This document discusses different types of computer storage devices and their features. It describes primary storage (RAM and ROM), secondary storage (hard disks), tertiary storage (magnetic tapes and optical discs), offline storage (removable media), and other examples like cloud storage and RAID arrays. Storage devices are classified based on volatility, accessibility, mutability and addressability. Primary storage is volatile and allows random access, while tertiary storage is non-volatile and uses sequential access.
1. A hard disk drive is a data storage device that stores information in 0s and 1s on magnetic platters.
2. It contains platters, read/write heads, and motors that allow it to read and write data to the spinning platters.
3. Hard disk drive capacity is measured in gigabytes or terabytes and depends on the number of platters, tracks, sectors, and bytes per sector.
The document discusses the history and components of the central processing unit (CPU). It describes how the CPU originated from concepts developed in the 1940s and evolved from large mainframe computers to smaller microprocessors. The key components of the CPU are the control unit, arithmetic logic unit, and memory unit. The CPU functions by fetching instructions from memory, decoding and translating them, executing calculations and data movement, and storing results.
This document summarizes different types of computer storage devices. It discusses basic units of data storage such as bits, bytes, kilobytes etc. It describes different data access methods for storage devices including random access memory and sequential access memory. The document provides details about various storage devices like magnetic disks, optical disks, solid state drives, USB flash drives and memory cards. It explains technologies like hard disks, floppy disks, zip disks, CDs, DVDs and Blu-ray disks.
This section of the memory is also referred to as backup storage.
The storage capacity of primary storage is not sufficient to store the large volume so secondary storage.
Secondary storage also know as external memory or auxiliary storage not directly accessible by the CPU.
An arithmetic logic unit (ALU) is a digital electronic circuit that performs arithmetic and bitwise logical operations on integer binary numbers.
This is in contrast to a floating-point unit (FPU), which operates on floating point numbers. It is a fundamental building block of many types of computing circuits, including the central processing unit (CPU) of computers, FPUs, and graphics processing units.
A single CPU, FPU or GPU may contain multiple ALUs
History Of ALU:Mathematician John von Neumann proposed the ALU concept in 1945 in a report on the foundations for a new computer called the EDVAC(Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer
Typical Schematic Symbol of an ALU:A and B: the inputs to the ALU
R: Output or Result
F: Code or Instruction from the
Control Unit
D: Output status; it indicates cases
Circuit operation:An ALU is a combinational logic circuit
Its outputs will change asynchronously in response to input changes
The external circuitry connected to the ALU is responsible for ensuring the stability of ALU input signals throughout the operation
Storage provides capacity for files and information through devices like hard disks, while memory provides working space through RAM. Primary storage includes RAM and cache for running the computer, while secondary storage is long-term storage like hard disks. RAM is volatile memory used for running programs, coming in static RAM and dynamic RAM forms. ROM is read-only memory storing basic instructions. Cache memory improves performance by storing frequently used data and instructions. Optical storage includes CDs, DVDs, and Blu-rays, while magnetic storage encompasses floppy disks and hard disks. Flash memory offers portable options like USB drives and solid-state drives.
1. A hard disk drive is a data storage device that stores information in 0s and 1s on magnetic platters.
2. It contains platters, read/write heads, and motors that allow it to read and write data to the spinning platters.
3. Hard disk drive capacity is measured in gigabytes or terabytes and depends on the number of platters, tracks, sectors, and bytes per sector.
The document discusses the history and components of the central processing unit (CPU). It describes how the CPU originated from concepts developed in the 1940s and evolved from large mainframe computers to smaller microprocessors. The key components of the CPU are the control unit, arithmetic logic unit, and memory unit. The CPU functions by fetching instructions from memory, decoding and translating them, executing calculations and data movement, and storing results.
This document summarizes different types of computer storage devices. It discusses basic units of data storage such as bits, bytes, kilobytes etc. It describes different data access methods for storage devices including random access memory and sequential access memory. The document provides details about various storage devices like magnetic disks, optical disks, solid state drives, USB flash drives and memory cards. It explains technologies like hard disks, floppy disks, zip disks, CDs, DVDs and Blu-ray disks.
This section of the memory is also referred to as backup storage.
The storage capacity of primary storage is not sufficient to store the large volume so secondary storage.
Secondary storage also know as external memory or auxiliary storage not directly accessible by the CPU.
An arithmetic logic unit (ALU) is a digital electronic circuit that performs arithmetic and bitwise logical operations on integer binary numbers.
This is in contrast to a floating-point unit (FPU), which operates on floating point numbers. It is a fundamental building block of many types of computing circuits, including the central processing unit (CPU) of computers, FPUs, and graphics processing units.
A single CPU, FPU or GPU may contain multiple ALUs
History Of ALU:Mathematician John von Neumann proposed the ALU concept in 1945 in a report on the foundations for a new computer called the EDVAC(Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer
Typical Schematic Symbol of an ALU:A and B: the inputs to the ALU
R: Output or Result
F: Code or Instruction from the
Control Unit
D: Output status; it indicates cases
Circuit operation:An ALU is a combinational logic circuit
Its outputs will change asynchronously in response to input changes
The external circuitry connected to the ALU is responsible for ensuring the stability of ALU input signals throughout the operation
Storage provides capacity for files and information through devices like hard disks, while memory provides working space through RAM. Primary storage includes RAM and cache for running the computer, while secondary storage is long-term storage like hard disks. RAM is volatile memory used for running programs, coming in static RAM and dynamic RAM forms. ROM is read-only memory storing basic instructions. Cache memory improves performance by storing frequently used data and instructions. Optical storage includes CDs, DVDs, and Blu-rays, while magnetic storage encompasses floppy disks and hard disks. Flash memory offers portable options like USB drives and solid-state drives.
The document summarizes information about computer processors. It discusses the working of processors including fetch, decode, execute, and write back steps. It describes the basic components of a CPU including the arithmetic logic unit and control unit. It explains the differences between single, dual, and multi-core processors. Popular processor brands like Intel and AMD are mentioned. The future of processors is expected to include more energy efficient and faster designs with smaller nano processors and more cores using new technologies.
CPU-Central Processing Unit (With History and Complete Detail)Adeel Rasheed
CPU is the heart and brain of a computer. It receives data as input.The Central Processing Unit (CPU) is simply the central processor or the processor where most calculation takes places.
The document discusses the central processing unit (CPU). It describes the CPU as the multipurpose, programmable component of a computer that interprets instructions and performs logical and arithmetic operations. The CPU is composed of an arithmetic logic unit (ALU) that performs calculations, a control unit (CU) that directs signals between memory and the ALU, and register arrays that temporarily store processed data. Factors like clock rate, memory size, and instruction set complexity can impact a CPU's processing speed. The CPU executes a cycle of fetching instructions from memory, decoding them, executing operations, and storing results.
The presentation given at MSBTE sponsored content updating program on 'PC Maintenance and Troubleshooting' for Diploma Engineering teachers of Maharashtra. Venue: Government Polytechnic, Nashik Date: 17/01/2011 Session-2: Computer Organization and Architecture.
The document discusses different types of secondary storage devices. It describes sequential access devices like magnetic tapes that read and write data sequentially. It also describes direct access devices like hard disks that allow random access to stored data. Hard disks, floppy disks, disk packs, and zip disks are examples of magnetic disks. Optical disks like CDs, DVDs, and Blu-ray disks are also covered. Each type of secondary storage device has advantages and limitations in terms of storage capacity, access speed, portability and reusability.
This document discusses the memory hierarchy in computers. It begins by explaining that computer memory is organized in a pyramid structure from fastest and smallest memory (cache) to slower and larger auxiliary memory. The main types of memory discussed are RAM, ROM, cache memory, and auxiliary storage. RAM is further divided into SRAM and DRAM. The document provides details on the characteristics of each memory type including access speed, volatility, capacity and cost. Diagrams are included to illustrate concepts like RAM, ROM, cache levels and auxiliary devices. Virtual memory is also briefly introduced at the end.
This presentation represents an introduction to computer. I used every beginning lecture in my courses "Instructional Technology" and "Computer Fundamentals and its Applications".
Cache memory is a small, fast memory located between the CPU and main memory. It stores copies of frequently used instructions and data to accelerate access and improve performance. There are different mapping techniques for cache including direct mapping, associative mapping, and set associative mapping. When the cache is full, replacement algorithms like LRU and FIFO are used to determine which content to remove. The cache can write to main memory using either a write-through or write-back policy.
Storage devices come in various types to suit different needs. Internal memory like ROM, RAM, and hard disks are built into computers, while external devices like floppy disks, zip disks, magnetic tapes, CDs/DVDs, and flash drives can transfer and store data. Larger capacity devices like hard disks, DVDs, and flash drives let users store more data than older options like floppy disks, but may be more expensive or fragile. The appropriate storage device depends on needs like data size, portability, and hardware compatibility.
The document discusses different types of motherboards including integrated, non-integrated, desktop, laptop, and server motherboards. It describes the main components of a motherboard including the CPU socket, memory slots, chipset, expansion slots, BIOS, and I/O ports. Key factors to consider when selecting a motherboard are the form factor, CPU support, BIOS type, case compatibility, and warranty.
A computer is a machine that can be programmed to manipulate symbols. Its principal characteristics are: It responds to a specific set of instructions in a well-defined manner. It can execute a prerecorded list of instructions (a program). It can quickly store and retrieve large amounts of data.
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The floppy disk drive was invented in 1967 by Alan Shugart, using 8-inch disks initially that later evolved into the ubiquitous 5.25-inch disks holding 360KB introduced in 1981. Floppy disks recorded data using magnetic material coated on a thin plastic disk, allowing information to be stored, erased, and rewritten easily and inexpensively. While floppy disks were popular for decades, the technology became obsolete as higher capacity storage options emerged, and floppy disk drives are no longer installed on modern computers, though some users still access the format using inexpensive USB floppy disk drives.
Memory is essential for computers and comes in three main types: primary, cache, and secondary. Primary memory (RAM) is directly accessible by the CPU and comes in volatile forms like DRAM and SRAM. Cache memory improves access speed and can be L1/L2 caches. Secondary memory (hard disks, DVDs) provides large storage but is slower to access. The document discusses these memory types in detail along with their technologies and principles.
The control unit is responsible for controlling the flow of data and operations in a computer. It generates timing and control signals to coordinate the arithmetic logic unit, memory, and other components. Control units can be implemented using either hardwired or microprogrammed logic. A hardwired control unit uses combinational logic circuits like gates and flip-flops to directly generate control signals, while a microprogrammed control unit stores control sequences as microprograms in a control memory and executes them step-by-step using microinstructions. Both approaches have advantages and disadvantages related to speed, flexibility, cost, and complexity of implementation.
The CPU is the central processing unit of a computer that carries out instructions to perform basic arithmetic, logical, and input/output operations. It acts as the brain of the computer. Early CPUs were custom-designed for specific applications but are now mass-produced. The CPU consists of a control unit, arithmetic logic unit, registers, and communicates with memory and peripheral devices. It reads instructions from memory and directs the flow of data between different components.
Primary storage, also called main memory or immediate access store (IMAS), consists of random access memory (RAM), read only memory (ROM), and cache. RAM holds data and instructions temporarily during processing and also holds the results, while ROM stores fixed system-level programs like the BIOS needed for starting up the computer. Cache provides very fast temporary memory the processor can access more quickly than RAM.
This document discusses different types of computer storage devices and their features. It describes primary storage (RAM, ROM, cache), secondary storage (hard disks), tertiary storage (magnetic tapes, optical discs), offline storage (floppies, USB drives, memory cards), and other examples like cloud storage and RAID arrays. The key features covered are volatility, accessibility, mutability, and addressability.
The document summarizes information about computer processors. It discusses the working of processors including fetch, decode, execute, and write back steps. It describes the basic components of a CPU including the arithmetic logic unit and control unit. It explains the differences between single, dual, and multi-core processors. Popular processor brands like Intel and AMD are mentioned. The future of processors is expected to include more energy efficient and faster designs with smaller nano processors and more cores using new technologies.
CPU-Central Processing Unit (With History and Complete Detail)Adeel Rasheed
CPU is the heart and brain of a computer. It receives data as input.The Central Processing Unit (CPU) is simply the central processor or the processor where most calculation takes places.
The document discusses the central processing unit (CPU). It describes the CPU as the multipurpose, programmable component of a computer that interprets instructions and performs logical and arithmetic operations. The CPU is composed of an arithmetic logic unit (ALU) that performs calculations, a control unit (CU) that directs signals between memory and the ALU, and register arrays that temporarily store processed data. Factors like clock rate, memory size, and instruction set complexity can impact a CPU's processing speed. The CPU executes a cycle of fetching instructions from memory, decoding them, executing operations, and storing results.
The presentation given at MSBTE sponsored content updating program on 'PC Maintenance and Troubleshooting' for Diploma Engineering teachers of Maharashtra. Venue: Government Polytechnic, Nashik Date: 17/01/2011 Session-2: Computer Organization and Architecture.
The document discusses different types of secondary storage devices. It describes sequential access devices like magnetic tapes that read and write data sequentially. It also describes direct access devices like hard disks that allow random access to stored data. Hard disks, floppy disks, disk packs, and zip disks are examples of magnetic disks. Optical disks like CDs, DVDs, and Blu-ray disks are also covered. Each type of secondary storage device has advantages and limitations in terms of storage capacity, access speed, portability and reusability.
This document discusses the memory hierarchy in computers. It begins by explaining that computer memory is organized in a pyramid structure from fastest and smallest memory (cache) to slower and larger auxiliary memory. The main types of memory discussed are RAM, ROM, cache memory, and auxiliary storage. RAM is further divided into SRAM and DRAM. The document provides details on the characteristics of each memory type including access speed, volatility, capacity and cost. Diagrams are included to illustrate concepts like RAM, ROM, cache levels and auxiliary devices. Virtual memory is also briefly introduced at the end.
This presentation represents an introduction to computer. I used every beginning lecture in my courses "Instructional Technology" and "Computer Fundamentals and its Applications".
Cache memory is a small, fast memory located between the CPU and main memory. It stores copies of frequently used instructions and data to accelerate access and improve performance. There are different mapping techniques for cache including direct mapping, associative mapping, and set associative mapping. When the cache is full, replacement algorithms like LRU and FIFO are used to determine which content to remove. The cache can write to main memory using either a write-through or write-back policy.
Storage devices come in various types to suit different needs. Internal memory like ROM, RAM, and hard disks are built into computers, while external devices like floppy disks, zip disks, magnetic tapes, CDs/DVDs, and flash drives can transfer and store data. Larger capacity devices like hard disks, DVDs, and flash drives let users store more data than older options like floppy disks, but may be more expensive or fragile. The appropriate storage device depends on needs like data size, portability, and hardware compatibility.
The document discusses different types of motherboards including integrated, non-integrated, desktop, laptop, and server motherboards. It describes the main components of a motherboard including the CPU socket, memory slots, chipset, expansion slots, BIOS, and I/O ports. Key factors to consider when selecting a motherboard are the form factor, CPU support, BIOS type, case compatibility, and warranty.
A computer is a machine that can be programmed to manipulate symbols. Its principal characteristics are: It responds to a specific set of instructions in a well-defined manner. It can execute a prerecorded list of instructions (a program). It can quickly store and retrieve large amounts of data.
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Watch my videos on snack here: --> --> http://sck.io/x-B1f0Iy
@ Kindly Follow my Instagram Page to discuss about your mental health problems-
-----> https://instagram.com/mentality_streak?utm_medium=copy_link
@ Appreciate my work:
-----> behance.net/burhanahmed1
Thank-you !
The floppy disk drive was invented in 1967 by Alan Shugart, using 8-inch disks initially that later evolved into the ubiquitous 5.25-inch disks holding 360KB introduced in 1981. Floppy disks recorded data using magnetic material coated on a thin plastic disk, allowing information to be stored, erased, and rewritten easily and inexpensively. While floppy disks were popular for decades, the technology became obsolete as higher capacity storage options emerged, and floppy disk drives are no longer installed on modern computers, though some users still access the format using inexpensive USB floppy disk drives.
Memory is essential for computers and comes in three main types: primary, cache, and secondary. Primary memory (RAM) is directly accessible by the CPU and comes in volatile forms like DRAM and SRAM. Cache memory improves access speed and can be L1/L2 caches. Secondary memory (hard disks, DVDs) provides large storage but is slower to access. The document discusses these memory types in detail along with their technologies and principles.
The control unit is responsible for controlling the flow of data and operations in a computer. It generates timing and control signals to coordinate the arithmetic logic unit, memory, and other components. Control units can be implemented using either hardwired or microprogrammed logic. A hardwired control unit uses combinational logic circuits like gates and flip-flops to directly generate control signals, while a microprogrammed control unit stores control sequences as microprograms in a control memory and executes them step-by-step using microinstructions. Both approaches have advantages and disadvantages related to speed, flexibility, cost, and complexity of implementation.
The CPU is the central processing unit of a computer that carries out instructions to perform basic arithmetic, logical, and input/output operations. It acts as the brain of the computer. Early CPUs were custom-designed for specific applications but are now mass-produced. The CPU consists of a control unit, arithmetic logic unit, registers, and communicates with memory and peripheral devices. It reads instructions from memory and directs the flow of data between different components.
Primary storage, also called main memory or immediate access store (IMAS), consists of random access memory (RAM), read only memory (ROM), and cache. RAM holds data and instructions temporarily during processing and also holds the results, while ROM stores fixed system-level programs like the BIOS needed for starting up the computer. Cache provides very fast temporary memory the processor can access more quickly than RAM.
This document discusses different types of computer storage devices and their features. It describes primary storage (RAM, ROM, cache), secondary storage (hard disks), tertiary storage (magnetic tapes, optical discs), offline storage (floppies, USB drives, memory cards), and other examples like cloud storage and RAID arrays. The key features covered are volatility, accessibility, mutability, and addressability.
This document discusses different types of computer storage devices. It describes primary storage such as RAM and cache that is directly accessible by the CPU. Secondary storage like hard disks and solid state drives are not directly accessible and require input/output channels. Offline storage includes removable media like USB drives, optical discs, and memory cards that must be connected before use. The document contrasts characteristics of storage devices such as volatility, accessibility, mutability, and addressability.
This document provides an overview of computer storage devices. It discusses primary storage such as RAM and ROM that temporarily hold data while the computer is on. Secondary storage devices like hard disks, magnetic tapes, floppy disks, optical discs, flash memory, and online cloud storage hold data permanently whether the computer is on or off. The document explains why different storage devices were developed as computer technology advanced and storage needs increased in terms of capacity, speed, portability and cost-effectiveness.
This document provides information on different types of storage devices used in computer systems. It discusses primary storage such as RAM, ROM, and cache that are directly connected to the CPU. Secondary storage devices include hard disks that are not directly accessible by the CPU. Tertiary storage examples are magnetic tapes and optical discs, which involve robotic mechanisms to access large volumes of archived data. Offline storage includes removable media like floppy disks, USB drives, and memory cards that require human insertion before the CPU can access the stored data.
The document discusses various physical storage media used in computers including cache, main memory, flash memory, magnetic disks, optical disks, and magnetic tapes. It classifies storage based on characteristics like speed of access, cost, and reliability. RAID systems are described which provide storage virtualization through techniques like mirroring and striping across disks to improve performance and reliability. Different RAID levels are outlined including RAID 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6.
This document discusses different types of computer memory including primary memory (RAM and ROM), secondary storage (hard drives, CDs, DVDs, etc.), and cache memory. RAM is volatile and used for temporary storage of data and programs needed to run the computer. ROM is non-volatile and holds the operating system bootstrap loader. Cache memory improves performance by storing frequently used data and instructions closer to the processor. Secondary storage devices include hard drives, optical discs, USB drives, and solid state drives which are used for long-term and offline storage of data.
- Physical storage media can be classified by access speed, cost per unit of data, and reliability. This includes cache, main memory, flash memory, magnetic disks, optical disks, and magnetic tapes.
- Faster but more expensive media like cache and main memory are primary storage, while magnetic disks represent secondary storage. Tapes and optical disks provide tertiary, offline storage.
- Volatility also differs, with volatile storage like main memory losing data on power loss, while nonvolatile media like disks and flash retain data. The database typically resides on nonvolatile secondary storage for long-term access.
Computer systems have four main parts - hardware, software, data, and users. Hardware includes physical components like processors and memory, while software provides instructions. Data is stored information, and users interact with the system. Computers use processors to manipulate data according to program instructions stored temporarily in primary memory like RAM, and more permanently in secondary storage like hard disks. Memory hierarchies allow for faster access to smaller amounts of frequently used data in components like cache. Optical disks provide large but read-only secondary storage, while magnetic disks allow for rewriting and portability.
This document provides an overview of computer components and software. It discusses the basic definition of a computer and its ability to accept data as input, process that data, and produce information as output. It then describes different types of computers based on size and application, including microcomputers, mini computers, mainframe computers, and supercomputers. The rest of the document details the major internal and external hardware components of a computer, including central processing unit, memory, storage devices, input devices like keyboard and mouse, and output devices like monitors. It also discusses different types of computer software, distinguishing between system software like operating systems, and application software.
Cache memory is a Random Access Memory.
The main advantage of cache memory is its very fast speed.
It can be accessed by the CPU at much faster speed than main memory.
Memory can be classified as primary or secondary. Primary memory (RAM) is directly accessible by the CPU and is used to store currently running programs and data. Secondary memory (hard disks, SSDs) is used for long-term storage and requires data to be transferred to primary memory for access. RAM types include DRAM and SRAM, while ROM is non-volatile. Cache memory improves CPU performance. Input devices like keyboards are used to input data into the computer's primary memory.
The motherboard is the most important component of a computer and functions as the main circuit board that integrates and coordinates all other computer elements. It contains connectors for the processor, RAM, BIOS, expansion slots, ports, and power supply. The motherboard must perform physical connections, power management and distribution, data communication, timing synchronization, and system monitoring and control. Common motherboard types include AT, ATX, and variants designed for specific AMD or Intel processors.
Objectives
- Name several general properties of storage systems.
- Describe the two most common types of hard drives and what they are used for today.
- Discuss the various types of optical discs available and how they differ from each other.
- Identify some flash-memory-based storage devices and media and explain how they are used today.
- List at least three other types of storage systems.
- Summarize the storage alternatives for a typical personal computer.
Computer memory can be divided into primary and secondary storage. Primary storage includes RAM, which is volatile and temporarily stores active data. Secondary storage includes various disk-based and optical storage like hard disks, CDs, DVDs, and USB drives, which provide larger but slower storage that is not lost when the computer is turned off. Common examples of secondary storage media are hard disks, CDs, DVDs, and USB flash drives.
Computer storage consists of primary and secondary memory. Primary memory, like registers and RAM, is directly accessible by the CPU while secondary memory, like hard disks, requires input/output channels. There are different types of secondary storage such as magnetic disks, optical disks, flash memory, and tape drives. Magnetic disks store data via polarized iron particles on disks or platters. Optical disks use lasers to burn data in spiral patterns onto disks. Flash memory cards have no moving parts. Tertiary memory provides robotic mounting and dismounting of removable media.
The document discusses different types of computer memory and storage devices. It describes primary memory such as RAM and ROM, as well as secondary storage devices like magnetic disks, tapes, flash drives, and optical discs. RAM is volatile and used for active programs and data, while ROM is permanent and stores the basic input/output system. Cache memory stores frequently used data to speed up CPU access time. Secondary storage includes hard disks, floppy disks, magnetic tapes, flash drives, and optical discs like CDs, DVDs, which provide larger non-volatile storage.
The document discusses the history and evolution of computer hardware from the first generation of vacuum tube computers to current generation computers using grand-scale integrated circuits. It describes the main components of computer hardware including the central processing unit, primary and secondary storage, and input/output devices. It also covers topics such as computer memory, microprocessors, and emerging technologies.
Proteins are composed of amino acids linked together through peptide bonds. Peptides are short chains of amino acids, while proteins can be made of long chains of amino acids folded into shapes. Proteins can be classified based on their size and shape as globular or fibrous proteins, or based on their functions such as structural, regulatory, catalytic, transport, genetic, storage and defense proteins. Some peptides act as toxins or have important roles as hormones, antibiotics, or in oxidation reduction systems.
The document discusses the four levels of protein structure: primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary. The primary structure is the linear sequence of amino acids in the peptide chain. The secondary structure involves hydrogen bonding that causes the chain to fold into structures like alpha helices or beta sheets. Tertiary structure describes further folding and interactions that result in the protein's three-dimensional shape. Quaternary structure refers to multiple peptide chains linked together in a protein.
Lipoproteins are spherical complexes formed by lipids and proteins that transport insoluble lipids through the blood. There are four main classes of lipoproteins: chylomicrons, very low density lipoproteins (VLDL), low density lipoproteins (LDL), and high density lipoproteins (HDL). Chylomicrons and VLDL are involved in transporting triglycerides, LDL transports cholesterol, and HDL transports excess cholesterol from tissues back to the liver.
This document provides information about lipids and fatty acids. It begins with an outline of chapter topics on the chemistry and classification of lipids. It then defines lipids and lists their main functions in the body. Lipids are classified as simple, complex, or derived, and as saponifiable or non-saponifiable. Key reactions for lipids include hydrolysis. Fatty acids are classified based on saturation and chain length. Essential fatty acids, which must be obtained through diet, are discussed. Neutral fats are described as triacylglycerols composed of glycerol and fatty acids.
This document discusses lipids and fatty acids. It defines lipids and lists their main functions. Lipids are classified as simple, complex, or derived, and as saponifiable or non-saponifiable. Fatty acids are described, including their chemistry, classification as saturated or unsaturated, nomenclature, and examples of biologically important fatty acids. Essential fatty acids are discussed along with their importance.
This document summarizes the digestion, absorption, and transport of dietary lipids in the human body. Dietary lipids undergo limited digestion in the mouth and stomach by lipases before entering the intestine, where pancreatic enzymes emulsify and break down triglycerides, phospholipids, and cholesterol esters into absorbable components. These components are absorbed via micelle transport into intestinal cells and repackaged into chylomicrons that enter the bloodstream. Chylomicrons deliver lipids to tissues and lose triglycerides due to lipoprotein lipase activity before remnants are removed from circulation by the liver.
This document provides information about lipids and fatty acids. It begins by defining lipids and listing their main functions in the body. It then classifies lipids as simple, complex, or derived, and as saponifiable or non-saponifiable. The document further describes the chemistry and classification of fatty acids, including saturated, unsaturated, monounsaturated, and polyunsaturated fatty acids. It also discusses the nomenclature and isomerism of fatty acids. The key reactions of triacylglycerols are described.
Hormones are chemical messengers that are secreted into the blood by endocrine glands and have profound effects on metabolic processes and cellular communication. They can be classified based on their chemical composition, location of receptors, or solubility. The major classes of hormones include steroids such as sex and adrenal hormones, peptides/proteins such as insulin and growth hormone, and amines such as epinephrine. Steroid hormones are derived from cholesterol and include estrogens, androgens, progesterone, corticosteroids, and aldosterone. Peptide hormones include insulin, glucagon, and somatostatin which are secreted by the pancreas, as well as hormones from the pituitary, parathyroid,
This document discusses enzymes and their properties. It begins by defining enzymes as globular proteins that act as biological catalysts to facilitate chemical reactions in living organisms. It then describes general enzyme characteristics such as their catalytic power, specificity, and ability to have their activity regulated. The document discusses how enzymes are named using systematic and common nomenclature systems. It also covers enzyme classification, cofactors/coenzymes, mechanisms of action, factors that influence activity, and kinetic models like Michaelis-Menten. Overall, the document provides a comprehensive overview of the key concepts regarding enzymes.
1. The urea cycle is a series of enzymatic reactions that occurs primarily in the liver to convert toxic ammonia produced from amino acid catabolism into urea for excretion.
2. The cycle involves five principal reactions: carbamoyl phosphate synthesis, citrulline synthesis, argininosuccinate synthesis, argininosuccinate cleavage, and arginine cleavage into ornithine and urea.
3. The urea cycle serves two major biological roles - detoxification of ammonia into urea and biosynthesis of the amino acid arginine from ornithine in tissues like liver, kidney, and intestine.
1) Fatty acids undergo beta-oxidation in the mitochondria to break them down into acetyl-CoA units, releasing energy.
2) Beta-oxidation involves a four-step cycle that removes two-carbon acetyl-CoA units from the fatty acid.
3) The complete breakdown of a fatty acid like stearic acid yields 9 acetyl-CoA molecules which enter the citric acid cycle, producing a total of 146 ATP molecules through electron transport chain reactions.
Glycogen metabolism involves the breakdown of glycogen to glucose-6-phosphate through glycogenolysis. Glycogenolysis occurs in three steps: 1) glycogen phosphorylase cleaves glucose from glycogen, 2) transferase and alpha-1,6-glucosidase remodel glycogen to allow further degradation, and 3) phosphoglucomutase converts glucose-1-phosphate to glucose-6-phosphate. In liver, glucose-6-phosphatase converts glucose-6-phosphate to glucose for blood glucose regulation. In muscle, glucose-6-phosphate enters glycolysis for rapid energy production.
This document discusses glycogen metabolism. It notes that glycogen is a readily available form of glucose storage found primarily in the liver and muscles. Glycogen synthesis, or glycogenesis, occurs in the fed state in these tissues and involves three steps - isomerization of glucose-6-phosphate to glucose-1-phosphate, activation of glucose-1-phosphate to UDP-glucose, and linkage of UDP-glucose to a glycogen chain catalyzed by glycogen synthase. Glycogen branching is accomplished by the enzyme amylo-(1,4-1,6)-trans-glycosylase which transfers glycogen segments to form branches. The synthesis and breakdown of glycogen in the liver and muscles
Gluconeogenesis is the metabolic pathway by which glucose is synthesized from non-carbohydrate materials to maintain blood glucose levels during periods without food intake. It takes place primarily in the liver and involves bypasses of three irreversible steps in glycolysis. Precursors like lactate, glycerol, and certain amino acids are converted to pyruvate and then glucose. The pathway requires energy in the form of 6 ATP molecules to synthesize one glucose molecule from two pyruvate. Gluconeogenesis is important for supplying glucose to tissues like the brain and helps maintain normal blood sugar through processes like the Cori cycle.
The citric acid cycle is the principal process for generating reduced coenzymes NADH and FADH2, which are necessary for ATP synthesis. It takes place in the mitochondrial matrix and involves eight steps catalyzed by different enzymes. Acetyl-CoA enters the cycle and is oxidized, producing carbon dioxide and the reduced coenzymes that fuel ATP production. Regulation occurs at three steps to precisely adjust the cycle's rate according to cellular energy needs. Overall, 12 ATP molecules are generated for each acetyl-CoA molecule that completes the citric acid cycle.
This document provides an overview of cholesterol biosynthesis, which occurs in most cells but primarily in the liver and intestine. There are 5 stages: 1) acetyl-CoA is converted to mevalonate, 2) mevalonate is converted to activated isoprene units, 3) six isoprene units condense to form squalene, 4) squalene is cyclized to lanosterol, and 5) lanosterol is converted to cholesterol over 20 steps. HMG-CoA reductase, which converts HMG-CoA to mevalonate, is the rate-limiting step and is regulated by feedback from cholesterol and bile acids as well as hormones like insulin, glucagon
This document provides information on carbohydrates and monosaccharides. It defines carbohydrates and explains their four main functions in living organisms. It then classifies carbohydrates into monosaccharides, disaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides. The document focuses on monosaccharides, describing their structures, classifications, stereochemistry including D and L isomers, anomers, mutarotation, and important naturally occurring monosaccharides like glucose, fructose, and ribose. It also outlines important reactions of monosaccharides such as oxidation, reduction, glycoside formation, and phosphate ester formation.
This document provides an overview of carbohydrate biochemistry. It defines carbohydrates as polyhydroxy aldehydes or ketones and classifies them based on molecular size into monosaccharides, disaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides. Monosaccharides are further classified as aldoses or ketoses depending on whether they have an aldehyde or ketone functional group. The document discusses carbohydrate stereochemistry, including D and L isomers, enantiomers, and diastereomers. It also covers optical activity and how carbohydrate enantiomers can rotate plane-polarized light. Epimers are described as diastereomers that differ at only one chiral carbon.
This document summarizes the processes of transcription and translation. It explains that during transcription, RNA polymerase makes an mRNA copy of a gene from DNA. The mRNA then moves to the ribosomes in the rough ER for translation. During translation, ribosomes and tRNA molecules work together to translate the mRNA into a polypeptide chain according to the mRNA's codon sequence. The process continues until a stop codon is reached, and the polypeptide chain is released. Mutations can occur during these processes, potentially resulting in non-functional or disease-causing proteins. Examples of different mutation types and their effects are provided.
Nucleic acids are macromolecules made of nucleotides that contain three components: a 5-carbon sugar, phosphate group, and nitrogenous base. DNA and RNA are the two main types of nucleic acids. DNA contains the sugar deoxyribose and has a double helix structure, while RNA contains the sugar ribose and is single-stranded. Both are composed of nucleotides joined by phosphodiester bonds and function to carry genetic information for protein synthesis. Their primary differences are that DNA contains the base thymine while RNA contains uracil, and RNA is found in the cytoplasm while DNA remains in the nucleus.
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This slide is special for master students (MIBS & MIFB) in UUM. Also useful for readers who are interested in the topic of contemporary Islamic banking.
A workshop hosted by the South African Journal of Science aimed at postgraduate students and early career researchers with little or no experience in writing and publishing journal articles.
Exploiting Artificial Intelligence for Empowering Researchers and Faculty, In...Dr. Vinod Kumar Kanvaria
Exploiting Artificial Intelligence for Empowering Researchers and Faculty,
International FDP on Fundamentals of Research in Social Sciences
at Integral University, Lucknow, 06.06.2024
By Dr. Vinod Kumar Kanvaria
How to Fix the Import Error in the Odoo 17Celine George
An import error occurs when a program fails to import a module or library, disrupting its execution. In languages like Python, this issue arises when the specified module cannot be found or accessed, hindering the program's functionality. Resolving import errors is crucial for maintaining smooth software operation and uninterrupted development processes.
বাংলাদেশের অর্থনৈতিক সমীক্ষা ২০২৪ [Bangladesh Economic Review 2024 Bangla.pdf] কম্পিউটার , ট্যাব ও স্মার্ট ফোন ভার্সন সহ সম্পূর্ণ বাংলা ই-বুক বা pdf বই " সুচিপত্র ...বুকমার্ক মেনু 🔖 ও হাইপার লিংক মেনু 📝👆 যুক্ত ..
আমাদের সবার জন্য খুব খুব গুরুত্বপূর্ণ একটি বই ..বিসিএস, ব্যাংক, ইউনিভার্সিটি ভর্তি ও যে কোন প্রতিযোগিতা মূলক পরীক্ষার জন্য এর খুব ইম্পরট্যান্ট একটি বিষয় ...তাছাড়া বাংলাদেশের সাম্প্রতিক যে কোন ডাটা বা তথ্য এই বইতে পাবেন ...
তাই একজন নাগরিক হিসাবে এই তথ্য গুলো আপনার জানা প্রয়োজন ...।
বিসিএস ও ব্যাংক এর লিখিত পরীক্ষা ...+এছাড়া মাধ্যমিক ও উচ্চমাধ্যমিকের স্টুডেন্টদের জন্য অনেক কাজে আসবে ...
This presentation was provided by Steph Pollock of The American Psychological Association’s Journals Program, and Damita Snow, of The American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE), for the initial session of NISO's 2024 Training Series "DEIA in the Scholarly Landscape." Session One: 'Setting Expectations: a DEIA Primer,' was held June 6, 2024.
How to Manage Your Lost Opportunities in Odoo 17 CRMCeline George
Odoo 17 CRM allows us to track why we lose sales opportunities with "Lost Reasons." This helps analyze our sales process and identify areas for improvement. Here's how to configure lost reasons in Odoo 17 CRM
Introduction to AI for Nonprofits with Tapp NetworkTechSoup
Dive into the world of AI! Experts Jon Hill and Tareq Monaur will guide you through AI's role in enhancing nonprofit websites and basic marketing strategies, making it easy to understand and apply.
How to Build a Module in Odoo 17 Using the Scaffold MethodCeline George
Odoo provides an option for creating a module by using a single line command. By using this command the user can make a whole structure of a module. It is very easy for a beginner to make a module. There is no need to make each file manually. This slide will show how to create a module using the scaffold method.
2. CSCA0101 Computing Basics
2
Storage Devices
1. Computer Data Storage
2. Types of Storage
3. Storage Device Features
4. Other Examples of Storage Device
3. CSCA0101 Computing Basics
3
Storage Devices
Storage Devices
• A storage device is used in the computers to store
the data.
• Provides one of the core functions of the modern
computer.
4. CSCA0101 Computing Basics
4
Storage Devices
Types of Storage
There are four type of storage:
• Primary Storage
• Secondary Storage
• Tertiary Storage
• Off-line Storage
5. CSCA0101 Computing Basics
5
Storage Devices
Primary Storage
• Also known as main memory.
• Main memory is directly or indirectly connected to
the central processing unit via a memory bus.
• The CPU continuously reads instructions stored
there and executes them as required.
• Example:
– RAM
– ROM
– Cache
6. CSCA0101 Computing Basics
6
Storage Devices
Primary Storage
RAM
• It is called Random Access Memory because any of
the data in RAM can be accessed just as fast as any
of the other data.
• There are two types of RAM:
– DRAM (Dynamic Random Access Memory)
– SRAM (Static Random Access Memory)
7. CSCA0101 Computing Basics
7
Storage Devices
Primary Storage
RAM
Static RAM Dynamic RAM
• Faster
• More expensive
• More power consumption
• does not need to be refreshed
• Slower
• Less expensive
• Less power consumption
• needs to be refreshed thousands
of times per second
8. CSCA0101 Computing Basics
8
Storage Devices
Primary Storage
ROM
• This memory is used as the computer
begins to boot up.
• Small programs called firmware are
often stored in ROM chips on hardware
devices (like a BIOS chip), and they
contain instructions the computer can
use in performing some of the most
basic operations required to operate
hardware devices.
• ROM memory cannot be easily or
quickly overwritten or modified.
9. CSCA0101 Computing Basics
9
Storage Devices
Primary Storage
Cache
• Cache is a high-speed access area that can be
either a reserved section of main memory or a
storage device.
• Most computers today come with L3 cache or L2
cache, while older computers included only L1
cache.
10. CSCA0101 Computing Basics
10
Storage Devices
Secondary Storage
• It is not directly accessible by the CPU.
• Computer usually uses its input/output channels to
access secondary storage and transfers the desired
data using intermediate area in primary storage.
• Example:
– Hard disk
11. CSCA0101 Computing Basics
11
Storage Devices
Secondary Storage
Hard Disk
• The hard disk drive is the main, and usually largest,
data storage device in a computer.
• It can store anywhere from 160 gigabytes to 2
terabytes.
• Hard disk speed is the speed at which content can
be read and written on a hard disk.
• A hard disk unit comes with a set rotation speed
varying from 4500 to 7200 rpm.
• Disk access time is measured in milliseconds.
13. CSCA0101 Computing Basics
13
Storage Devices
Secondary Storage
Hard Disk
Internal Hard disk External Hard disk
Portability No Yes
Price Less expensive More expensive
Speed Fast Slow
Size Big Small
14. CSCA0101 Computing Basics
14
Storage Devices
Tertiary Storage
• Typically it involves a robotic mechanism which will
mount (insert) and dismount removable mass
storage media into a storage device.
• It is a comprehensive computer storage system that
is usually very slow, so it is usually used to archive
data that is not accessed frequently.
• This is primarily useful for extraordinarily large data
stores, accessed without human operators.
16. CSCA0101 Computing Basics
16
Storage Devices
Tertiary Storage
Magnetic Tape
• A magnetically coated strip of
plastic on which data can be
encoded.
• Tapes for computers are similar to
tapes used to store music.
• Tape is much less expensive than
other storage mediums but
commonly a much slower solution
that is commonly used for backup.
17. CSCA0101 Computing Basics
17
Storage Devices
Tertiary Storage
Optical Disc
• Optical disc is any storage media that holds content
in digital format and is read using a laser assembly
is considered optical media.
• The most common types of optical media are
– Blu-ray (BD)
– Compact Disc (CD)
– Digital Versatile Disc (DVD)
20. CSCA0101 Computing Basics
20
Storage Devices
Off-line Storage
• Also known as disconnected storage.
• Is a computer data storage on a medium or a device
that is not under the control of a processing unit.
• It must be inserted or connected by a human
operator before a computer can access it again.
21. CSCA0101 Computing Basics
21
Storage Devices
Off-line Storage
• Also known as disconnected or removable
storage.
• Is a computer data storage on a medium or a device
that is not under the control of a processing unit.
• It must be inserted or connected by a human
operator before a computer can access it again.
23. CSCA0101 Computing Basics
23
Storage Devices
Off-line Storage
Floppy Disk
• A soft magnetic disk.
• Floppy disks are portable.
• Floppy disks are slower to access than hard disks
and have less storage capacity, but they are much
less expensive.
• Can store data up to 1.44MB.
• Two common sizes: 5 ¼” and 3 ½”.
25. CSCA0101 Computing Basics
25
Storage Devices
Off-line Storage
Zip Diskette
• Hardware data storage device
developed by Iomega that
functions like a Standard 1.44"
floppy drive.
• Capable to hold up to 100 MB of
data or 250 MB of data on new
drives.
• Now it less popular as users
needed larger storage
capabilities.
26. CSCA0101 Computing Basics
26
Storage Devices
Off-line Storage
USB Flash Drive
• A small, portable flash memory
card that plugs into a
computer’s USB port and
functions as a portable hard
drive.
• Flash drives are available in
sizes such as 256MB, 512MB,
1GB, 5GB, and 16GB and are
an easy way to transfer and
store information.
27. CSCA0101 Computing Basics
27
Storage Devices
Off-line Storage
Memory Card
• An electronic flash memory storage disk commonly
used in consumer electronic devices such as digital
cameras, MP3 players, mobile phones, and other
small portable devices.
• Memory cards are usually read by connecting the
device containing the card to your computer, or by
using a USB card reader.
31. CSCA0101 Computing Basics
31
Storage Devices
Volatility
Volatile Memory
• Requires constant power to maintain the stored
information.
• The fastest memory technologies.
• All contents are erased when the system's power is
turned off or interrupted.
• It has been more popularly known as temporary
memory.
32. CSCA0101 Computing Basics
32
Storage Devices
Volatility
Non-Volatile Memory
• Will retain the stored information even if it is not
constantly supplied with electric power.
• Non volatile memory is the device which keeps the
data even when the current is off.
• It is suitable for long-term storage of information.
33. CSCA0101 Computing Basics
33
Storage Devices
Accessibility
• Refers to reading or writing data records
• Two types of accessibility:
– Random access
– Sequential access
34. CSCA0101 Computing Basics
34
Storage Devices
Accessibility
Random Access
• Any location in storage can be accessed at any
moment in approximately the same amount of time.
• Such characteristic is well suited for primary and
secondary storage.
35. CSCA0101 Computing Basics
35
Storage Devices
Accessibility
Sequential Access
• The accessing of pieces of information will be in a
serial order, one after the other; therefore the time to
access a particular piece of information depends
upon which piece of information was last accessed.
• Such characteristic is typical of off-line storage.
36. CSCA0101 Computing Basics
36
Storage Devices
Mutability
• Allows information to be overwritten at any time.
• A computer without some amount of read/write
storage for primary storage purposes would be
useless for many tasks.
• Three types of mutability:
– Read/write storage or mutable storage
– Read only storage
– Slow write, fast read storage
37. CSCA0101 Computing Basics
37
Storage Devices
Mutability
Read/Write Storage or Mutable Storage
• Allows information to be overwritten at any time.
• A computer without some amount of read/write
storage for primary storage purposes would be
useless for many tasks.
38. CSCA0101 Computing Basics
38
Storage Devices
Mutability
Read Only Storage
• Retains the information stored at the time of
manufacture, and write once storage (WORM)
allows the information to be written only once at
some point after manufacture.
• These are called immutable storage.
39. CSCA0101 Computing Basics
39
Storage Devices
Mutability
Slow Write, Fast Read Storage
• Read/write storage which allows information to be
overwritten multiple times, but with the write
operation being much slower than the read
operation.
40. CSCA0101 Computing Basics
40
Storage Devices
Addressability
• Three types of addressability
– Location-addressable
– File addressable
– Content-addressable
41. CSCA0101 Computing Basics
41
Storage Devices
Addressability
Location-addressable
• Each individually accessible unit of information in
storage is selected with its numerical memory
address.
42. CSCA0101 Computing Basics
42
Storage Devices
Addressability
File addressable
• Information is divided into files of variable length,
and a particular file is selected with human-readable
directory and file names.
43. CSCA0101 Computing Basics
43
Storage Devices
Addressability
Content-addressable
• Each individually accessible unit of information is
selected based on the basis of (part of) the contents
stored there.
• Content-addressable storage can be implemented
using software (computer program) or hardware
(computer device), with hardware being faster but
more expensive option.
• Hardware content addressable memory is often
used in a computer's CPU cache.
45. CSCA0101 Computing Basics
45
Storage Devices
Other Example of Storage Devices
Punched Card
• Early method of data storage used with early
computers
• Punch cards also known as Hollerith cards
• Containing several punched holes that represents
data
46. CSCA0101 Computing Basics
46
Storage Devices
Other Example of Storage Devices
Cloud Storage
• Cloud storage means "the storage of data online in
the cloud," wherein a data is stored in and
accessible from multiple distributed and connected
resources that comprise a cloud.
• Cloud storage can provide the benefits of greater
accessibility and reliability; rapid deployment; strong
protection for data backup, archival and disaster
recovery purposes.
47. CSCA0101 Computing Basics
47
Storage Devices
Other Example of Storage Devices
Cloud Storage
• Examples:
– Google Drive
– Flickr
– Microsoft Sky Drive
48. CSCA0101 Computing Basics
48
Storage Devices
Other Example of Storage Devices
RAID
• RAID is short for redundant array of independent (or
inexpensive) disks.
• It is a category of disk drives that employ two or
more drives in combination for fault tolerance and
performance.
• RAID disk drives are used frequently on servers but
aren't generally necessary for personal computers.
• RAID allows you to store the same data redundantly
(in multiple paces) in a balanced way to improve
overall storage performance.