on readers.
The document discusses reference and meaning in language. It defines reference as the relationship between linguistic expressions and real world entities. Reference can be referring, where expressions pick out entities, or non-referring. Referring expressions include nouns and names, while non-referring includes words like "very" and "maybe". Reference can also be constant, where an expression always refers to the same entity, or variable, where context determines the referent. Meaning in language can be viewed through either a referential approach, where meaning comes from relating expressions to reality, or a representational approach, where meaning comes from reflecting conceptual structures.
Ethnography of communication is the study of communication within social and cultural contexts. Dell Hymes introduced the concept in 1962 and proposed the SPEAKING framework for analyzing communicative events. The SPEAKING framework considers the Setting, Participants, Ends, Act sequence, Key, Instrumentalities, Norms, and Genre involved in any communication. Using this framework, ethnographers can research and describe the rules and factors that govern speaking in particular communities and contexts.
1. Sociolinguistics is the study of the relationship between language and society. It examines how social factors like age, gender, status, and setting influence language use.
2. This document provides an introduction to key concepts in sociolinguistics including domains of language use, diglossia, code-switching, language maintenance vs shift, and linguistic variation related to gender and age.
3. Several examples are given to illustrate these concepts, such as how a bilingual Tongan speaker uses different languages in different social contexts, and how social class can influence pronunciation patterns in British English.
This document discusses different theories and aspects of semantics, or the study of meaning in language. It covers the referential theory which holds that meaning is derived from what words refer to in reality. The representational theory views words as representations of concepts. There are different types of meaning including conceptual, associative, thematic, and ambiguity. The traditional approach viewed words as the basic semantic units, while the functional approach sees texts and context as important. Pragmatics looks at understanding meaning based on context of the utterance. The document also discusses semantic relations between words like synonymy, antonymy, meronymy, hyponymy, polysemy, and homonymy.
This document discusses the definition and characteristics of language as well as the functions of language and definition of communication. Some key points:
- Language is a symbol system that is systematic, arbitrary, productive, dynamic, diverse and specific to humans. It has unique characteristics but also universal ones.
- The functions of language include expression, information, explanation, persuasion, entertainment, as well as personal, directive, phatic, referential, metalinguistic and imaginative functions depending on the speaker, listener, topic and message.
- Communication requires the exchange of information between individuals using a common system of symbols or behaviors. It involves a sender, receiver and common system of symbols.
Meeting 2_Types of Meaning Pragma_Semantics.pdfAlfriani17
Geoffrey Leech identified seven types of meaning in language:
1. Conceptual/denotative meaning refers to the logical cognitive content and structural principles of language.
2. Connotative meaning expands beyond conceptual content to include surrounding context and implied meanings.
3. Social meaning conveys social identities and cultural factors beyond literal meaning.
4. Affective meaning reflects a speaker's personal feelings and attitudes.
5. Reflective meaning arises when a word has multiple conceptual meanings that influence each other.
6. Collocative meaning is the meaning a word acquires based on its usual co-occurrence with other words.
7. Pragmatic meaning refers to how message organization conveys
No, No, No, No
Pragmatics cont...
Activity -2
Look at the following utterances and state the
implied meaning:
(1) A: ‘Do you have the time?’
B: ‘Sure, let me check’
(2) A: ‘Can you pass the salt?’
B: ‘Help yourself’
(3) A: ‘I’m freezing!’
B: ‘Then put on a sweater’
(4) A: ‘When will dinner be ready?’
B: ‘Soon, I promise’
Pragmatics cont...
Discourse
- Discourse analysis studies language use
beyond
No, No, No, No
Pragmatics cont...
Activity -2
Look at the following utterances and state the
implied meaning:
(1) A: ‘Do you have the time?’
B: ‘Sure, let me check’
(2) A: ‘Can you pass the salt?’
B: ‘Help yourself’
(3) A: ‘I’m freezing!’
B: ‘Then put on a sweater’
(4) A: ‘When will dinner be ready?’
B: ‘Soon, I promise’
Pragmatics cont...
Discourse
- Discourse refers to language use beyond the sentence
This article discusses different types of linguistic meaning from a functional perspective. It views meaning as how language is used rather than what words refer to. The main types discussed are:
1. Conceptual meaning, which is the basic denotation of words and sentences represented by semantic features.
2. Associative meaning, which includes connotative meaning involving cultural associations; social meaning for establishing social relationships; and affective meaning relating to emotional states.
3. The article argues that taking a use-based approach to meaning provides a more realistic way to understand semantics and its relationship with pragmatics compared to other theoretical perspectives.
The document discusses semantic analysis of the song lyrics "Waiting Outside the Lines" by Greyson Chance. It begins by defining semantics and lexical and contextual meaning. Several key words from the lyrics are then analyzed, exploring both their lexical definitions from a dictionary and contextual meanings implied within the song. The analysis finds themes of overcoming obstacles, exploring opportunities, and finding hope. In conclusion, the researcher suggests listening to songs with understanding their deeper meanings provides positive lessons.
This document provides an introduction to semantics, the study of meaning in language. It defines semantics as studying the meaning of morphemes, words, phrases and sentences. Meaning arises from the systematic link between linguistic forms and things in the world. It also discusses different aspects of meaning, including reference versus sense, denotation versus sense, and literal versus non-literal meaning. Sense is how the speaker thinks about an object, while reference is the actual object being referred to.
பரம்பொருள்லிருந்து மாயை - மாயையிலிருந்து - அறியாமை - அறியாமை யிலிருந்து அகங்காரமும் அந்த அகங்காரத்திலிருந்து சுவை, ஒளி, ஊறு, ஓசை, நாற்றம் எனப்படும் ஐந்து நுண்பொருள்கள்ளும் அவற்றிலிருந்து நிலம், நீர், நெருப்பு , காற்று , ஆகாயம் என்பதும் - பருப்பொருள்களான ஐம் பூதங்களும் இந்த பஞ்சப் பூதங்களிருந்து உயிரினங்களும் உட்டாயின. மாயையினால் உண்டான பிரபஞ்சமும் மாய சரீரமும் தோன்றி மறைந்து தோன்றி மறைந்து உயிர்கள் மீண்டும் மீண்டும் பிறப்பு இறப்புகளுக்கு ஆளாகிக் வருகிறது. முடிவில் எல்லாம் அழிவுறும். (பரப் பிரம்மத்தில் ஒன்றாகக் கலந்து ஐக்கியமாகிவிடும் ) திரும்பவும் முதலிலிருந்து தொடங்கும்.
இலக்கண உருவாக்கம் என்கிற ஒன்று மனதில் நிலைபேறு நிகழும்போது அகக்காரணங்கள் பொருள் புரிதலில் உள்ள அகப் புரிதல், தர்க்க வாதங்கள் பொருள் இணை, பொருள் விரி, ஏற்றுக்கொள்ளுதல், தவிர்த்தல் , இணைதல், உள்வாங்கல், சூழ்நிலை நிகழ்வு, எதிர்நிலைக் கட்டமைப்பு, ஒன்றிற்கும் மற்றவற்றிற்கும் உள்ள தொடர்பு, ஒருங்கிணைப்பு, மாற்றம், அடுக்குமுறை, பொது அறிவு, தர்க்க அறிவு போன்றவை மேலெழும்ப, இலக்கண உருவாக்கத்தின் செயல்பாடு இவற்றிலிருந்து பிரதிபலிக்கும்
1) The document discusses Tamil verbs and their meanings based on a list of Tamil verb roots provided.
2) It analyzes the verb roots based on their single or compound forms, transitive/intransitive nature, relation to Sanskrit verbs, usage in different contexts, and changes in meaning.
3) The summary provides examples to illustrate the analysis and explanations of certain verb roots from the list.
The document discusses the benefits of exercise for mental health. Regular physical activity can help reduce anxiety and depression and improve mood and cognitive function. Exercise causes chemical changes in the brain that may help protect against mental illness and improve symptoms for those who already suffer from conditions like anxiety and depression.
Spade: maṇveṭṭi n. hoe with a short handle: spade . a long-handled gardening tool with a thin metal blade, used mainly for weeding.This article focused on functional structure of spade (maṇveṭṭi) in Tamil and its naming , meaning , dialect forms,ideology of spade etc.,
Folk occupation is most essential for our country. It has existed since ancient
time forming the economic back bone our nation. It is necessary to protect
and preserve the data.
2. The Researcher observed that due to globalisation the ancient occupational
work, implements, and technical terms are gradually disappearing.
Implications of Technological developments mainly affect classical technical terms,
folk implements and their vocabulary.
4.Having this in mind, the researcher aims to concentrate on research in the field
of dialectology and lexicography
சொட்டு Drop- from top to bottom and also advanced or later at the stage of ooze, but the quantity of some liquid is very less. It flows down drop by drop
பொருண்மையியல்#ஒரு மனித வாழ்க்கையின் மதிப்பீடு என்பது அவனுடைய மொழியின் பொருண்மையலின் புரிதலை வைத்தே மதிப்பீடப்படுகின்றது. மொழியின் பொருள் நிறைவே மனித மனத்தின் நிறைவு.
ஒரு சொல் பல நிலைகளிலும் பெற்ற உணர்வு கூறுகளையும் அதன் பண்பு கூறுகளையும் அறிவியல் முறைப்படி விளக்குபவர் பொருண்மையியலாளர் எனப்படுகிறார்.
பொருள் உணர்வும் - புலன் உணர்வும் human sense and lexical sense
மொழி என்பது பேசுபவருக்குப் பொருள் தெளிவும் கேட்பவருக்குப் பொருள் புரிதலும் ஏற்பட வேண்டும். அப்போதுதான் மொழி பயணத்தின் வெற்றி.#சொல்லின் ‘பொருள்’ என்பது அல்லது பொருளின் புரிதல் என்பது அனுபவத்தின் அளவைப் பொருத்தது.#Neuro linguistic programming
Neuro linguistic programming I # ஒருவரால் ஒன்றை வெற்றிகரமாகச் செய்வது. அந்த செய்கை நமக்கு ஒரு வெற்றி பாதையைக் காட்டும். இதில்தான் உலகமே இயங்குகின்றது. எப்போதுமே மாதிரி – நம்மை 50% வழி நடத்துகின்றது.
Lexical sense – it is the collection of all the semantic features of the linguistic form, by the society.According to the theory of semantic fields the whole vocabulary of a language is structured into a number of semantic or conceptual fields. The semantic fields are “closely-knit sectors of the vocabulary, in which a particular sphere is divided up, classified and organized in such a way that each element helps to delimit its neighbors and is delimited by them, in each field.
Theory of semantic semantic fields heavily influenced by de Saussure’s structuralism and German idealism
Origins: ideas of Wilhelm von Humboldt and Johann Gottfried Herder in the mid 19th first proposed by German and Swiss linguist.
This document provides an overview of the anatomy and physiology involved in speech production. It discusses the key systems and organs required for phonation, including the nervous system, respiratory system, larynx, pharynx, velum, nasal cavity, tongue, and lips. Specifically, it describes the motor and sensory neurons that control speech muscles, the lungs and trachea that provide air flow, the larynx which houses the vocal folds, and how the positions of the pharynx, velum, tongue and lips shape speech sounds by modifying the air stream. It also explains the four main types of phonation: voiceless, whisper, voiced, and creak.
Dr.S.SUNDARABALU M.A;M.A;Ph.D
Assistant Professor
Department of Linguistics
Bharathiar University
Coimbatore-46 TamilNadu, India
sunder_balu@yahoo.co.in
Dr.S.SUNDARABALU M.A;M.A;Ph.D
Assistant Professor
Department of Linguistics
Bharathiar University
Coimbatore-46 TamilNadu, India
sunder_balu@yahoo.co.in
Dr.S.Sundarabalu
Assistant Professor
Department of Linguistics
Bharathiar University,Coimbatore-46
Visiting Professor ,ICCR’s Tamil Chair
Institute of Oriental Studies, Dept. of Indology
Jagiellonian University, Krakow-Poland
sunder_balu@yahoo.co.in
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2. LEECH'S SEVEN TYPES OF MEANING
INTRODUCTION
• Semantics in the broad sense of the term may
be considered to study 'all that is
communicated by language, But some
scholars would like to restrict semantics to
the study of logical or conceptual meaning i.e.
only those aspects of meaning which are
logically acceptable leaving out deviation and
abnormalities. Geoffrey Leech (1981, Ch.2.
p.9-23) in his book semantics breaks down
'meaning' in its widest sense into seven
different types giving primary importance
to logical or conceptual meaning.
3. The seven other types are
(1)Logical or Conceptual meaning
(2) Connotative meaning,
(3) Social meaning,
(4) Affective meaning,
(5) Reflected meaning
(6) Collocative meaning and
(7) Thematic meaning (Leech, 1981, p-23).
Here Leech discusses meaning as a whole
both sentential meaning and word
meaning.
4. 1.CONCEPTUAL MEANING
• What Leech calls as conceptual meaning
is the same as what other scholars call
'denotative', or 'designative' or
'cognitive' or 'descriptive' meaning.
And this meaning is assumed to be the
central factor in linguistic
communication. Leech considers
conceptual meaning as primary, because
it is comparable in organization and
structure to the syntactic and
phonological levels of language.
5. • The two structural principles that seem
to be basis of all linguistic patterning
namely
• the principle of contrastiveness and
• the principle of constituent structure
are also the basis of conceptual meaning.
• Contrastive features underlay
classification of sounds in phonology. "For
example, in that any label we apply to a
sound defines it positively, by what
features it possesses and also by
implication negatively by what features it
does not possess (Leech,1981, p.9,10)".
6. • The symbol of the English phoneme /b/ can
be explained as consisting of a bundle of
contrastive features
• +bilabial, +voiced, +stop, -nasal
these positive combination of features
differentiate this phoneme negatively
from the phoneme /p/ which has the
features
• + bilabial, -voiced, + stop, -nasal.
• It is assumed that the distinctive sounds or
phonemes of a language are identifiable in
terms of binary or largely binary contrastive
features. Similarly the conceptual
meanings of a language can be studied in
terms of contrastive semantic features.
7. • For example, the meaning of the English
word woman can be specified as
consisting of the semantic features
+ HUMAN, -MALE, +ADULT.
• This word is differentiated from the word
man having the features
+HUMAN, +MALE, and +ADULT and the
word boy having the features
+HUMAN, +MALE, and -ADULT.
The contrastive features of conceptual
meaning are the same as what Zgusta
(1971, p.27 -29) calls as criterial features
which constitute the designatum of
lexical meaning.
8. • The second principle, that of
constituent structure, is the principle by
which larger linguistic units are built
up out of smaller units. In other words it
is the principle by which a sentence can
be analysed into its constituent parts.
9. • words and morphemes and at the level of
phonology into constituent phonemes
(sound units), similarly semantic
structure of sentences can also be
explained.
• The two principles of contrastiveness and
constituent structure represent the way
language is organized. Contrastiveness
is the paradigmatic or selectional or
'choice' aspect of linguistic structure.
Constitnent structure is the
syntagmatic or combinatory or 'chain'
aspect of the linguistic structure.
10. • Explaining these two aspects in all the
levels of language organization called
phonological (sound structure), syntactic
(sentence structure) semantic (meaning) is
the work of the linguists. This done by
establishing, a‘ phonological representation', a‘
syntactic representation' and a 'semantic
representation' and the stages by which one level
of representation can be derived from another.
• At the level of semantic representation using
abstract symbols and contrastive features.
This will help us what we need to know to
distinguish a meaning of a particular sentence
from all other possible sentence meaning in the
language.
11. 2.CONNOTATIVE MEANING
• Leech calls connotative meaning is the
communicative value an expression has by
virtue of what it refers to over and above its
purely conceptual contents.
• These are the features of the referent or
denotatum or segment of the real world which
are not included in the conceptual meaning.
Of the different features of the referent few
are contrastive or criterial features which
provide the basic criterion of the correct
use of the word. For example, the conceptual
meaning of the English word 'woman' has
the three contrastive features (+ Human, -
Male, +Adult).
12. • From this we infer that the three
properties 'human', 'adult', and 'female'
must provide the criterion of the correct
use of that word. These contrastive
features in real world terms become
attribute of the referent or denotatum.
• This means that all persons to whom the
word, 'woman' is used to refer to will have
the properties 'human', 'adult', 'female'.
But the referent of the word woman will
have a large number of additional non-
criterial properties, which the users of
the word woman expect a referent of
woman to possess.
13. • Such properties include:
• physical characteristics (having two legs,
having a womb etc.,)
• psychological and
• sociological properties (having motherly
instinct, soft nature etc.,). Such properties
constitute the connotative meaning.
• As described above some of these properties
are typical of a woman. There are other
assumed properties or attributed properties
due to the view point adopted by an
individual or a group of people or a whole
society.
14. • For example,
• woman may be considered to have the
properties' weak', 'prone to tears',
'emotional', etc., in addition to the
positive qualities like 'gentle',
'compassionate', 'sensitive', etc.
• The connotative meaning of a word may
vary from individual to individual and
from age to age (periods).
• For example, 'not wearing trousers or wearing
gown or skirt or saree (saree in the Indian
context) would have been the part of the
connotative meaning of woman a hundred
years ago, which is not connotative in the
modern times.
15. • Leech's (1981) connotative meaning is
concerned with the real world experience one
associates with a linguistic expression one uses
or hears. Connotative meaning is peripheral
when compared with the conceptual
meaning.
• It is also relatively unstable as it varies
according to culture, historical periods and
experience of the individual.
• Connotative meaning is indeterminate and open
ended. This is because this depends upon the
knowledge and beliefs of the speakers and may
belong to any characteristics of the referent, real
or imaginary as identified by the speaker. But
conceptual meaning consists of a closed set of
features which are finite in number.
16. • Leech's definition of connotative
meaning is quite different from Zgusta's
connotation as a component of lexical
meaning and John Lyon's use of
connotation in contrast to
denotation. What Leech calls social and
affective meaning are included by Zgusta
(1971) under connotation. Lyon's and
others call affective or emotive,
meaning as connotation.
17. 3.SOCIAL MEANING
• These two meanings are concerned with
two aspects of communication which
are derived from the situation or
environment in which an utterance or
sentence is produced in a language. Of
these two, social meaning is that
information which a piece of language
(i.e. a pronunciation variation, a word,
phrase, sentence, etc.,) conveys about
the social circumstances of its use.
18. • Social meaning is understood through
the recognition of different dimensions
and levels of style within the same
language. Aspects of language variation
like social or regional dialect variation,
style variation like formal, informal,
colloquial, slang etc., discussed as
belonging to connotation is treated here
as social meaning
19. • here Leech includes under social
meaning variation in all the aspects of
language structure like pronunciation,
intonation, sentence structure etc., as
revealing social meaning.
• Not only the difference between English
synonyms, died, pass away, decease
and kick the bucket and Tamil
synonyms caa, iRa, kaalamaaku,
vaikuNTapataviaTai,maNTaiyaippooTu
all meaning to 'die' which belong to
different style but also the difference in
the pronunciation of the Tamil verb 'to
tell' as in the forms,
20. [sonnă:] 'said he' (standard dialect)
[čonnă:) 'said he' (Dalit-speech)
[sonnă:) 'said he' (Kongunad dialect)
where stress (Dalit speech) and pitch variation (Kongunad dialect) mark
the dialect identity of the speaker belong to social meaning.
Under social meaning Leech (1981 ,p, 15) also includes" what has been
called the illocutionary force of an utterance: for example whether
it is to be interpreted as request, an assertion, an apology, a
threat etc". In a social situation a functional meaning of a sentence
may differ from its conceptual meaning due to its illocutionary force.
For example while eating at restaurant, if one says.
(1) I haven't got a knife
this sentence which has a form and meaning of an assertion, in social
reality it has the force of a request such as 'Please bring me a knife'.
In the Tamil social situation while eating at a wedding feast, when
someone says.
(2) pakkattu ilaikku paayacam pooTunka
'Please serve sweet liquid pudding to the next leaf (person)’it has the
implied social meaning 'Please serve sweet liquid pudding for me
also'.
21. • 4.Affective meaning
• Affective meaning is the aspect of meaning which
“reflects personal feelings of the speaker,
including his attitude to the listener or his
attitude to something he is talking about"
(Leech, 1981, p.15). As emotive meaning and
included as part of connotation as a component of
lexical meaning but
• Leech includes as in the case of social meaning,
not only differences in the use of words or lexemes
but also factors of intonation and voice-timber
referred to as tone of voice. When someone wants
to ask a group of people speaking loudly to be
quiet, he can say either of the following two
sentences.
(3) I am sorry to interrupt; would you be so kind as
to lower you voice a little?
22. 5.REFLECTED MEANING is the meaning
which arises in cases when a word has
multiple conceptual meaning or
polysemous, when one sense of a word
forms part of our response ( or reaction)
to another sense.
23. • Especially in some cases of a word with
taboo meaning people find it difficult
use them even in the general meaning.
The English words cock, contact, and
erection which have tabooed senses
connected with the physiology of sex are
avoided by people even in their general
sense.
• The extreme case of this kind of reflected
meaning, is completely replacing the
word cock by the word rooster in
American English.
24. • In Tamil onRukuppoo 'urinate',
reNTukkupoo pass motion are originally
euphemisms for the corresponding tabooed
synonyms. Now these words themselves
are used for joking when they are used in
the general sense like onRukku 'for one
thing' and reNTuKKu 'for two things'
connecting them to their euphemistic
(word or phrase substituted for one
considered offensive) meaning.
25. 6.Collocative meaning - consists of the
associations a word acquires on account of
the meanings of words which tend to occur
in its environments (Leech, 1981,p.17).
The English words pretty and hand some
having the common meaning 'good-
looking' differ by the range of nouns with
which they co-occur or collocate though in
some cases they overlap.
27. • What Leech calls collocative meaning
is the component range of
application. The Tamil words paati and
arai meaning 'half of something’ for
collocative meaning. The collocative
meaning is an idiosyncratic property of
individual words.
28. ASSOCIATIVE MEANING
• Of the six types of meaning - except the conceptual
meaning the other five i.e. connotative meaning,
social meaning, affective meaning, reflected
meaning and collocative meaning have something in
common. These meanings have open ended and
variable character. They can be analyzed in terms of
varying scales or range. They cannot be analyzed in
clear-cut either-this -or-that terms.
• Therefore, Leech groups all these under the heading
of associative meaning (Leech,1981, p.18). While
conceptual meaning is part of the 'common system'
of language shared by members of the speech
community, associative meaning is less stable and
varies with the individual's experience.
29. 7.THEMATIC MEANING
Thematic meaning is that "what is communicated by
the way in which a speaker or writer organizes the
message, in terms of ordering, focus, and emphasis"
(Leech, 1981,p.19). For example, in English a
sentence in the active voice differs from its passive
voice equivalent in thematic meaning though both
the sentences have same conceptual meaning,
eg.
(5) Mr. Smith donated the first prize
(6) The first prize was donated by Mr. Smith
Of these two sentences, (5) the active sentence seems
to be the answer for the implicit question "What did
Mr. Smith donate", while the passive sentence (6)
seem" to answer the implicit question "who donated
the first prize". (5) in contrast to (6) suggests that we
know Mr. Smith while (6) implies we do not know
Mr. Smith but only that someone donated the first
prize.
30. Thematic meaning is mainly a matter of choice
grammatical constructions. Eg.
English:
(7) A man is waiting in the hall
(8) There is a man waiting in the hall
Tamil:
(9) naan neRRu kantanaip paartteen
'I saw Kandan yesterday'
(10) 'naan neRRu paarttatu kantanai'
'whom I saw yesterday is Kandan'
Sometimes, difference in thematic meaning
brought about by ordering and emphasis can
also be the result of substitution of words or
lexemes. For examples, this happens when
English belongs to substituted by owns. Eg.
31. (11) My brother owns the largest hotel in the
town
(12) The largest hotel in town belongs to my
brother
(13) raakul naanku uNavu viTuti naTattukiRaar
'Raghul runs four restaurants'.
(14) raakulukku naanku uNavu viTutikaL
iRukkinRana
'Raghul has four restaurants'
The thematic meaning can also be expressed
by means of stress and intonation to
highlight information in one part of a
sentence.
32. DEMARCATION PROBLEM
Leech who has classified meanings into seven types
which are discussed above, points out that
sometimes there are problems in 'demarcating' or
separating one type of meaning from the others. An
examination of the following sentences will make
this clear.
English:
(17) He stuck the key in his pocket
(18) He put the key in his pocket
Tamil:
(19) avan caTTaip paiyil paNattai tiNittukkooNTaan
'He stuffed the money in the shirt pocket'
(20) avan tannuTaiya caTTai-p-paiyil paNattai
vaittukkoNTaan
'He kept the money in his shirt pocket'
33. 1. CONCEPTUAL MEANING Logical, cognitive or denotative I
content
2.CONNOTATIVE MEANING what is communicated by virtue of what
language refers to .
3. SOCIAL MEANING what is communicated of the social
circumstances of language use.
4. AFFECTIVE MEANING What is communicated of the feelings and
attitudes of the speaker / writer
5. REFLECTED MEANING What is communicated through association
with another sense of the same expression.
6. COLLOCATIVE MEANING What is communicated through association
with words, which tend to occur in the
environment of another word.
THEMATIC MEANING What is communicated by the way in which
the message is organized in terms of order
and emphasis.
ASSOCIATIVEMEANING