The document discusses the structure of arguments in language. It defines an argument as an expression that helps complete the meaning of a predicate. Predicates take one, two, or three arguments to form a predicate-argument structure. An adjunct is an optional part of a sentence that does not affect the sentence if removed. Valency theory explores the nature of predicates, arguments, and adjuncts. Transitivity relates to whether a verb can take direct objects and how many. Selectional properties determine the semantic content of a predicate's arguments. Theta theory assigns thematic roles like agent and patient to arguments.

1. The structure of arguments
(Verb Phrase Structure)

2. What is argument?
• An argument is an expression that helps to complete the meaning of a predicate.
• Most predicates take one, two or three arguments.
• A predicate and it’s arguments form a predicate-argument structure.
Examples:
1-Jill likes Jack.
2- Sam fried the meat.
3-The old man helped the young man.
Each of these sentences contains two arguments (in bold), the first noun (phrase)
being the subject argument, and the second the object argument. Jill, for example, is
the subject argument of the predicate likes, and Jack is its object argument.

3. Argument and Adjunct
An adjunct is an optional, or structurally dispensable, part of a sentence,
clause, or phrase that, if removed or discarded, will not otherwise affect
the remainder of the sentence.
Example:
In the sentence John helped Bill in Central Park, the phrase in Central
Park is an adjunct.
In the above sentence if the adjunct in central park is removed, it does
not affect the sentence.
Valency Theory
The area of grammar that explores the nature of predicates, their
arguments, and adjuncts is called valency theory.

4. Transitivity
• Transitivity is a property of verbs that relates to whether a verb can
take direct objects and how many such objects a verb can take.
• Transitivity is closely related to valency, which considers other verb
arguments in addition to direct objects.
• The notion of transitivity was first introduced by the Stoics and
the Peripatetic school, but they probably referred to the whole
sentence containing transitive or intransitive verbs, not just to the
verb. The discovery of the Stoics was later used and developed by the
philologists of the Alexandrian school and later grammarians.

5. 1- Verbal predicates that demand just a subject argument (e.g. sleep, work, relax)
are intransitive.
Example: I am going to sleep.
2- Verbal predicates that demand an object argument as well (e.g. like, fry, help)
are transitive.
Example: I like to play football.
3- Verbal predicates that demand two object arguments
are ditransitive (e.g. give, lend).
Example: He gave Mary ten dollars.

6. Selectional Properties
• Selection denotes the ability of predicates to determine the semantic
content of their arguments.
• Predicates select their arguments, which means they limit the semantic
content of their arguments.
• Selection is a semantic concept, whereas subcategorization is a syntactic
one. Selection is closely related to valency, a term used in other grammars
than the Chomskian generative grammar, for a similar phenomenon.
Example:
a. Sam drank a coffee
b. #Sam drank a car.
The argument a car contradicts the Selectional restrictions of the
predicate drank.
The # indicates semantic deviance.

7. C-selection vs. S-selection
• Predicates c-select the syntactic category of their complement arguments -
e.g. noun (phrase), verb (phrase), adjective (phrase), etc. - i.e. they determine
the syntactic category of their complements.
• In contrast, predicates s-select the semantic content of their arguments.
• Thus s-selection is a semantic concept, whereas c-selection is a syntactic
one.
• When the term selection or Selectional restrictions appears alone without the c-
or s-, s-selection is usually understood.

8. Selectional restrictions
A selectional restriction is a restriction concerning the relation between
a predicate (or predicate term) and its argument(s) (argument terms). It
concerns inherent properties of the relevant referents.
Examples:1
a. The plant is wilting.
b. #The building is wilting.
The argument the building violates the selectional restrictions of the
predicate is wilting.
Examples:2
a. Sam drank a coffee.
b. #Sam drank a car.
The argument a car contradicts the selectional restrictions of the
predicate drank.

9. Theta theory
1- Introduction
Imagine you are writing a screen play. First of all you need a story and various
characters, who play different roles in the course of the play. Each role fulfills a
special function, so that the story makes sense as a whole.
Grammatical sentences function similarly. Each sentence is an attempt to convey a
certain idea or piece of information. In order to do that, each argument has to play a
thematic role in the sentence.
The main actors in the play are most likely the subjects and the objects, who typically
play the agent and the patient. The co-stars play roles like theme, experiencer, goal,
benefactive, source, instrument and locative. So if you want to be a good screenplay
writer you have to know your Grammar...

10. 2-Explanation
In government and binding theory the theta criterion states that in any grammatical
sentence each argument must be assigned to one theta role and each theta role must be
realized by some argument.
Consequently in a grammatical sentence all predicates, meaning verbs, have a
thematic structure. This means that thematic roles, or theta roles (θ-role), describe the
relation between predicates and their arguments. As a result arguments stand in
different semantic relationships with the verb.
For Example:
Thomas gave the books to Marry.
[AGENT]_[THEME]_[EXPERIENCER/GOAL]

11. Theta criterion
1. Each argument is assigned one and only one theta role.
2. Each theta role is assigned to one and only one argument.

12. Theta roles
Theta-role (θ-role) is a bundle of thematic relations associated with a particular
argument, are syntactic structures reflecting positions in the argument structure of the
verb they are associated with. A noun may only bear one theta role. Only arguments
bear theta roles. Adjuncts do not bear theta roles.
Theta roles according to Haegeman (1994) are as follows.
1- AGENT: the one who intentionally initiates the action expressed by the predicate.
 Example: a. Brad hit Andrew.
b. A falling rock hit Andrew.
2- PATIENT: the person or thing undergoing the action expressed by the predicate.
 Example: a. Susan loves cookies.
b. A falling rock hit Terry.

13. 3- EXPERIENCER: the entity that experiences some (psychological) state expressed
by the predicate.
 Example: a. Ahmad saw the moon.
b. Syntax frightens Jim.
4- BENEFECTIVE/BENEFICIARY: the entity that benefits from the action
expressed by the predicate.
 Example: a. He bought these flowers for Jason.
b. She made John a cake.
5- GOAL: the entity towards which the activity expressed by the predicate is directed.
 Example: a. Millie went to Chicago.
b. Travis was given a semantics article.

14. 6- SOURCE: the entity from which something is moved as a result of the activity
expressed by the predicate.
 Example: a. Bob gave Steve the syntax assignment.
b. Stacy came directly from phonology class.
7- LOCATION: the place in which the action or state expressed by the predicate is
situated.
 Example: a. Steve works Police department.
b. We are all staying at school.
8- THEME: undergoes the action but does not change its state. (Sometimes used
interchangeably with patient)
 Example: a. I have two children.
b. He gave the gun to the police officer.

15. Some Other Theta Roles
9- Instrument: used to carry out the action
 Example: Jamie cut the ribbon with a pair of scissors.
10- Time: the time at which the action occurs.
 Example: I had and appointment with dentist today.
11- Manner: the way in which an action is carried out.
 Example: With great urgency, John phoned 911.
12- Cause: what caused the action to occur in the first place.
 Example: Because Clyde was hungry, he ate the cake.