The document discusses different ways that languages come into contact and influence each other. It describes contact situations like travel, education, migration, business, and technology that can bring languages together. When languages are in prolonged contact, various phenomena can occur, such as borrowing and code-switching. Borrowing involves integrating linguistic elements permanently from one language into another. This can happen at the lexical, phonological, morphological and syntactic levels. Pidgins develop as a means of communication between language groups, becoming stabilized and expanded over time. Creoles emerge when pidgins become the native language of children. The document also discusses world Englishes as new varieties of English that have developed globally through language contact.
This document discusses various topics related to language, including:
1. Language change over time through processes like sound, lexical, semantic and syntactic changes.
2. Causes of language change such as economy, foreign influence, and fashion.
3. Language death which occurs when a language loses its last native speaker due to factors like natural disasters, wars, and lack of transmission to new generations.
4. Varieties of language that exist due to social factors including differences between regions, social classes, individuals, and situations.
The document discusses the concepts of code, language, dialect, and grammar from a sociolinguistic perspective. It notes that linguists take a descriptive approach, analyzing how language is actually used, rather than a prescriptive approach of dictating proper usage. A key difference is that descriptive grammars document distinctions like less/fewer that do not necessarily hold in natural speech. The document also explores what constitutes linguistic knowledge for speakers, including implicit rules across phonology, semantics, and syntax.
The document discusses the concepts of code, language, dialect, and grammar from a sociolinguistic perspective. It notes that linguists take a descriptive approach, analyzing how language is actually used, rather than a prescriptive approach of dictating proper usage. A key difference is that descriptive grammars document variations that may be nonstandard but are still used, while prescriptive grammars promote one standard. The document also explores what constitutes linguistic knowledge for speakers and how this implicit knowledge can be characterized.
Applied Linguistics session 3_17_10_2021 Languages in the contemporary world.pdfDr.Badriya Al Mamari
This document discusses languages in the contemporary world. It covers several topics:
- How people communicate across languages through learning other languages or using translators.
- Attitudes toward languages from the perspective of native speakers and linguists. Linguists see all languages as equal while native speakers view their own language positively.
- Issues with defining what constitutes a separate language versus a dialect. While linguistics uses history and structure, popular perception is also important.
- The growth of English as a global lingua franca, used widely for business, education, and information across countries where it is not the first language.
- Problems with defining native speakers as English spreads more globally and non-native expertise increases in some contexts
This document discusses how language varies based on social context. It explains that speakers use different linguistic varieties, or registers, depending on the social situation. These registers can be characterized by differences in vocabulary and terminology. Formality is also an important factor, and languages may contain distinct formal and informal styles. In some communities like Javanese, there are discrete speech levels that correspond to different social contexts. The document also describes diglossia, where two distinct language varieties exist in a community and are assigned different social functions, like formal vs. informal domains. Language or dialect switching may occur between styles or varieties based on social factors.
This document summarizes a study on code-switching between Yoruba and English among bilingual students in Nigeria. The study investigated the reasons for code-switching, the influence of parents, teachers, and peers on students' language choices, and provided recommendations. Questionnaires were administered to 200 high school students from 4 schools. The results showed that students with less formal education code-switch more than those with more formal education. It also showed that most teachers code-switch in the classroom. Additionally, it revealed that the language used at home influences students' language use. The study concluded that code-switching can become a habit if not addressed, and discouraging its use informally could help communication.
The document discusses several key sociolinguistic concepts including bilingualism, language change, language shift, code switching, language death and revival, standard languages, vernacular languages, national languages, official languages, pidgins, regional dialects, and social dialects. It defines each concept and provides details on types and factors that influence them. The document is a guide to understanding how language interacts with society.
spoken and written-lang.ppttue llllllhsuwubshdjolanreylebara2
This document discusses the key differences and similarities between spoken and written language. Spoken language involves vocalization and gestures while written language uses visual symbols to represent words. Both are used for communication but written language has more formal rules. Some key differences are that spoken language relies on speaking and listening while written language uses reading and writing skills. Both are important for communication in different contexts like education, business, and technology.
This document discusses various topics related to language, including:
1. Language change over time through processes like sound, lexical, semantic and syntactic changes.
2. Causes of language change such as economy, foreign influence, and fashion.
3. Language death which occurs when a language loses its last native speaker due to factors like natural disasters, wars, and lack of transmission to new generations.
4. Varieties of language that exist due to social factors including differences between regions, social classes, individuals, and situations.
The document discusses the concepts of code, language, dialect, and grammar from a sociolinguistic perspective. It notes that linguists take a descriptive approach, analyzing how language is actually used, rather than a prescriptive approach of dictating proper usage. A key difference is that descriptive grammars document distinctions like less/fewer that do not necessarily hold in natural speech. The document also explores what constitutes linguistic knowledge for speakers, including implicit rules across phonology, semantics, and syntax.
The document discusses the concepts of code, language, dialect, and grammar from a sociolinguistic perspective. It notes that linguists take a descriptive approach, analyzing how language is actually used, rather than a prescriptive approach of dictating proper usage. A key difference is that descriptive grammars document variations that may be nonstandard but are still used, while prescriptive grammars promote one standard. The document also explores what constitutes linguistic knowledge for speakers and how this implicit knowledge can be characterized.
Applied Linguistics session 3_17_10_2021 Languages in the contemporary world.pdfDr.Badriya Al Mamari
This document discusses languages in the contemporary world. It covers several topics:
- How people communicate across languages through learning other languages or using translators.
- Attitudes toward languages from the perspective of native speakers and linguists. Linguists see all languages as equal while native speakers view their own language positively.
- Issues with defining what constitutes a separate language versus a dialect. While linguistics uses history and structure, popular perception is also important.
- The growth of English as a global lingua franca, used widely for business, education, and information across countries where it is not the first language.
- Problems with defining native speakers as English spreads more globally and non-native expertise increases in some contexts
This document discusses how language varies based on social context. It explains that speakers use different linguistic varieties, or registers, depending on the social situation. These registers can be characterized by differences in vocabulary and terminology. Formality is also an important factor, and languages may contain distinct formal and informal styles. In some communities like Javanese, there are discrete speech levels that correspond to different social contexts. The document also describes diglossia, where two distinct language varieties exist in a community and are assigned different social functions, like formal vs. informal domains. Language or dialect switching may occur between styles or varieties based on social factors.
This document summarizes a study on code-switching between Yoruba and English among bilingual students in Nigeria. The study investigated the reasons for code-switching, the influence of parents, teachers, and peers on students' language choices, and provided recommendations. Questionnaires were administered to 200 high school students from 4 schools. The results showed that students with less formal education code-switch more than those with more formal education. It also showed that most teachers code-switch in the classroom. Additionally, it revealed that the language used at home influences students' language use. The study concluded that code-switching can become a habit if not addressed, and discouraging its use informally could help communication.
The document discusses several key sociolinguistic concepts including bilingualism, language change, language shift, code switching, language death and revival, standard languages, vernacular languages, national languages, official languages, pidgins, regional dialects, and social dialects. It defines each concept and provides details on types and factors that influence them. The document is a guide to understanding how language interacts with society.
spoken and written-lang.ppttue llllllhsuwubshdjolanreylebara2
This document discusses the key differences and similarities between spoken and written language. Spoken language involves vocalization and gestures while written language uses visual symbols to represent words. Both are used for communication but written language has more formal rules. Some key differences are that spoken language relies on speaking and listening while written language uses reading and writing skills. Both are important for communication in different contexts like education, business, and technology.
Language Programs and Policies in Multilingual Societies.pptxSyedNadeemAbbas6
This document discusses various sociolinguistic concepts including what sociolinguistics is, bilingualism, language change, language shift, code switching, language death, language revival, standard languages, vernacular languages, national languages, official languages, pidgins, regional dialects, and social dialects. It defines each concept and provides examples to illustrate key aspects. The document is intended to serve as an overview of important sociolinguistic concepts for understanding language use within societies.
Sociolinguistics is the study of language variation and change. It analyzes how social factors influence language use and how language varies based on social contexts. Some key points covered include:
- Language varies based on idiolects (individual speech patterns) and sociolects (patterns shared within social groups). Variation exists in pronunciation, vocabulary, grammar and discourse.
- Sociolinguistics describes language variation using tools like linguistic variables, and examines phonological, grammatical, lexical and discoursal variation.
- Social factors like geographical location, age, gender, social class and networks influence language variation. Standard languages become codified through institutions while non-standard dialects face stigma.
Nabeela Taimur Ali presented on lexical borrowing. She speaks two varieties of the Luyia language as well as Swahili and English. Many words are borrowed between the languages she speaks. Borrowing occurs when languages are in regular contact, with words and phrases being adopted from the other language. Lexical borrowing refers to incorporating words from one language into another, especially nouns and verbs. Borrowing typically flows from the more prestigious language to the less prestigious one.
1. The document discusses various factors that can lead to language change over time, including sociolinguistic, psycholinguistic, and therapeutic factors.
2. Sociolinguistic factors include random fluctuations in pronunciation, the influence of fashion, foreign influence through borrowing or substratum effects, and social needs leading to changes like coinage of new words.
3. Psycholinguistic factors relate to natural tendencies in pronunciation and linking sounds, such as consonants being dropped or sounds assimilating, which can eventually lead to permanent changes in a language.
The document discusses the theory of translanguaging. It provides Garcia's definition of translanguaging as accessing different linguistic features or autonomous languages to maximize communication. Translanguaging goes beyond code-switching by extending hybrid language use. Views of balanced bilingualism are discussed, noting it is a myth and bilingualism involves unequal experiences across languages. The differences between translanguaging and code-switching are explained, with translanguaging not having clear language boundaries. Examples of translanguaging in family settings are provided.
This document discusses the tension between prescriptive and descriptive approaches to language. It explores how children's home language differs from the standard form taught in schools. While parents accept variations, schools aim to teach language "correctly" which views all non-standard forms as wrong. However, determining what is considered correct is complex, as dialects, accents, and linguistic variations exist. The document examines debates around whether teaching the standard form offers advantages or disadvantages to some children. Applied linguists have a responsibility to approach such issues with caution and respect.
This document discusses language variation and the different types of language varieties. It defines varieties as forms of language that differ in pronunciation, vocabulary, or grammar between regions, social classes, or functions. The key varieties discussed are standard language, dialects, registers, pidgins, creoles, classical languages, and lingua francas. Standard language is used widely for official purposes, while dialects vary regionally or among social groups. Registers differ based on social or occupational context. Pidgins emerge for communication between groups with no shared language, and creoles develop when pidgins are passed to children as a native language.
1. Linguistics Definition
linguistics is the scientific study of language or the study of human language.
2. What linguistics is not
Linguistics is not about learning as many languages as you can;
there are many linguists who can only speak one or two languages.
There isn't a requirement to learn multiple languages.
Now that’s out of the way, let’s reply to the question of “What is Linguistics?”
3. what is linguistics?
Linguistics aims to understand how the language faculty of the mind works and to describe how language itself works.
Linguists observe patterns within a language and across languages to try to understand what principles drive our brains’ comprehension and production of language.
4. Language System
A language-system is a social Phenomenon, or institution, which is abstract in that it has no physical existence, but which is actualized on particular occasions in the language-behavior of individual members of the language-community.
5. Linguistics Fields
Linguistics spans a large number of subfields, each dealing with a different part of the language faculty.
Phonetics: the study of the acoustics and sounds of languages.
Phonology: the study of sound systems and how they pattern.
Syntax: the study of sentence structure.
Semantics: the study of meaning and formalizing it into a logical form.
5. Psycholinguistics: the study of how language manifests in the brain.
Psycholinguists carry out experiments to observe the reaction of the brain’s different areas to different stimuli, and they’ll try to relate the findings to the more abstract linguistic theories.
6. Sociolinguistics: the study of the complex relationship between language and society.
Sociolinguists might look at attitudes toward different linguistic features and its relation to class, race, sex, etc.
7. Computational linguistics - the study of applying computer science to linguistics.
Computational linguists might use programming to model linguistic structure or change or for practical applications.
8. Historical linguistics: the study of how languages change across time
Historical linguists may work in language specific areas, carrying out what is called reconstruction.
9. Applied linguistics: the study of applying linguistics to real-life situations.
An applied linguistic will likely work in fields such as such as language education, translation, or language policy
10. Macrolinguistics: concerned with everything that pertains in any way at all to language and languages.
11. Pragmatics: is the study of the speaker meaning (i.e. what the speaker intends to say).
It is considered as the “wastebasket”, which means everything that you cannot be understood classified within pragmatics.
7. Design Features of Human Language
Arbitrariness: there is often a recognizable link between the actual signs and the message an animals wishes to convey.
In human language, the reverse is true. In the great majority of cases, there is no link between the signal and the message.
This document provides an overview of language change from both a historical and sociological perspective. It discusses the different types and levels of language change, including sound changes, lexical changes, semantic changes, and syntactic changes. Several theories of language change are presented, such as functional theory, random fluctuation theory, substratum theory, and the S-curve theory. The document also examines the routes language change can take, such as through language learning, contact, social differentiation, and natural usage processes. Finally, it outlines the major levels of language change - phonological, syntactic, semantic, and lexical - providing examples of sound changes like assimilation, dissimilation, and the Great Vowel Shift.
Acquisition, creativity, standards and testingLaiba Yaseen
This document discusses several topics related to second language acquisition and World Englishes. It addresses theoretical orientations in SLA research and how they often neglect speaker intentions. It also discusses SLA in multilingual contexts and how the functions of an additional language are determined by community needs. Finally, it examines issues of proficiency, communicative competence, and how English has been nativized and developed new varieties around the world according to social and historical contexts.
This document discusses lexical variation in language and how languages change over time. It provides an example of lexical variation, noting that it is using a linguistic element instead of another without changing the meaning. The document then discusses three main aspects of how language changes over time: vocabulary, sentence structure, and pronunciations. It provides an example of how the word "pea" developed a plural form over hundreds of years. The document also discusses regional dialects and differences in past tense formations between languages and dialects. It notes that linguistic changes occur when a new form used by a subgroup is adopted more widely as a norm.
The document discusses borrowing in the English language from other languages. Words may be adopted from one language into another through a process called borrowing. There are several reasons for borrowing words, including the need for a term to describe something unfamiliar, prestige, and the introduction of new concepts without a word for them in the native language. Direct borrowing involves adopting a word unchanged, while indirect borrowing involves passing a word through multiple languages with changes along the way. Loanwords are words imported from another language, which may undergo phonological or orthographical changes, while loanshifts involve translating the meaning of a word rather than adopting the word itself.
Language change occurs over time through various causes like economy, analogy, language contact, language acquisition, and social differentiation. Historical linguists study language change over long periods while sociolinguists examine how social factors influence language variations between groups. Common causes of change include reducing effort through simplification, making irregular forms more regular, adopting words and constructions through contact between languages, differences in how children and adults acquire language, and distinguishing social group norms.
This document discusses language contact and multilingualism. It notes that multilingualism has likely been common throughout human history, with many people today speaking multiple languages. When languages come into contact, they typically influence each other through borrowing words and occasionally adopting each other's grammatical features. The most common outcomes of language contact are code-switching, language mixing, and the development of creole languages. The document also discusses how social and political factors can lead to one language replacing or dominating another through the process of language shift. It provides several examples of how languages have influenced each other's vocabularies and grammars through long-term interaction and borrowing.
This document discusses language variations and varieties of language. It defines language variation as differences in pronunciation, word choice, or grammar patterns among speakers. Variations can occur at geographical, social, stylistic, or functional levels. There are also three main levels of variation: pronunciation, grammar, and vocabulary. The document then defines and provides examples of several varieties of language, including standard languages, national/official languages, dialects, registers, pidgins, creoles, classical languages, lingua francas, and diglossia.
Language is the most powerful system of communication between humans. It is a system of symbols and rules that allows for meaningful communication between individuals and across cultures. For a system of communication to be considered a language, it must meet certain criteria, including having standardized rules, a community of speakers to give it vitality, a sense of identity and history for its speakers, autonomy, and characteristics of being systematic yet flexible. The building blocks of any language include phonemes, morphemes, and grammatical rules that specify how these elements are combined.
This document discusses lexical borrowing, which is when a word is adopted from one language and incorporated into another with little or no modification. There are two main types of borrowing: direct borrowing, which takes a word directly from another language with minimal phonological or orthographic changes; and indirect borrowing, where a word passes through multiple languages and undergoes changes along the way. Reasons for borrowing include filling lexical gaps when encountering unfamiliar concepts and improving language quality. Religious and cultural contact also facilitate borrowing between languages. The document provides examples of borrowing in English, Kurdish, and between other languages through religion, culture, and other means of language contact.
The document discusses various topics related to bilingualism, including:
- Types of bilingualism such as simultaneous, early sequential, and late bilingualism.
- Studies showing young children can quickly learn a new language if they move to a new country, such as Leopold's diary study of his daughter.
- Debate around separate-store and common-store models of how bilinguals process languages in the brain.
- Concepts like code-switching, code-mixing, cognates, and forward/backward translation between languages.
Language is the primary system of human communication. It allows people to express thoughts, emotions, and ideas across cultures through a set of symbols and rules. An effective language must meet several key criteria, including having symbols to represent concepts, rules to structure symbols into understandable messages, and a community of users. The document outlines several characteristics that define human language, such as its arbitrary nature, role as a social phenomenon, and ability to constantly generate new expressions. It also describes some fundamental building blocks of language, including phonemes, morphemes, and grammar.
Global Situational Awareness of A.I. and where its headedvikram sood
You can see the future first in San Francisco.
Over the past year, the talk of the town has shifted from $10 billion compute clusters to $100 billion clusters to trillion-dollar clusters. Every six months another zero is added to the boardroom plans. Behind the scenes, there’s a fierce scramble to secure every power contract still available for the rest of the decade, every voltage transformer that can possibly be procured. American big business is gearing up to pour trillions of dollars into a long-unseen mobilization of American industrial might. By the end of the decade, American electricity production will have grown tens of percent; from the shale fields of Pennsylvania to the solar farms of Nevada, hundreds of millions of GPUs will hum.
The AGI race has begun. We are building machines that can think and reason. By 2025/26, these machines will outpace college graduates. By the end of the decade, they will be smarter than you or I; we will have superintelligence, in the true sense of the word. Along the way, national security forces not seen in half a century will be un-leashed, and before long, The Project will be on. If we’re lucky, we’ll be in an all-out race with the CCP; if we’re unlucky, an all-out war.
Everyone is now talking about AI, but few have the faintest glimmer of what is about to hit them. Nvidia analysts still think 2024 might be close to the peak. Mainstream pundits are stuck on the wilful blindness of “it’s just predicting the next word”. They see only hype and business-as-usual; at most they entertain another internet-scale technological change.
Before long, the world will wake up. But right now, there are perhaps a few hundred people, most of them in San Francisco and the AI labs, that have situational awareness. Through whatever peculiar forces of fate, I have found myself amongst them. A few years ago, these people were derided as crazy—but they trusted the trendlines, which allowed them to correctly predict the AI advances of the past few years. Whether these people are also right about the next few years remains to be seen. But these are very smart people—the smartest people I have ever met—and they are the ones building this technology. Perhaps they will be an odd footnote in history, or perhaps they will go down in history like Szilard and Oppenheimer and Teller. If they are seeing the future even close to correctly, we are in for a wild ride.
Let me tell you what we see.
Language Programs and Policies in Multilingual Societies.pptxSyedNadeemAbbas6
This document discusses various sociolinguistic concepts including what sociolinguistics is, bilingualism, language change, language shift, code switching, language death, language revival, standard languages, vernacular languages, national languages, official languages, pidgins, regional dialects, and social dialects. It defines each concept and provides examples to illustrate key aspects. The document is intended to serve as an overview of important sociolinguistic concepts for understanding language use within societies.
Sociolinguistics is the study of language variation and change. It analyzes how social factors influence language use and how language varies based on social contexts. Some key points covered include:
- Language varies based on idiolects (individual speech patterns) and sociolects (patterns shared within social groups). Variation exists in pronunciation, vocabulary, grammar and discourse.
- Sociolinguistics describes language variation using tools like linguistic variables, and examines phonological, grammatical, lexical and discoursal variation.
- Social factors like geographical location, age, gender, social class and networks influence language variation. Standard languages become codified through institutions while non-standard dialects face stigma.
Nabeela Taimur Ali presented on lexical borrowing. She speaks two varieties of the Luyia language as well as Swahili and English. Many words are borrowed between the languages she speaks. Borrowing occurs when languages are in regular contact, with words and phrases being adopted from the other language. Lexical borrowing refers to incorporating words from one language into another, especially nouns and verbs. Borrowing typically flows from the more prestigious language to the less prestigious one.
1. The document discusses various factors that can lead to language change over time, including sociolinguistic, psycholinguistic, and therapeutic factors.
2. Sociolinguistic factors include random fluctuations in pronunciation, the influence of fashion, foreign influence through borrowing or substratum effects, and social needs leading to changes like coinage of new words.
3. Psycholinguistic factors relate to natural tendencies in pronunciation and linking sounds, such as consonants being dropped or sounds assimilating, which can eventually lead to permanent changes in a language.
The document discusses the theory of translanguaging. It provides Garcia's definition of translanguaging as accessing different linguistic features or autonomous languages to maximize communication. Translanguaging goes beyond code-switching by extending hybrid language use. Views of balanced bilingualism are discussed, noting it is a myth and bilingualism involves unequal experiences across languages. The differences between translanguaging and code-switching are explained, with translanguaging not having clear language boundaries. Examples of translanguaging in family settings are provided.
This document discusses the tension between prescriptive and descriptive approaches to language. It explores how children's home language differs from the standard form taught in schools. While parents accept variations, schools aim to teach language "correctly" which views all non-standard forms as wrong. However, determining what is considered correct is complex, as dialects, accents, and linguistic variations exist. The document examines debates around whether teaching the standard form offers advantages or disadvantages to some children. Applied linguists have a responsibility to approach such issues with caution and respect.
This document discusses language variation and the different types of language varieties. It defines varieties as forms of language that differ in pronunciation, vocabulary, or grammar between regions, social classes, or functions. The key varieties discussed are standard language, dialects, registers, pidgins, creoles, classical languages, and lingua francas. Standard language is used widely for official purposes, while dialects vary regionally or among social groups. Registers differ based on social or occupational context. Pidgins emerge for communication between groups with no shared language, and creoles develop when pidgins are passed to children as a native language.
1. Linguistics Definition
linguistics is the scientific study of language or the study of human language.
2. What linguistics is not
Linguistics is not about learning as many languages as you can;
there are many linguists who can only speak one or two languages.
There isn't a requirement to learn multiple languages.
Now that’s out of the way, let’s reply to the question of “What is Linguistics?”
3. what is linguistics?
Linguistics aims to understand how the language faculty of the mind works and to describe how language itself works.
Linguists observe patterns within a language and across languages to try to understand what principles drive our brains’ comprehension and production of language.
4. Language System
A language-system is a social Phenomenon, or institution, which is abstract in that it has no physical existence, but which is actualized on particular occasions in the language-behavior of individual members of the language-community.
5. Linguistics Fields
Linguistics spans a large number of subfields, each dealing with a different part of the language faculty.
Phonetics: the study of the acoustics and sounds of languages.
Phonology: the study of sound systems and how they pattern.
Syntax: the study of sentence structure.
Semantics: the study of meaning and formalizing it into a logical form.
5. Psycholinguistics: the study of how language manifests in the brain.
Psycholinguists carry out experiments to observe the reaction of the brain’s different areas to different stimuli, and they’ll try to relate the findings to the more abstract linguistic theories.
6. Sociolinguistics: the study of the complex relationship between language and society.
Sociolinguists might look at attitudes toward different linguistic features and its relation to class, race, sex, etc.
7. Computational linguistics - the study of applying computer science to linguistics.
Computational linguists might use programming to model linguistic structure or change or for practical applications.
8. Historical linguistics: the study of how languages change across time
Historical linguists may work in language specific areas, carrying out what is called reconstruction.
9. Applied linguistics: the study of applying linguistics to real-life situations.
An applied linguistic will likely work in fields such as such as language education, translation, or language policy
10. Macrolinguistics: concerned with everything that pertains in any way at all to language and languages.
11. Pragmatics: is the study of the speaker meaning (i.e. what the speaker intends to say).
It is considered as the “wastebasket”, which means everything that you cannot be understood classified within pragmatics.
7. Design Features of Human Language
Arbitrariness: there is often a recognizable link between the actual signs and the message an animals wishes to convey.
In human language, the reverse is true. In the great majority of cases, there is no link between the signal and the message.
This document provides an overview of language change from both a historical and sociological perspective. It discusses the different types and levels of language change, including sound changes, lexical changes, semantic changes, and syntactic changes. Several theories of language change are presented, such as functional theory, random fluctuation theory, substratum theory, and the S-curve theory. The document also examines the routes language change can take, such as through language learning, contact, social differentiation, and natural usage processes. Finally, it outlines the major levels of language change - phonological, syntactic, semantic, and lexical - providing examples of sound changes like assimilation, dissimilation, and the Great Vowel Shift.
Acquisition, creativity, standards and testingLaiba Yaseen
This document discusses several topics related to second language acquisition and World Englishes. It addresses theoretical orientations in SLA research and how they often neglect speaker intentions. It also discusses SLA in multilingual contexts and how the functions of an additional language are determined by community needs. Finally, it examines issues of proficiency, communicative competence, and how English has been nativized and developed new varieties around the world according to social and historical contexts.
This document discusses lexical variation in language and how languages change over time. It provides an example of lexical variation, noting that it is using a linguistic element instead of another without changing the meaning. The document then discusses three main aspects of how language changes over time: vocabulary, sentence structure, and pronunciations. It provides an example of how the word "pea" developed a plural form over hundreds of years. The document also discusses regional dialects and differences in past tense formations between languages and dialects. It notes that linguistic changes occur when a new form used by a subgroup is adopted more widely as a norm.
The document discusses borrowing in the English language from other languages. Words may be adopted from one language into another through a process called borrowing. There are several reasons for borrowing words, including the need for a term to describe something unfamiliar, prestige, and the introduction of new concepts without a word for them in the native language. Direct borrowing involves adopting a word unchanged, while indirect borrowing involves passing a word through multiple languages with changes along the way. Loanwords are words imported from another language, which may undergo phonological or orthographical changes, while loanshifts involve translating the meaning of a word rather than adopting the word itself.
Language change occurs over time through various causes like economy, analogy, language contact, language acquisition, and social differentiation. Historical linguists study language change over long periods while sociolinguists examine how social factors influence language variations between groups. Common causes of change include reducing effort through simplification, making irregular forms more regular, adopting words and constructions through contact between languages, differences in how children and adults acquire language, and distinguishing social group norms.
This document discusses language contact and multilingualism. It notes that multilingualism has likely been common throughout human history, with many people today speaking multiple languages. When languages come into contact, they typically influence each other through borrowing words and occasionally adopting each other's grammatical features. The most common outcomes of language contact are code-switching, language mixing, and the development of creole languages. The document also discusses how social and political factors can lead to one language replacing or dominating another through the process of language shift. It provides several examples of how languages have influenced each other's vocabularies and grammars through long-term interaction and borrowing.
This document discusses language variations and varieties of language. It defines language variation as differences in pronunciation, word choice, or grammar patterns among speakers. Variations can occur at geographical, social, stylistic, or functional levels. There are also three main levels of variation: pronunciation, grammar, and vocabulary. The document then defines and provides examples of several varieties of language, including standard languages, national/official languages, dialects, registers, pidgins, creoles, classical languages, lingua francas, and diglossia.
Language is the most powerful system of communication between humans. It is a system of symbols and rules that allows for meaningful communication between individuals and across cultures. For a system of communication to be considered a language, it must meet certain criteria, including having standardized rules, a community of speakers to give it vitality, a sense of identity and history for its speakers, autonomy, and characteristics of being systematic yet flexible. The building blocks of any language include phonemes, morphemes, and grammatical rules that specify how these elements are combined.
This document discusses lexical borrowing, which is when a word is adopted from one language and incorporated into another with little or no modification. There are two main types of borrowing: direct borrowing, which takes a word directly from another language with minimal phonological or orthographic changes; and indirect borrowing, where a word passes through multiple languages and undergoes changes along the way. Reasons for borrowing include filling lexical gaps when encountering unfamiliar concepts and improving language quality. Religious and cultural contact also facilitate borrowing between languages. The document provides examples of borrowing in English, Kurdish, and between other languages through religion, culture, and other means of language contact.
The document discusses various topics related to bilingualism, including:
- Types of bilingualism such as simultaneous, early sequential, and late bilingualism.
- Studies showing young children can quickly learn a new language if they move to a new country, such as Leopold's diary study of his daughter.
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1. LANGUAGES IN CONTACT
8.2 Contact Situations 138
8.3 Borrowing 139
8.3.1 Lexical Borrowing 140
8.3.2 Structural Borrowing 141
8.4 Pidgins 142
8.5 Creoles 143
8.6 World Englishes 145
Ilkhani
2. • Language contact occurs when speakers of
two or more varieties meet, interact, and
influence one another.
What are ways that languages come into
contact, and what happens when they do?
Much in the way that two colors of paint mix,
swirl, and blend, creating something new,
languages react and change when they come
into prolonged contact with one another.
3. 8.2 Contact Situations
• How languages come into contact in the first place In what situations do two or more
languages end up in the same place at the same time?
• Travel: is one way we are exposed to new languages—many people use apps or books to learn
the target language before traveling to a new country. geographic proximity is another way two
languages might come into contact.
• Education: language contact often occurs in education, in the form of taking a second or
foreign language as a subject, or being taught other content in a language different than the
one you speak at home.
• Migration: many of the languages in the Americas were brought over from other places in the
world.
• Business and trade: When two different communities need resources that can be supplied by
the other community, the two groups have to come into contact to conduct business.
4. 8.2 Contact Situations
• Technology: When travel, exploration, and migration became facilitated by ships, trains,
automobiles, and later air travel, distant societies that had never had the opportunity to come
into contact did so more easily and more frequently. With the rise of the internet, Language
teachers can easily find videos of the target language and share it with the class, an option that
became available only relatively recently. With the advent of information technology, the
languages and cultures of people living in faraway places come right into our classrooms and
handheld devices.
• Unfortunately, a great deal of language contact is the result of violent, unjust, harrowing
experiences such as war, conquest, occupation, and slavery. The history of human civilization is
riddled with examples in which one group of people decides to dominate. In these cases of
language contact, there is often a clear language of power, held by those in the dominant
position, and a language of the oppressed, held by the subjugated peoples.
5. 8.3 Borrowing vs. code-switching
• Borrowing: What happens when languages come into contact with one another? Common
phenomenon that occurs is borrowing, in which an element of one language is permanently
added to the linguistic repertoire of another language. This can be at the lexical, phonetic,
phonological, morphological, syntactic, semantic, or pragmatic levels.
• .Borrowing is different from code-switching in that borrowing results in a linguistic element that
permanently embeds itself into the borrowing language, taking on the features of the
borrowing language. Monolingual speakers still use borrowed features without having any
competence in the source language, e.g., most English speakers use plenty of French-origin
words without actually speaking French. In contrast, code-switching is the alternating use of two
or more languages within a conversation. It is done by bilinguals when they are in the company
of other bilinguals. You have to be bilingual in order to code-switch.
6. Borrowing vs. code-switching
• Borrowing, on the other hand, means using one primary language, but mixing in words or ideas
from another. In borrowing, we speak one language, and alters vocabulary from another to fit
the primary language
• Borrowing does not mean that the borrowed word, sound, or grammar rule is preserved
perfectly in its original form Much like the way a liquid poured from one container into another
will take the form of that new container.
7. 8.3.1 Lexical Borrowing
• the most easily identified borrowing is lexical borrowing, in which words and phrases are
borrowed from one language to another.
• Words pertaining to foods are a common example, where it is simply easiest to just use the
native word for the food item; kimchi, tortilla, sushi, biscotti, hummus, bratwurst, naan, and
borscht.
• Terms referring to technology are often borrowed from English into other languages. Words like
email, wifi, and to print are borrowed into Spanish as el email, el wifi, and printear.
• Words and phrases in English that pertain to academia and theater are often Greek in origin:
grammar, physics, chorus, monologue, protagonist.
• Many of the words we use regularly in English also originate from Native American languages,
like chocolate(Nahuatl: chocolatl), chipmunk (Ojibwa: chitmunk), squash (Narragansett:
askútasquash), barbecue (Taíno: barbacòa), moose (Eastern Abenaki: moz), kayak (Inuktitut:
qajaq).
8. 8.3.1 Lexical Borrowing
• phonotactic rules: some Spanish-speakers have a hard time understanding the
English-speaker’s pronunciation of words borrowed from Spanish because the
pronunciation is very different. This does not have anything to do with malintent; the
borrowed word just has to change to fit the phonotactic rules of the borrowing
language. e.g. (Taco)
• English words that are borrowed into other languages have to go through the same
process as well. e.g. The words printear (“to print”) and parquear (“to park”) have been
borrowed from English by Spanish-speakers in the U.S.
• Another example comes from the various ways that other languages have adopted the
greeting Merry Christmas. In Japanese, a language that does not allow many
consonant clusters or syllable-final consonants, the phrase becomes Meri Kuri-
sumasu. Similarly, in Maori it becomes Meri Kirihimete. In Hawaiian, which also has
strict rules about consonant clusters and additionally does not employ the /r/ sound
at all, the phrase becomes Mele Kalikimaka, made popular in a cheery song.
9. 8.3.2 Structural Borrowing
• Sometimes, when a language borrows enough words from another language, entire structures
that did not originally exist in the borrowing language end up becoming a permanent feature.
This is called structural borrowing.
• At the phonetics and phonology levels, sounds or sound patterns that did not exist before can
be added to the phonetic inventory or system of phonological rules. For instance, the /ʒ/ sound
that you find in words like measure, treasury, siege, beige, and mirage did not exist in the
English phonetic inventory until its contact with French.
When words are borrowed from one language to another, the morphological process that goes
along with the source language can be borrowed as well. For instance, some pluralization rules in
English originate from languages like Latin and Greek. Instead of regular pluralization where /s/,
/z/, and /ɪz/ are added, some words take on irregular endings when a singular noun becomes
plural.
• Some examples from Latin include focus-foci, nucleus-nuclei, alumnus-alumni, fungus-fungi.
10. 8.3.2 Structural Borrowing
• Other pluralization processes come from Greek (criterion-criteria, phenomenon-phenomena) or
Old English (child-children, ox-oxen). Because these irregular morphemes deviate from the
regular /s/, /z/, /ɪz/ ending of regular plurals, language learners tend to have difficulty with
them. You might hear a learner say childs for the plural of child, for instance. This is not a bad
thing; it actually indicates that the learner is picking up on the most frequently used rule for
pluralization.
• In some cases, entire syntactic processes can change as a result of borrowing. This process takes
longer than lexical borrowing, but once it occurs it is the most drastic modifier of a language.
For instance, in Romansch, a language spoken in Switzerland, noun phrases were historically
structured as noun + adjective, as in shirt blue or shoe small. However, with extensive contact
with German, over time the entire shape of the noun phrase in Romansch shifted to adjective +
noun, as in blue shirt and small shoe. Changing the shape of the noun phrase structure rule can
make quite a striking difference in the language.
11. 8.4 Pidgins
A pidgin is a speech form that is primarily used as a means of communication among people who
do not share a common language. Pidgins are different from languages in that there are no native
speakers. It is used only between people who need to communicate past a language barrier, and
the speakers of either language would not use it amongst themselves. In the event that there is an
unequal balance of power between the groups that come into contact, the language spoken by
the people in power is called the superstrate language, and the language spoken by the less
powerful people is called the substrate language. In the pidgin that develops as a result of contact
with power imbalances, the superstrate language is typically the one that provides a large
percentage of the vocabulary. This is called a lexifier, or the language that contributes the most
vocabulary. The substrate language typically influences the phonetics and phonology of the
pidgin. Thus, a pidgin might be more intelligible to the speakers of the superstrate language, but
sound more like the substrate language.
12. 8.4 Pidgins
• English is the lexifier language, that is, the main source of words in the pidgin.
Thus, there are two sources of linguistic features:
• Superstrate: the socially dominant language Most vocabulary from superstrate language (lexifier
language)
• Substrate socially subordinate language(s) Most grammatical structure from the substrate
language(s)
• substratum or substrate is a language that has lower power or prestige than another, while a
superstratum or superstrate is the language that has higher power or prestige. Both substratum
and superstratum languages influence each other, but in different ways.
13. 8.4 Pidgins
1. Gargon stage :Let us return to the trade scenario. At first, linguistic communication between
the two communities might occur by creating a few words that pertain only to their business
of trade. This is the jargon stage of pidgin formation, where there is a small collection of words
that are limited to one specific purpose. there is no established set of vocabulary.
2. stabilized pidgin: As the business relationship grows, more communication is needed in
order to express more complex meanings. This results in a more established and consistent set
of words, phrases, and syntax for communication. This stage of pidgin formation is called the
stabilized pidgin stage. Stabilized pidgins are more consistent from day to day and from
person to person
3. expanded pidgin: Some stabilized pidgins develop even further in terms of utility; rather than
just being reserved for one purpose—such as trade—some pidgins catch on and become used
in other realms of life, like education, religion, food, music, or personal relationships. This stage
is called the expanded pidgin stage, where the pidgin expands its usage across different
domains of life. At this point, there might be a great number of people who speak it.
14. 8.5 Creoles
• Creoles: The question you may be asking at this point is, when does that pidgin become a
language? The answer: it is when babies learn it as their first language. By the time a pidgin
becomes a creole, it has developed enough of its own phonetics, phonology, morphology,
syntax, semantics, and pragmatics. The brain registers that it is a complex and developed
language instead of a rudimentary communication tool and begins to acquire it. This new
language is what we call a creole.
• creolization.: A creole is simply a newly formed language that has arisen out of a contact
variety, usually from what used to be a pidgin. This process is called creolization. Now, however,
the language has native speakers for the first time in its history.
• Creoles are unique in that there is often a discernable point in history when contact between
two languages took place. The contact almost always means there is one socially powerful
group that subjugates a less powerful group, as in conquest, slavery, or war.
15. Features of pidgin and creole
Pidgins Creoles
It has limited vocabulary. It has a fully developed vocabulary.
It has no rules or clear system of grammar. It has a completed system of grammar.
The words and rules are simplified. The words and rules are expanded.
Language used as means of communication
between different groups.(no native speaker)
Language is acquired by children as a native
language.
It considered as business language for business
purposes
Despite the fact that speakers may feel they
speak less than normal Languages, creole is
considered as standard language.
16. 8.6 World Englishes
• According to Kachru (1985), World Englishes are international varieties of English spoken in
three circles: the inner circle, the outer circle, and the expanding circle. As can beseen in Figure
8.1, the inner circle consists of countries like the U.S., Canada, U.K., Australia, and New Zealand,
where Eng-lish is typically learned as a first language. The outer circle, which includes places like
India, Malaysia, Kenya, Singapore, and the Philippines, describes countries where English is most
everybody’s second language (L2) or second first language (L1), and it is used as the lingua
franca, or common language spoken between different language communities. The expanding
circle is even bigger, encompassing countries where English is used for specific purposes. These
countries include China, Korea, Russia, Egypt, Indonesia, and Taiwan.
• World Englishes make up a large category of creoles, in which English and another language
come into contact to form a new and different language. They are fully fledged languages in
their own right, and they are not “deviations from the norm”. Due to the global nature of World
Englishes, each variety takes linguistic features from the local or indigenous languages in the
surrounding areas. One such example is Singlish. Singlish is a World English spoken in
Singapore.
18. 8.6 World Englishes
• There is a difference between L2 English and World English. L2 English speakers are in the
process of learning English as a second language and are nonnative speakers of the language.
They do not have native-like competence (yet). However, World English speakers are quite
different: they grow up speaking English in their home country, so they are very comfortable
speaking it and would even consider it their L1.
• World Englishes differ in terms of sounds, words, grammar, etc. While World English speakers do
not need the kind of ESL curriculum that an L2 English speaker needs, if the World English is
significantly different, there may be a need for guidance to transition from one language to
another.