CP wk 7
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This document discusses different types of memory including declarative and non-declarative memory. Declarative memory includes episodic memory for autobiographical experiences and semantic memory for general knowledge. Non-declarative memory includes procedural memory, classical conditioning, priming, and other forms of implicit learning. The hippocampus plays an important role in long-term memory consolidation while the prefrontal cortex is involved in retrieval and executive control processes related to memory. Forgetting can occur due to encoding failure, retrieval failure through interference or decay, or tip-of-the-tongue phenomena where retrieval cues are needed.
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Memory is the process of encoding, storing, and retrieving information over time. There are three main stages of memory: acquisition, storage, and retrieval. Sensory memory stores information briefly through iconic, echoic, and haptic systems. Short-term memory actively stores information for 20-30 seconds through rehearsal, while long-term memory stores information more permanently. Memory researchers study factors like encoding, interference, forgetting curves, and the differences between explicit and implicit memory.
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The document summarizes key concepts from Chapter 9 of Myers' Psychology textbook on the topic of memory. It discusses the different stages of memory including sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory. It also covers various processes involved with encoding, storing, and retrieving memories such as encoding through imagery and organization, interference effects that can lead to forgetting, and construction of memories over time. The chapter was written by James A. McCubbin from Clemson University for Worth Publishers.
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1Memory Tiffany Daniels, M.S. 1Let’s Start Wit
1
Memory
Tiffany Daniels, M.S.
1
Let’s Start With a Memory
Challenge
• I’m going to read you a grocery list. Use
whatever memory strategies that you
think will be most effective to memorize
the items. When I am done, write down
as many items as you can remember.
You do not have to remember them in
order.
2
Key Terms
• Memory - The retention of information
over time through the processes of
encoding, storage, & retrieval.
• Encoding - Process by which
information gets into memory storage
• Storage - Retention of information over
time and the representation of
information in memory.
• Retrieval - The memory process of
taking information out of storage.
3
Encoding
• Requires selective attention
• Divided attention - occurs when a person
must attend to several things at once
• Selective/Sustained attention (focusing on
one thing for a prolonged period of time) is
better than divided attention in terms of
retrieval
4
Encoding
• Levels of Processing Model (Craik &
Lockhart 1972)
• Shallow level: The sensory of physical
features are analyzed.
• Intermediate level: The stimulus is
recognized and given a label.
• Deepest level: Information is processed
semantically, in terms of meaning.
5
“All I see is a bunch of ink on
this page! I’m so zoned out, I’m
not even making out the words!”
“I am reading the words but
I don’t understand it. I keep
reading the same line over
and over!”
“Not only do I understand
what I just read, but I can
apply it to myself, create
examples, and even share
what I learned with a friend!”
6
2
Encoding
• An individual’s memories are better if he or
she uses the deepest processing level.
• Memories are also better if using
elaboration when encoding.
• Elaboration: extensiveness of processing
at any given level of memory.
• Self-references, generating examples, and
using imagery are better than simple rote
memorization
7
Encoding
• Flashcards are a type of rote memorization –
how effective are they in the long term?
• It is also important to be motivated to
remember
• How easy is it to encode, store, and retrieve
information for your least favorite class?
8
Memory Storage
• The Atkinson-Shiffrin Theory (1968)
• Storage involves 3 separate systems
• Sensory Memory: time frames of a fraction
of a second to several seconds
• Short-Term Memory (STM): time frames up
to 30 seconds
• Long Term Memory (LTM): time frames up
to a lifetime
9
Sensory Memory
• Includes:
• Iconic memory (visual sensory memory) -
we can remember things that quickly flash
before our eyes
• Echoic memory (auditory sensory memory)
- we can remember sounds after the fact,
even if we weren’t attending to them.
10
Short-Term Memory
• Capacity is 7 ± 2 (called “Miller’s Magical
Number)
• Means we can usually remember on
average, between 5-9 items in a list
(example: phone numbers, Social Sec. #)
• Can improve short-term memory by using
rehearsal and chunking.
11 ...
AQA AS Psychology Unit 1 Memory
The multi-store model proposes that information passes through sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory. Information not rehearsed is forgotten, while rehearsed information may be transferred to long-term memory for permanent storage. The working memory model expanded on this by including a central executive and separate stores for visual-spatial and phonological information. Both models have been influential but also face criticisms such as oversimplification.
Memory and its types
Memory
Nature and process of memory
Stages of memory ( sensory, short term , long term)
Types of memory
Improving memory
Eds 220 week 10 cognitive approach to learning
The document discusses cognitive approaches to learning, including the information processing model of memory. It describes how information moves from sensory registers to short term and long term memory through encoding, storage, and retrieval processes. It discusses strategies like chunking, rehearsal, and elaboration that can aid remembering. It also addresses forgetting through time decay and interference over short and long terms.
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CP wk 7
- 2. Long-Term Memory Declarative Memory (Explicit) Non-Declarative Memory (Implicit)
- 3. Declarative Memory (Explicit) Non-Declarative Memory (Implicit) Long-Term Memory Episodic Semantic Procedural Conditioning Priming Other
- 4. What is wrong with this depiction?
- 5. Photo A Photo B Mere exposure effect
- 6. ‘Explaining’ the Dissociation between Implicit & Explicit • Hypothesis 1: The different types of implicit learning all share a common learning mechanism. • Hypothesis 2: The only real commonality between the different types of implicit learning is the absence of episodic learning – Baddeley likes this view. – Episodic learning: a system that glues together events that we experience at the same time.
- 7. Declarative Memory Non-Declarative Memory Long-Term Memory Episodic Semantic Procedural Conditioning Priming Other
- 8. • Semantic memory – general information and knowledge. • Episodic memory – autobiographical memory related to a specific experience.
- 9. Declarative Memory Non-Declarative Memory Long-Term Memory Episodic Semantic Procedural Conditioning Priming Other
- 12. Episodic-like memory in scrub-jays
- 13. Plasticity revisited • taxi drivers had greater volume in the posterior hippocampus • but non taxi drivers had greater volume in the anterior hippocampus
- 14. H.M.
- 15. Amnesia • Retrograde loss of previous memories • Anterograde inability to form new memories
- 16. Mirror Drawing Test • Conscious awareness
- 19. How can we improve memory? • Elaboration – linking information at the time encoding • Thinking of examples
- 20. How can we improve memory? • Elaboration – linking information at the time encoding • Thinking of examples • Self-Referent Encoding – Making information personally meaningful
- 21. • Imagery To remember: “Monkey, briefcase, spiral, dentist” Enriching Encoding: Improving Memory
- 22. Distributed vs. Massed Practice Rate of learning a typing skill for a range of training schedules: (1 × 1 equals one session of 1 hour per day, 2 × 1 equals two such sessions, 1 × 2 is one session of 2 hours and 2 × 2 two 2-hour sessions.) Mirror tracing task •20 trials of learning • Massed • 1 min between trials • 1 day between trials
- 23. The Distributed Practice Effect Spaced presentation (i.e. study) enhances memory for a variety of materials Successfully testing yourself strengthens memories more than passively studying items Spacing Effect Generation Effect
- 24. Study & Retrieval Match • Encoding specificity • Transfer-appropriate processing
- 25. Forgetting If we remembered everything, we should on most occasions be as ill off as if we remembered nothing. William James
- 27. Testing the Rate of Learning • The Total Time Hypothesis: – The amount learned depends on the time spent learning • The Experiment: – Ebbinghaus learned a new list of syllables – 24 hours later, he determined how many additional trials he needed to relearn the list (called savings). • The more trials necessary, the worse his memory was. The Results: – Learning was linearly related to amount of study.
- 28. Encoding Failure
- 30. Baddeley Clayton Loftus Recall – Coming up with an item from scratch Cue Dependent Recall – Coming up with an item after a hint is given Recognition – Identifying an item from a list of items Types of Retrieval
- 31. Recognition vs Recall Retention • Retention – the proportion of material retained
- 32. Types of Retrieval Failure • Decay – Memory traces erode with the passage of time – No longer a valid theory of forgetting • Interference – Influenced by type of information
- 33. Interference theory • Forgetting is a result of some memories interfering with others – Proactive interference • Old memories interfere with ability to remember new memories – Retroactive interference • New memories interfere with ability to remember old memories – Interference is stronger when material is similar If you call your new girlfriend your old girlfriend’s name.
- 34. Retrieval Failure • The tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon (TOT) • Retrieval cues –Information associated with stored information that helps bring it to mind • False memories
- 35. Retrieval • Interestingly, trying to remember looks different from successfully remembering
- 36. Role of hippocampus in memory • Rats w/hippocampal lesions can’t perform radial maze task – no spatial memory • Alzheimer’s begins with severe hippocampal damage • Lesions in monkeys impair discrimination memory – Lesions impair declarative memory, not procedural memory • Lesions impair long-term memory storage, but short- term memory seems to be normal • Critical in the consolidation of LTM.
- 37. Role of the frontal cortex in memory • Evidence for this comes from Phineas Gage, Patient K.C., patients, & animal models. • Prefrontal cortex deteriorates in older age. Aged monkeys perform more poorly on many of the same tasks as do monkeys with prefrontal cortex damage.