4. • What is grammar to you?
• What do you understand
by grammatical structure?
• Do you consider that
grammar is important for
communicating? (Justify
your answer.)
• From your point of view, which
grammar is more difficult, the
English language grammar or the
Spanish language grammar?
• What is the relationship that
grammar has with language?
5. “Grammar is the science that has
as its object the study of the
components of a language and
their combinations. The concept
finds its origin in “the Latin term
grammatíca and refers, on the
other hand, to the art of
mastering a language correctly,
both in speech and writing.”
(Julián Pérez, 2008)
Grammar, therefore, can be
defined as the group of principles,
rules, and precepts that govern the
use of a particular language (in this
regard, it must be said that each
language has its own grammar). As
a science, it is considered part of
linguistics.
6. Grammar and spelling are two sciences that study language.
Although both have the same object of study, there are clear
differences between them, which are:
Grammar has a broad character; it studies the complete structure
of a language and the various ways in which sentences can be
organized while classifying them and studying their function.
Spelling does not include a full study of the laws that govern the
use of a language; it is limited to establishing certain rules for
writing correctly; it does not analyze the structure of the sentence
or its functions.
7. INTRODUCTION
Language - is the ability to produce and comprehend spoken and
written words;
- language is such a special topic that there is an
entire field, linguistics, devoted to its study.
Linguistics - is the study of language.
- views language in an objective way, using the
scientific method and rigorous research to form theories about
how humans acquire, use, and sometimes abuse language.
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MORPHOLOGY
It is the study of structure of the words and word
formation.
Morphology deals with the syntax of complex words and
parts of words, also called “morphemes”, as well as with
the semantics of their lexical meanings.
It is concerned in the internal structure of words and the
rules for forming words from their subparts, which are
called morphemes.
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WORD STRUCTURES OF
MORPHOLOGY:
Morpheme – is the smallest units in the structural analysis of words.
Examples:
[[[ green ] ish ] ness ]]
[un [break [able ]]
TYPES OF MORPHEMES:
Free Morpheme – is the words with a complement meaning, so they can stand alone as
independent words in a sentence.
Examples:
Jennie wishes to go there.
‘go’ is a free morpheme in the sentence
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WORD STRUCTURES OF
MORPHOLOGY:
Lexical Morphemes - referred as OPEN CLASS because we can add morphemes to these
words. These are nouns, verbs and adjectives.
Examples: girl(n) jump(v) red(adj.)
boy(n) look(v) pink(adj.)
Functional Morphemes – are words that do not have clear meaning but has grammatical
functions. These are conjuctions, prepositions, articles, auxiliaries and pronouns. And is
referred as CLOSED CLASS because it cannot be added to other morphemes.
Examples:
he she we but nor
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WORD STRUCTURES OF
MORPHOLOGY:
Contractible Morpheme - these are auxiliary modals such as will, shall, have, had and would.
These can be contracted in informal style of language.
Examples:
I will - I'll
They had - They‘d
Bound Morphemes - these are AFFIXES that must be attached to the word and it cannot stand
alone.
Examples:
a.) Prefix - unclean
b.) Infix - nowadays
c.) Suffix - adjustment
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2 TYPES OF BOUND
MORPHEME:
Derivational Morpheme - it changes the part of speech of the word when added to the
free morpheme but there are some expectations.
Examples of Class Changing:
pay(v)-payment (n)
pay(v)-payer (n)
Example of Class Maintaining:
pink(adj.) - pinkish(adj.)
do(v) - undo(v)
Inflectional Morphemes - are used to indicate aspects of the grammatical function of a
word.
Examples: boy's boys
cleaned cleaning cleans
taken simplest heavier
16. PHONOLOGY
is the study of how sounds are organized and used in
natural languages.
is the study of the way sounds function in languages,
including phonemes, syllable structure, stress, accent,
intonation, and which sounds are distinctive units within
a language;
it pertains to how the way sounds function within a
given language.
17. Phonology can be divided
into two branches:
SEGMENTAL PHONOLOGY
is based on the segmentation of
language into individual speech
sounds provided by phonetics.
SUPRASEGMENTAL PHONOLOGY
also called prosody, is concerned
with those features of pronunciation
that cannot be segmented because
they extend over more than one
segment, or sound.
19. TYPES OF PHONOLOGY:
Assimilation – a phonological process in which a sound changes to resemble a nearby sound and
can occur both forward and backward, within a word or between words.
Examples:
“Imput” or “Im between.”
Handbag to Hambag
Dissimilation – a phonological process which close sounds, similar consonants or vowels, change
to become less alike.
Examples:
the word sixth is pronounced as sikst
the word fifth is pronounced as fts
the word surprise is pronounced as supprise
20. TYPES OF PHONOLOGY:
Insertion – is a phonological process in which a sound is added to a word.
Examples:
Hamster becomes [hampster]
Dance becomes [dænts]
Deletion – a phonological process in which speech sounds disappear from words.
Examples:
Police becomes “plice”
Friendship becomes “friendship”
Methathesis - phonological process in which sounds switch places in the phonemic structure of a
word.
Examples:
Aks becomes aks
Brid becomes bird
Whipser becomes whisper
21. TYPES OF PHONOLOGY:
Strengthening (Fortition) - a phonological process in which a sound is made
stronger.
Examples:
Top is said with an /h/
Beautiful is said as “BEEautiful”
Weakening (Lenition) – a phonological process in which a sound becomes weaker.
Examples:
Flapping is a phonological process of weakening whereby the voiceless
alveolar stop consonant phoneme /t/ is pronounced as a voiced alveolar flap [ɾ],
like in the word kitty.
23. RULE NO. 1
Syntax – are the rules that determine how words combine into phrases and
sentences.
– has a predictable, rule-governed order.
Syntax rules for the English language include:
1. A sentence must contain a subject and a verb, and the order of those two parts of
speech must be subject-verb (S-V).
Examples:
Jennie loves icecream.
She sings softly.
25. RULE NO. 3
3. Verb tenses must be consistent
throughout the paragraph and/or
document.
Consistent tense means using the
same verb tense whenever necessary
within the
paragraph.
same sentence or
Consistent verb tenses
clearly establish the time of the actions
being described.
Example of Inconsistent Tense
AnthonyandKadeemlistenedtoHip-hop musicandpracticetheirdance
moves.
AnthonyandKadeemlistenedtoHip-hop musicandpracticedtheir
dancemoves.
Duringthemeeting,Angelostoodupandthendropshis phone.
(Past Tense)
Duringthemeeting,Angelostoodupandthendroppedhis phone.
(PresentTense)
Duringthemeeting,Angelostandsupandthendropshis phone.
32. SEMANTICS
is a subfield of linguistics specializing the
study of meaning.
is also a study of meanings of words and
phrases in a language and also meanings
of words and phrases in a particular
context.
33. ROLE OF SEMANTICS
In language, it determines
the relationship between
signifiers and what they
signify. Although images
and body language can be
included as signifiers in a
wider study of semantics
deals strictly with words and
their meanings.
It is the underlying
relationship that a
participant has with the
main verb in a clause.
34. 2 KINDS OF MEANING:
Denotation/Conceptual Meaning
– a word or thing’s literal or main
definition. It is a word’s dictionary
definition rather than its
associated emotion or definition. It
is the literal definition of word.
Examples:
1. The blueberry is blueberry is blue.
2. He was bull-headed.
Connotation/Associative Meaning
use of a word to suggest a different
association than its literal meaning.
It can be either positive, negative, or
neutral. It is the emotional and
imaginative association sorrounding
a word.
Examples:
1. This clothing is affordable versus
at this clothing is cheap.
2. That woman is a dove at heart.
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7 TYPES OF MEANING
1. Conceptual/Denotative Meaning – deals with the core meaning of expression.
Examples:
Woman = +Human, -Male, +Adult
Needle = +Thin, -Sharp, +Instrument
2. Connotative Meaning – a word includes the feelings and ideas that people may
connect with that word.
Examples:
the word “home” pertains to a place where someone feels comfortable,
safe, and secure.
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7 TYPES OF MEANING
3. Stylistic Meaning – where the meaning is created specifically by the use of language.
Examples:
Steed, Horse, and Nag
Home, Residence, and House
They have different style in words, but they are the same with their meanings.
4. Affective Meaning – the emotive association or effects or words evoked in the reader and
listener.
Examples:
“I hate you, you idiot.”
I am terribly sorry to interrupt with your discussion, but if you don’t mind kindly
lower your voice a little.
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7 TYPES OF MEANING
a single word or phrase associated with more than one senwse of
5. Reflective Meaning -
meaning.
Examples:
When the speaker in the talk show use reflected meaning in their speech, its an
example of wordplay.
6. Collocative Meaning – word or phrase that is often used with another word or phrase.
Examples:
Miss the flight or lost the flight.
Macbook Laptop or Acer Laptop.
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7 TYPES OF MEANING
selecting between
7. Thematic Meaning – the matter of
alternative grammatical construction.
Examples:
1. Ms. Agoylo donated blood in the hospital.
2. Jennie wrote an appreciation letter to her Filipino fans.
40. Pragmatics – is the study of how context contributes to meaning. It
encompasses phenomena including implicature, speech acts,
relevance, and conversation.
– Pragmatics focuses on conversational implicature,
which is a process in which the speaker implies and a listener infers.
Simply put, pragmatics studies language that is not directly spoken.
Instead, the speaker hints at or suggests a meaning, and the listener
assumes the correct intention.
41. Examples of Pragmatics:
1. Will you crack open the door? I am getting hot.
Semantically, the word "crack" would mean to break, but pragmatically we know that the speaker
means to open the door just a little to let in some air.
2. I heart you!
Semantically, "heart" refers to an organ in our body that pumps blood and keeps us alive.
However, pragmatically, "heart" in this sentence means "love"-hearts are commonly used as a
symbol for love, and to "heart" someone has come to mean that you love someone.
3. If you eat all of that food, it will make you bigger!
Semantically, "bigger" in this sentence would mean larger than you are currently. Think about how
this sentence, pragmatically, would mean something different depending on the context. If it is
said to a young child, pragmatically, it would mean to grow bigger. If it is said to a grown person
who is already obese, it would mean something entirely different.
43. SPEECH ACTS
Are acts that refer to the action performed by
produced utterances. People can perform an
action by saying something. Through speech
acts, the speaker can convey physical action
merely through words and phrases. The
conveyed utterances are paramount to the
actions performed.
44. 2 TYPES OF SPEECH ACTS:
Indirect Speech Acts – are
commonly used to reject
proposals and to make requests.
Examples:
Do you know if Jennie got an A
on the test?
I’d like to know if Jennie got an A
on the test?
Direct Speech Acts – an utterance is
seen as a direct speech act when
there is a direct relationship between
the structure and the communicative
function of the utterance.
Examples:
If you get all A’s, I’ll buy you a
car!
If you cross that line, I’ll shoot
you!
45. CONVERSATIONAL
IMPLICATURE
is an indirect or implicit speech act: what is
meant by a speaker’s utterance that is not part
of what is explicitly said. The term is also
known simply as implicature; it is the opposite
of explicature, which is an explicitly
communicated assumption.
46. THE MAXIM OF QUALITY – speaker’s contributions ought to be
true.
THE MAXIM OF QUANTITY – speaker’s contributions should be
as informative as required; not saying
either too little or too much.
THE MAXIM OF RELEVANCE – contributions should relate to the
purposes of the exchange.
THE MAXIM OF MANNER – contributions should be perspicuous
in particular, they should be orderly and brief , avoiding obscurity
and ambiguity.
COOPERATIVE PRINCIPLES/MAXIMS:
47. RHETORICAL
STRUCTURE
is a theory of text organization that describes
relations that hold between parts of text. It was
originally developed by William
of the University
Mann and
of
Sandra
Southern
Thompson
California’s Information Sciences
Institute and defined in a 1988 paper.
48. MANAGEMENT OF
REFERENCE
the act by which a speaker or
writer uses language to enable a
hearer or reader to identify
something as called reference.
49. REFERENCE – is the words that
we use to identify things are in
some direct relationship to those
things.
– it is an act in
which a speaker, or writer, uses
linguistic forms to enable a
listener or reader to identify
something.
INFERENCE – is connecting prior
knowledge to text based information
to create meaning beyond what is
directly stated.
– the role of inference in
communication is to allow the listener to
identify correctly which particular entity
the speaker is referring to.
