Memory is the process of maintaining information over time through encoding, storage, and retrieval. It allows us to draw upon past experiences. There are three main types of memory: sensory memory, which briefly stores sensory information; short-term memory, which can hold information for around 20-30 seconds; and long-term memory, which stores information for longer periods ranging from minutes to a lifetime. Factors like meaningfulness of information, amount of learning, method of learning, age, health, and intelligence influence how much information is retained in memory. Forgetting occurs through processes like trace decay, interference, and failure of retrieval.

1. Memory
• Memory is the record of experiences.
• It is the storehouse of mind, the reservoir of the accumulated
learning.
• It is complex physical and mental process.
• It can be defined as the storage of learned information for
retrieval and future use.

2. Memory
• Memory consists in remembering what has been learned
previously.
• It implies imagining of events as experiences in the past and
recognizing them as belonging to one’s own past experience.
• Morgan and King have defined it as the storage of information
from past experiences that is closely related to learning.
• “Memory is the means by which we draw on our past
experiences in order to use this information in the present’’
(Sternberg, 1999).
• “Memory is the process of maintaining information over
time.” (Matlin, 2005).
• Thus. Learning is the building block experiences while
memory is storing and retrieving of the information.

3. Memory Process
• General process of memory can be explained in
terms of coding, storage and retrieval.
Encoding
Storage
Retrieval

4. Memory process
 Encoding
 In common way coding means information in.
 It is assigning number and images to information.
 It is the process of converting information into code so that
it can be stored effectively.
 It usually involve attention and focusing awareness on a
narrow range of stimuli or event.
 Coding is of two type
a. Phonological coding (Echoic)- coding on the basis of sound
b. Visual coding (iconic)- coding on the basis ofvisual or
images.

5. Memory process
 Storage
 Retention of sensory information or impulses in CNS is
called storage.
 It involves maintaining encoded information in memory
over a period of time.
 The coding material stored in the brain is called memory
trace or neurogram or engram.
 The storage material can be used in future for learning
purposes.
 It may periodical or time being; long term or permanent.
According to use and disuse.
 Thus, storage lasts from few seconds to many days or
years.

6. Memory process
Retrieval
 It is the process of recovering information from
memory stores.
 It involve the recalling out the stored material in future
for better learning and utilization.
 It can be classified into two groups.
a. Recall.
 Retrieving process of the stored material in the
absence of stimulus is called recall.
 Eg, students appear in exam in the absence of notes,
books and other material .
 Recall is easy if concept is clear and storage
permanent.

7. Memory process
b. Recognition
 The utilization of stored material in the presence of stimulus.
 Providing multiple choice test having 4 alternatives.
 In this alternative answer act as stimulus.
 Recognition rate= Right answer – wrong answer/total
material X100

8. Parallel distributed processing
• A class of neurally inspired information processing models that attempt
to model information processing the way it actually takes place in the
brain.
• This model was developed because of findings that a system of neural
connections appeared to be distributed in a parallel array in addition to
serial pathways.
• The PDP model has 3 basic principles:
 the representation of information is distributed
 memory and knowledge for specific things. memory and
knowledge for specific things are not stored explicitly, but stored
in the connections between units.
 learning can occur with gradual changes in connection strength
by experience.

9. Parallel distributed processing
• These models assume that information processing takes place
through interactions of large numbers of simple processing
elements called units.
• Each sends excitatory and inhibitory signals to other units."
(McLelland, J., Rumelhart, D., & Hinton, G., 1986,).
• Rumelhart, Hinton, and McClelland (1986) state that there are 8
major components of the PDP model framework:
 A set of processing units.
 a state of activation
 an output function for each unit
 a pattern of connectivity among units

10. Parallel distributed processing
• a propagation rule for propagating patterns of activities
through the network of connectivity
• an activation rule for combining the inputs impinging on
a unit with the current state of that unit to produce a
new level of activation for the unit
• a learning rule whereby patterns of connectivity are
modified by experience
• an environment within which the system must operate

11. stimulus
Sensory
input
Sensory
memory
Sight(iconic)
Sound(echoic)
Patternrecognition
Selectivelyattended
Short term
memory
Maintenance
Rehearsal
Successively
coded for
storage in
LTM
Long Term
Memory
Retrieval
Repetitive
rehearsal
(Retain
information in
STM)
Elaborate
rehearsal
(moves
information
into LTM)
remembering
FORGETTING
Declarative memory
(flactual information: eg name
and date )
a. Sementic
b. Episodic
Procedural memory
( Skill and habits)
-Rehearsal , Miller’s
7 slots, primary and
recency effect
-Forgotten(if not
deeply coded in
STM)
-Loss of information
typically with in 15-
30 seconds
-Forgotten(if
not attended)
Loss of
information
typically
within 1-4
seconds
Atkinsons and Shiffrin’s Information Processing model

12. Information processing theory model
• It is the popular model, modeled after computers.
• A/c to this model, information must pass through two temporary
storage before it can be placed into more permanent storage, and
then retrieved for later use.
• For memory process to begin, we must first encounter some stimulus
(input) which goes into sensory storage.
• This model is also called three stage of memory.
• In this model, information initially recorded by the persons sensory
system enters into sensory memory, which momently hold the
information.
• It then move to STM which stores information for 15-30 seconds.
• Finally, information can move in LTM, which is relatively permanent.
• Movement of information from STM to LTM depends upon the kind
and amount of rehearsal of material that is carried out. (Atkinsons
&Shiffrin, 1968)

13. Types of memory
• Sensory memory.
 It is the memory stored in the CNS for a brief time usually only
a fraction of a second.
 It is also called sensory register.
 Cns unable to store for a long tiome. It is slowly erased, this
process is called decaying of stored materials.
 In this type, memory remains in mind up to the use of material.
 The actual length of time an image exist in sensory storage
depends on the modality;
a. Iconic memory, stored about ¼ of a second to 1 second
b. Echoic memory lasts up to 3 seconds.
 In sensory memory, up to 16 materials can be adopted in
mind.
 When the memory are attended and recognized then transfer
into STM.

14. Types of memory
• STM
 It is developed from sensory memory through the process of attending
and recognizing them.
 STM is limited capacity store that can maintain information for
approximately 20-30 seconds.
 STM has capacity to store 5- 9 materials.
 The capacity of storing can increased by
i. Maintenance rehearsal
 It is repeating and practicing to increase the learning capacity, which
is transferred into STM
For example, if you are given a number to dial, you say the number over
and over so that you don’t forget it in the time it takes to hang up and
dial the number
 This process wont help to get the information into long term
memory but it will help to keep it in STM a little longer.
Ii Chunking
 STM seems to be divided into “slots”, to be precise. each one capable
of holding one piece of information.eg. The mobile no 9848721357
can be chunked in 4 groups: 98, 487, 21, 357, each chunk contain 2.-4
materials.

15. Types of memory
• LTM
The STM Is transferred into LTM.
LTM is unlimited capacity store that can hold
information over longer period of time.
It is what people usually have in mind when they
speak of memory.
LTM is unlimited store house of skills, vocabilary,
experiences, and knowledge about ourselves and
world around us.
LTM is unlimited capacity to store information for
minutes, days , months even years..
Psychologist have found that college students have
approximately 50,000 to 100, 000 words in LTM.

16. LTM
• Researchers commonly distinguish two types memory.
a) Declarative memory: it includes
 Episodic memory
i. It is information about events, people and places.
ii. It is the memory tied with particular time , place, and
circumstances( when . Wherea and how).
iii. It provides context.
iv. Attending class today, the vacation of last year are experiences
in our episodic memory.
v. They form mental diary of our experiences,
 Semantic memory.
i. It is the memory of knowledge of word meaning, language,
strategies of problem solving.
ii. In other words, it consist of general informations.
iii. It is the mental ability that is not tied with time and place.
iv. For example , what is worth of 100 rupee, what the word
conflict means etc.

17. LTM
b. Procedural memory
 It is basic type of LTM and primarily involve
rudimentary procedure and behaviour.
 For example, procedural memory include our
memory for eating, sitting in a chair.

18. Factors influencing memory
• Nature of subject learn (meaningful are retained better
than non-meaning learning.
• Amount of learning (The more same material is learned
the more chances of storing memory traces and retention)
• Method of learning ( selection of appropriate method can
help in retaining the learned material.)
• Age and health of learner.
• Intelligence of learner.
• Interest

19. Forgetting
• The term forgetting refers to the loss of informations already coded and
stored in LTM.
• It is a failure to retain what has been acquired.
• Forgetting isn’t really bad , and is in actually a pretty natural
phenomenon.
• Munn defined it as “forgetting is loss, permanent or temporary, of ability
to reacall or recognize something learned earlier”
• A/c to Bhatia “forgetting is failure of an individual to revive in
consciousness of an idea without the help of original stimulus”
• a/c to above definition, forgetting is loss or failure to recall the
previously learned materials.
• Those individuals which have good recalling capacity are called
intelligent or having good memory power.
• Those which are unable to do so are called less or poor memory power
or dull individuals
• Forgetting has both positive and negative consequences in life.

20. Types
• According one opinion, forgetting is classified as;
 Natural ( after large time gap , individual naturally forget the learned
material).
 Morbid / abnormal( some incidents tried the individual to forget).
• A/c to other psychologist opinion, is of two types;
 General forgetting (if all learned things are forgotten)
 Specific forgetting (is some part is only forget)
• a/c to other opinion. Forgetting is of two types;
 Physical forgetting (forgetting is due to physical defect in their body
structure by an accident abnormal , defective eye)
Psychological( forgetting due to mental defect such as neurotic
disorder)

21. Causes
• A/c to type and nature of memory, the individual
forgetting their earlier materials.
• The time gap, usefulness, use and dis use of
learning has direct effect on forgetting.
• Following are the causes;
Trace Decay theory.
 The informations are stored in the brain in the form of trace
called memory trace or neurogran or engram.
 They undergo higher development and take the shape of
permanent trace if are used regularly.
 If there is large time gap or dis used , they gradually diminish
and lastly disappear.
 It is the process of decay of trace
 Example

22. Causes
Interference
 In this one learning or memory is affected by other.
 It is caused on the account of negative inhibiting effect of
one learning experiences on another.
 Interfering effect of things previously learnt and retained
in our memory with the things of our recent memory can
work both ways , back ward and forward.
 It is of two parts,
RetroactRInformation being
learned currently
Informatio
n learned
previously
Information
being learned
currently
Informatio
n learned
previously
Retroactive interference proactive interference

23. Causes
• Proactive ( Forward action)
Information learned previously causes problem
with new information.
If students learn new language it is affected by
the language that had previously learned.
• Retroactive ( backward action)
New information cause recall problem with
previously learned information.
When one supposed to learn new formulae , it
affects earlier memory.
Similarly telephone number and old address

24. Causes
Retrieval based forgetting.
 The person has information but cant get to it.
 Information stored in LTM is not being accessed or
brought properly.
 However given enough time or cues , it is possible to
retrieve the information.
 Retrieval cues help to bring the information to mind at
times when it can not be re called spontaneously.
 Information sometimes gets into our brain and we
know it is there but we can not get out it.
 The information lie in the tip of tongue (TOT), but
without appropriate retrieval cues stored in LTM, it can
not recalled and forgetting occurs.
 This suggest that LTM is permanent since the
information is said to still in LTN and not lost.

25. Causes
 Storage based forgetting
 If information in LTM was distorted, alterd or changed and no
longer accessible when searching for what it “used to be” .
 The information can be retrieved but if only we look for it in its
new form.
 Motivated forgetting ( repression theory)
 It is forgetting for a reason.
 It is purposeful process of blocking information.
 This theory based on principle of Freud ( A renowned psycho
analysis).
 According to this theory, some incidents are deliberately tried to
forget them.
 This refers to the exclusion of unwanted thoughts from information.
 If they survive they can cause mental disorders.
 Eg., some persnal family incidents, man tried to forget them
forever.

26. Causes
 Amnesia
 It refers to the loss of memory.
 When people lose their ability to memorize data they have
amnesia.
 Amnesia also refers to an inability to recall information that is
stored in memory.
 The causes of amnesia may be organic or functional.
 Organic causes of amnesia may include brain damage
through injury, tumour, lack of oxygen, surgery for epilepsy,
or the use of specific drugs - usually sedative drugs.
 Amnesia may be one of the symptoms of some degenerative
brain diseases, such as Alzheimer's disease.
 Functional causes of amnesia are psychological factors
 It result from major disturbances in the process of encoding ,
storage and retrieval without any known brain problem

27. causes
• Types of amnesia
o Anterograde amnesia
 the patient cannot remember new information.
 Things that happened recently, information that should
be stored into short-term memory disappear.
 This is usually caused by brain trauma (brain damage from
a blow to the head, for example).
 However, a patient with anterograde amnesia can
remember data and events which happened before the
injury.
o Retrograde amnesia
 often thought of as the opposite of anterograde amnesia.
 The patient cannot remember events that occurred
before his/her trauma, but remembers things that
happened after it normally.

28. Amnesia
o Wernike-Korsakoff's psychosis
 this type of memory loss is caused by extended alcohol
abuse.
 the disorder tends to be progressive - it gradually gets worse
and worse over time.
 It can also be caused by malnutrition. It is linked to thiamin
deficiency.
o Traumatic amnesia
 memory loss caused by a hard blow to the head.
 People who lose their memory as the result of a car accident
may have traumatic amnesia.
 People with traumatic amnesia may experience a brief loss
of consciousness, or even go into a coma.
 In the majority of cases the amnesia is temporary - how long
it lasts usually depends on how severe the injury is

29. Amnesia
o Hysterical (fugue) amnesia
 this is a very rare phenomenon.
 Patients forget not only their past, but their very identity.
 A person could wake up and suddenly not have any sense at all of who
they are - even if they look in the mirror they do not recognize their own
reflection
o Childhood amnesia
 the patient cannot recall events from early childhood.
 Experts say this type of amnesia may be associated with language
development.
 Others say it is possible that some memory areas of the brain were not
fully mature during childhood
o Posthypnotic amnesia
 events during hypnosis cannot be recalled.
o Blackout phenomenon -
 Aamnesia caused by a bout of heavy drinking. The person cannot
remember chunks of time during his/her binge.

30. False memory
• False memory is the psychological phenomenon in which a person
recalls a memory that did not actually occur.
• "A false memory is a mental experience that is mistakenly taken to be a
veridical (truthful) representation of an event from one's personal
past.
• Memories can be false in relatively minor ways (e.g., believing one last
saw the keys in the kitchen when they were in the living room) and in
major ways that have profound implications for oneself and others
(e.g., mistakenly believing one is the originator of an idea or that one
was sexually abused as a child)."
(Johnson, M. K., 2001)
• These are distorted or fictitious memories of events that did not
happen.
• People confident completely about their memories but there is no
guarantee the particular memory is correct.
• As time goes on these memories become stronger and vivid and
incorporate into new information.
• False memory can also interfere with the formation new memory ,
causing recall entirely false.
• It goes with errors.

31. Causes
• The factors of false memory are
Misinformation
Misattributing the original source of
information, existing knowledge.
Day dreaming