Nowadays, water availability is a major limiting factor for development of agriculture in arid and semiarid areas. Under conditions of scarce water supply and drought, irrigation practices demand the maximum use of every drop of water to maximize water productivity for irrigated crops. A field experiment with a split-plot design was carried out to evaluate the combined effect of three furrow irrigation techniques and three irrigation levels treatments on maize grain yield and water productivity at Mekhoni Agricultural Research center (MeARC), Raya valley district. Irrigation was applied through furrows in three ways as the main plots: conventional furrow irrigation (CFI), alternate furrow irrigation (AFI), and fixed furrow irrigation (FFI). In CFI, irrigation was applied to every furrow at each irrigation event; in AFI irrigation was applied to alternate furrows which were dry in the preceding irrigation cycle, while in FFI, irrigation was applied to fixed furrows throughout the growing season. Each irrigation technique was further divided into three sub-irrigation treatments: two deficit irrigation levels 75% and 50% ETc and a control of 100% ETc as sub-plot were investigated. Results showed that maximum water productivity was obtained under the AFI system without a trade-off in grain yield and considerably save water. Hence, it is recommended as efficient irrigation technique in areas with limited water resources.
Growth and yield of tomato, Napier grass and sugarcane crops as influenced by...Premier Publishers
The effect of wastewater irrigation on plant growth and yield of tomato, Napier grass and sugarcane crops was compared with that of ground water irrigation. Treatments included untreated wastewater (UWW) treated wastewater (TWW) and ground water (GW) as control. The results obtained, plant height, number of fruits/plant, dry biomass g/plant and number of branches/plant of tomato (78.46 cm, 45.88, 15.49 and 11.41) and (75.13 cm, 41.48, 14.42 and 10.28) were significantly higher in the UWW and TWW compared to GW. The UWW and TWW irrigated Napier grass gave the highest growth and yield, compared to that of GW irrigation. Plant height, number of leaves/plant, leaf length, leaf width and number of tiller were 188.46 cm, 83.62, 93.62 cm, 2.52 and 13.2 in UWW and 182.68 cm, 69.75, 88.67cm, 2.29 and 10.39 in TWW and these are significantly higher as compared to that of GW irrigation. Wastewater irrigation of sugarcane increased cane length, number of nodes/cane, number of leaves, cane diameter and cane weight significantly as compared to control GW are 191.86 cm, 22.48, 39.3 and 2.30 cm in UWW and 149.4 cm, 20.54, 27.53 and 2.22 cm in TWW and compared to that of GW irrigation.
Comparing the performance of a home-made bottle drip to a commercial drip sys...Agriculture Journal IJOEAR
A study was conducted in which lettuce (Lactucasativa L.) was grown in a plot at the Faculty of Agriculture at Luyengo Campus of the University of Eswatini to compare three different irrigation methods on the production of marketable heads of lettuce. The performance of lettuce under a commercial drip tape was compared with a home-made bottle drip and a hand watering can as used typically by rural people in the country. The commercial drip had emitters discharging 2 liters per hour and therefore 2 liters per hour was applied with both the home-made bottle drip and the watering can during irrigation. The irrigation frequency was every after two days for all the treatments. The plot sizes were 1.5 m x 4.0 m and there were four replications per treatment. There were eighteen lettuce plants per plot. The lettuce was grown for a period of four weeks and then harvested whole. Yield parameters measured included the plant height (cm), leaf area index (LAI), root length (cm) and the fresh head mass (grams). Significant differences (P < 0.01) between treatments were obtained for fresh lettuce head mass and root length. The commercial drip treatment had largest fresh mass at 226.8 g. It was followed by bottle drip at 184.8 g. The control had the lowest yield at 165.3 g. There were no significant differences between treatments for plant height and leaf area index. It was concluded that the home-made bottle drip irrigation method could be recommended for rural people who cannot afford to buy the commercial drip system for the production of vegetables for household consumption.
Effects of different irrigation and fertilization treatments on growth and yi...Premier Publishers
The experiment was implemented during the autumn season 2013, to study the effect of three methods of irrigation and fertilization on the development and yield of the potato (Solanum tuberosum L.) cv Rivera. Two methods of drip irrigation (putting the pipe at the bottom and at the top of furrows) and furrow irrigation with three types of fertilizers (chemical fertilizer at rate of 300 kg urea, 180 kg superphosphate triple, 240 kg potassium sulphate per hectare) and organic fertilizer at 30 kg.100 m2 -1 with half amount of the chemical fertilizers mentioned. The organic fertilizers were added in two ways: by scattering dry fertilizer and irrigation with fertilizer solution near plant roots. Results showed that the highest total water content of leaves was 86.665%, leaf area 2285 cm2, roots dry weight 13.60 g., average tuber weight 69.56 g., and the percentage of dry matter in tubers 19.26% was produced from applying organic fertilizer by irrigation, whereas the highest total tubers yield was 16.345 tons.ha-1 and water use efficiency 9.855 kg. ha-1 resulted from organic fertilizer by scattering method, also the treatment of drip irrigation by putting the pipe at the top of the furrows was superior in all studied parameters except the average tuber weight and total soluble solids compared with the other two treatments.
Growth and yield of tomato, Napier grass and sugarcane crops as influenced by...Premier Publishers
The effect of wastewater irrigation on plant growth and yield of tomato, Napier grass and sugarcane crops was compared with that of ground water irrigation. Treatments included untreated wastewater (UWW) treated wastewater (TWW) and ground water (GW) as control. The results obtained, plant height, number of fruits/plant, dry biomass g/plant and number of branches/plant of tomato (78.46 cm, 45.88, 15.49 and 11.41) and (75.13 cm, 41.48, 14.42 and 10.28) were significantly higher in the UWW and TWW compared to GW. The UWW and TWW irrigated Napier grass gave the highest growth and yield, compared to that of GW irrigation. Plant height, number of leaves/plant, leaf length, leaf width and number of tiller were 188.46 cm, 83.62, 93.62 cm, 2.52 and 13.2 in UWW and 182.68 cm, 69.75, 88.67cm, 2.29 and 10.39 in TWW and these are significantly higher as compared to that of GW irrigation. Wastewater irrigation of sugarcane increased cane length, number of nodes/cane, number of leaves, cane diameter and cane weight significantly as compared to control GW are 191.86 cm, 22.48, 39.3 and 2.30 cm in UWW and 149.4 cm, 20.54, 27.53 and 2.22 cm in TWW and compared to that of GW irrigation.
Comparing the performance of a home-made bottle drip to a commercial drip sys...Agriculture Journal IJOEAR
A study was conducted in which lettuce (Lactucasativa L.) was grown in a plot at the Faculty of Agriculture at Luyengo Campus of the University of Eswatini to compare three different irrigation methods on the production of marketable heads of lettuce. The performance of lettuce under a commercial drip tape was compared with a home-made bottle drip and a hand watering can as used typically by rural people in the country. The commercial drip had emitters discharging 2 liters per hour and therefore 2 liters per hour was applied with both the home-made bottle drip and the watering can during irrigation. The irrigation frequency was every after two days for all the treatments. The plot sizes were 1.5 m x 4.0 m and there were four replications per treatment. There were eighteen lettuce plants per plot. The lettuce was grown for a period of four weeks and then harvested whole. Yield parameters measured included the plant height (cm), leaf area index (LAI), root length (cm) and the fresh head mass (grams). Significant differences (P < 0.01) between treatments were obtained for fresh lettuce head mass and root length. The commercial drip treatment had largest fresh mass at 226.8 g. It was followed by bottle drip at 184.8 g. The control had the lowest yield at 165.3 g. There were no significant differences between treatments for plant height and leaf area index. It was concluded that the home-made bottle drip irrigation method could be recommended for rural people who cannot afford to buy the commercial drip system for the production of vegetables for household consumption.
Effects of different irrigation and fertilization treatments on growth and yi...Premier Publishers
The experiment was implemented during the autumn season 2013, to study the effect of three methods of irrigation and fertilization on the development and yield of the potato (Solanum tuberosum L.) cv Rivera. Two methods of drip irrigation (putting the pipe at the bottom and at the top of furrows) and furrow irrigation with three types of fertilizers (chemical fertilizer at rate of 300 kg urea, 180 kg superphosphate triple, 240 kg potassium sulphate per hectare) and organic fertilizer at 30 kg.100 m2 -1 with half amount of the chemical fertilizers mentioned. The organic fertilizers were added in two ways: by scattering dry fertilizer and irrigation with fertilizer solution near plant roots. Results showed that the highest total water content of leaves was 86.665%, leaf area 2285 cm2, roots dry weight 13.60 g., average tuber weight 69.56 g., and the percentage of dry matter in tubers 19.26% was produced from applying organic fertilizer by irrigation, whereas the highest total tubers yield was 16.345 tons.ha-1 and water use efficiency 9.855 kg. ha-1 resulted from organic fertilizer by scattering method, also the treatment of drip irrigation by putting the pipe at the top of the furrows was superior in all studied parameters except the average tuber weight and total soluble solids compared with the other two treatments.
Farmer access to irrigation scheduling advice leads to sustainable intensific...africa-rising
Poster prepared by Petra Schmitter, Fitsum Hagos, Desalegn Tegegne, Aberra Adie, Tesema Tamirat, Frederick Boudron, Michael Blummel, Aster Gebrikirstos, Amare Haileslassie, Nicole Lefore and Jennie Barron for the Africa RISING Ethiopia Review and Planning Meeting, Addis Ababa, 29-30 November 2016
Landscape natural resources management using forage grasses and legume interc...africa-rising
Poster prepared by F. Kizito, J. Kihara, B. Lukuyu, G. Sikumba, S. Lyimo, L. Yangole and I. Ibrahim for the Africa RISING Science for Impact Workshop, Dar es Salaam, 17-19 January 2017
Studies on Canal Water Supply, Total Water Availability, Water Demand and Water Utilization Pattern in Khetawali Distributory of Indira Gandhi Nahar Pariyojana
http://www.fao.org/agroecology/en/
Presentation held by Professor Long Li, a visiting expert from China Agricultural University to FAO. He presented an overview of agroecology in China, including Policies, Practices and Science.
T5: Supplemental irrigation: Case of Tadla region in MoroccoFAO
Supplemental irrigation: Case of Tadla region in Morocco, By Mohammed Karrou, Land and Water Days in Near East & North Africa, 15-18 December 2013, Amman, Jordan
Maize Phenology and Crop Stand in Response to Mulching and Furrow Irrigation ...Premier Publishers
The field experiment was conducted to investigate the effects of mulching materials and furrow irrigation methods on phenology and crop stand of maize at Werer, Middle Awash Valley of Ethiopia during 2017/18 cool cropping season. Split plot design with three replications, in which the irrigation methods (Conventional, Fixed and Alternate Furrow) were assigned to main plot and the three mulching materials (plastic, straw and no mulch), were to the sub-plot. Result showed that maize phenology and crop stand was affected by different furrow irrigation methods and mulching materials. But interaction of irrigation methods and mulch had no significant effect on maize phenology and crop stand except days to phenological maturity. Conventional furrow irrigation took less days to emergence (8.4 days) and tasseling (66.67 days). Plastic mulch took less day to emergence (6.9 days), tasseling (62.67 days) and silking (69 days) respectively. Physiological maturity (114.3 days) arrived earlier in fixed furrow with plastic mulch. The conventional furrow irrigation (29600ha-1) and white plastic mulch (29956ha-1) resulted in the maximum maize stand. In conclusion, conventional furrow irrigation and plastic mulching had improved phenological stages and maize crop stand at Werer and other similar agro ecology.
Response of Hot Pepper (Capsicum Annuum L.) to Deficit Irrigation in Bennatse...Premier Publishers
This study was conducted at Enchete kebele in Benna-Tsemay Woreda, South Omo Zone to evaluate the response of hot pepper to deficit irrigation on yield and water productivity under furrow irrigation system. The experiment comprised four treatments (100 % of ETc, 85% of ETc, 70 % of ETc and 50% of ETc), respectively. The experiment was laid out in RCBD and replicated four times. The two years combined yield results indicated that, the maximum total yield (20.38 t/ha) was obtained from 100% ETc while minimum yield (12.92 t/ha) was obtained from 50% of ETc deficit irrigation level. The highest WUE 5.22 kg/ha mm-1 was obtained from 50% of ETc. Treatment of 100% ETc irrigation application had highest benefit cost ratio (4.5) than all others treatments. Applying 50% of ETc reduce the yield by 37% when compared to 100 % ETc. Accordingly, to achieve maximum hot pepper yield in areas where water is not scarce, applying 100% ETc irrigation water application level throughout whole growing season under furrow irrigation system is recommended. But, in the study area water scarcity is the major limiting factor for crop production. So, it is possible to get better yield and water productivity of hot pepper when we apply 85% ETc irrigation water throughout growing season under furrow irrigation system.
Determination of Arid and Temperature Resistant Sweet Corn (Zea mays sacchara...Agriculture Journal IJOEAR
The objective of the present study is to identify aridity and temperature resistant sweet corn variety candidates and to provide resource material for development of new hybrid varieties. The research was designed as three-peat random blocks experimental design in Siirt and Sakarya locations in 2014, and irrigation application was conducted with drip irrigation method. Mean plant water consumption in control (I100) was 808 mm and 633 mm in Siirt and Sakarya, and the mean irrigation water amount was 684 mm and 138 mm, respectively. The statistical significances of differences among soil moisture content, chlorophyll-meter value, crop water stress index, fresh corncob, and grain yield were investigated. The arid and temperature resistant sweet corn line was determined according to soil moisture content, chlorophyll-meter value, and crop water stress index. The most arid and temperature resistant corn line, variety line #2, had the lowest moisture content and crop water stress index value but the highest chlorophyll-meter value. We found that to determine the arid and temperature resistant corn lines, soil moisture content values can also be used together with chlorophyll-meter values and crop water stress index.
Evaluating Plantmate organic manure and prime EC foliar on plant performance ...Innspub Net
Trials for the effectiveness of Plantmate organic manure and Prime EC Foliar Plant Food for increased yields for selected crops were done in five different Agro-ecological zones and soil types, in Kenya. The approach was executed through controlled greenhouse experiment and in the field. The trials data obtained indicated Plantmate organic manure and Prime EC Foliar Plant Food in combination with half the rate of recommended inorganic fertilizer performed significantly (p<0.05) better than all other treatments. Thus, plots treated with Plantmate organic manure and Prime EC Foliar Plant Food gave higher yields in common beans, French beans, maize, onions, cabbages, capsicum with percentages exceeding 100 compared to the control in most cases. In many soils fertilizers are fixed and rendered insoluble under certain soil conditions such as soil pH. The Plantmate organic manure and Prime EC Foliar Plant Food ameliorated the soil conditions as it interacted with inorganic fertilizer thus increasing its use efficiency by crops. Plantmate organic manure and Prime EC Foliar Plant Food not only increased soil chemical fertility but also improves water use efficiency at low matric potential and generally improves plant vigor and soil health.
Analytical Approach to Recycle the Vegetable and Fruit Waste into Feedijtsrd
The worlds population is projected to grow from about 7.7 billion in 2019 to 9.6 billion people by 2050. More than half of this growth is expected in Sub Saharan Africa SSA China and India. In addition to population growth, per capita meat and milk consumption is also growing, especially in China and India. As the cities are urbanizing and population is migrating in search of better living standards there is double impulse for food in these magnets of growth. In food the demand of fruits and vegetables as well as dairy and meat products is increased gradually in last decade which correspondingly lead to the demand of feed for animals. In this research paper we are presenting a mechanism to convert the vegetable and fruit waste into animal feed by designed feed making machine and its impact on environment in terms of fewer quanta discarded to dumping yard and less production of methane emission due to fruit and vegetable waste. And the scope of recycling the waste will be assessed on pigsty in Pune. Anuja Padole | Abhay Shelar ""Analytical Approach to Recycle the Vegetable and Fruit Waste into Feed"" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-3 | Issue-4 , June 2019, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd24033.pdf
Paper URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/engineering/environment-engineering/24033/analytical-approach-to-recycle-the-vegetable-and-fruit-waste-into-feed/anuja-padole
Response of Maize (Zea mays L.) for Moisture Stress Condition at Different Gr...paperpublications3
Abstract: A field experiment was conducted for two consecutive seasons (2011/12 and 2012/13) at Koka Research Station of Wondo Genet Agricultural Research Center, Ethiopia8°26’ N latitude, 39°2’ E longitude and 1602masl altitude with the objective to identify maize growth stages sensitive to soil moisture stress, determine critical time for irrigation application for limited water resources and productivity of water. Fifteen treatments was used depriving irrigation on combination of four growth stages of maize (Zea maize L.) Variety Melkass-II. Randomized completely block design (RCBD) with three replication was used. Results indicated that both years plant height, 1000 seed weight, above ground biomass, grain yield and water use efficiency (WUE) were significantly (p<0.001)><0.01)><0.05).><0.001)><0.05) affected. The study had shown that during both the first and second year maximum grain yield (9253kg/ha and 11748kg/ha) was obtained due to stressing maize only at initial stage enhance grain yield which indicated that stressing moisture only at initial stage enhance grain yield. Moisture stress at mid-season should be avoided especially when combined with moisture stress at development stage. Moreover, moisture stress at initial and late seasons enhance water use efficiency without significantly reducing the yield from the higher yielding treatments.
Keywords: Depriving irrigation, growth stages, maize, moisture stress.
Productivity and quality of sugar beet as affecting by sowing and irrigation ...Innspub Net
Two field experiments were carried out at Kalabsho Experimental Farm, Dakahlia Governorate, Sugar Crops Research Institute, Agricultural Research Center, Egypt, during 2014/2015 and 2015/2016 seasons to study the effect of sowing methods (mechanical and manual methods), irrigation methods (surface and drip irrigation system) and hill spacings (10, 15 and 20cm between hills) on yield and its components, as well as quality of sugar beet cv. Hossam as a multigerm variety under sandy soil conditions. The obtained results could be summarized as follows; the optimum sowing method that produced the highest values of yield and its components as well as root quality parameters was mechanical sowing method (planter machine) in both seasons. Irrigation sugar beet plants by using drip irrigation system yielded the highest values of yield and its components as well as root quality parameters and followed by using surface flooding irrigation system in both seasons. Planting sugar beet seeds on one side of the ridge, 60cm width, and 20cm between hills, resulting plant population density 35000 plants/fed produced, the highest values of yield and its components and root quality parameters and followed by planting on 15cm between hills, resulting plant population density 46666 plants/fed and finally planting on 10cm between hills, resulting plant population density 70000 plants/fed in the two seasons. From the obtained data in this study, it can be concluded that sowing sugar beet using mechanical sowing method (planter machine), irrigation by using drip irrigation system and planting on one side of the ridge, 60cm width, and 20cm between hills, resulting plant population density 35000 plants/fed in order to maximizing its productivity and quality under the environmental conditions of sandy soil in Kalabsho region, Dakahlia Governorate, Egypt.
Farmer access to irrigation scheduling advice leads to sustainable intensific...africa-rising
Poster prepared by Petra Schmitter, Fitsum Hagos, Desalegn Tegegne, Aberra Adie, Tesema Tamirat, Frederick Boudron, Michael Blummel, Aster Gebrikirstos, Amare Haileslassie, Nicole Lefore and Jennie Barron for the Africa RISING Ethiopia Review and Planning Meeting, Addis Ababa, 29-30 November 2016
Landscape natural resources management using forage grasses and legume interc...africa-rising
Poster prepared by F. Kizito, J. Kihara, B. Lukuyu, G. Sikumba, S. Lyimo, L. Yangole and I. Ibrahim for the Africa RISING Science for Impact Workshop, Dar es Salaam, 17-19 January 2017
Studies on Canal Water Supply, Total Water Availability, Water Demand and Water Utilization Pattern in Khetawali Distributory of Indira Gandhi Nahar Pariyojana
http://www.fao.org/agroecology/en/
Presentation held by Professor Long Li, a visiting expert from China Agricultural University to FAO. He presented an overview of agroecology in China, including Policies, Practices and Science.
T5: Supplemental irrigation: Case of Tadla region in MoroccoFAO
Supplemental irrigation: Case of Tadla region in Morocco, By Mohammed Karrou, Land and Water Days in Near East & North Africa, 15-18 December 2013, Amman, Jordan
Maize Phenology and Crop Stand in Response to Mulching and Furrow Irrigation ...Premier Publishers
The field experiment was conducted to investigate the effects of mulching materials and furrow irrigation methods on phenology and crop stand of maize at Werer, Middle Awash Valley of Ethiopia during 2017/18 cool cropping season. Split plot design with three replications, in which the irrigation methods (Conventional, Fixed and Alternate Furrow) were assigned to main plot and the three mulching materials (plastic, straw and no mulch), were to the sub-plot. Result showed that maize phenology and crop stand was affected by different furrow irrigation methods and mulching materials. But interaction of irrigation methods and mulch had no significant effect on maize phenology and crop stand except days to phenological maturity. Conventional furrow irrigation took less days to emergence (8.4 days) and tasseling (66.67 days). Plastic mulch took less day to emergence (6.9 days), tasseling (62.67 days) and silking (69 days) respectively. Physiological maturity (114.3 days) arrived earlier in fixed furrow with plastic mulch. The conventional furrow irrigation (29600ha-1) and white plastic mulch (29956ha-1) resulted in the maximum maize stand. In conclusion, conventional furrow irrigation and plastic mulching had improved phenological stages and maize crop stand at Werer and other similar agro ecology.
Response of Hot Pepper (Capsicum Annuum L.) to Deficit Irrigation in Bennatse...Premier Publishers
This study was conducted at Enchete kebele in Benna-Tsemay Woreda, South Omo Zone to evaluate the response of hot pepper to deficit irrigation on yield and water productivity under furrow irrigation system. The experiment comprised four treatments (100 % of ETc, 85% of ETc, 70 % of ETc and 50% of ETc), respectively. The experiment was laid out in RCBD and replicated four times. The two years combined yield results indicated that, the maximum total yield (20.38 t/ha) was obtained from 100% ETc while minimum yield (12.92 t/ha) was obtained from 50% of ETc deficit irrigation level. The highest WUE 5.22 kg/ha mm-1 was obtained from 50% of ETc. Treatment of 100% ETc irrigation application had highest benefit cost ratio (4.5) than all others treatments. Applying 50% of ETc reduce the yield by 37% when compared to 100 % ETc. Accordingly, to achieve maximum hot pepper yield in areas where water is not scarce, applying 100% ETc irrigation water application level throughout whole growing season under furrow irrigation system is recommended. But, in the study area water scarcity is the major limiting factor for crop production. So, it is possible to get better yield and water productivity of hot pepper when we apply 85% ETc irrigation water throughout growing season under furrow irrigation system.
Determination of Arid and Temperature Resistant Sweet Corn (Zea mays sacchara...Agriculture Journal IJOEAR
The objective of the present study is to identify aridity and temperature resistant sweet corn variety candidates and to provide resource material for development of new hybrid varieties. The research was designed as three-peat random blocks experimental design in Siirt and Sakarya locations in 2014, and irrigation application was conducted with drip irrigation method. Mean plant water consumption in control (I100) was 808 mm and 633 mm in Siirt and Sakarya, and the mean irrigation water amount was 684 mm and 138 mm, respectively. The statistical significances of differences among soil moisture content, chlorophyll-meter value, crop water stress index, fresh corncob, and grain yield were investigated. The arid and temperature resistant sweet corn line was determined according to soil moisture content, chlorophyll-meter value, and crop water stress index. The most arid and temperature resistant corn line, variety line #2, had the lowest moisture content and crop water stress index value but the highest chlorophyll-meter value. We found that to determine the arid and temperature resistant corn lines, soil moisture content values can also be used together with chlorophyll-meter values and crop water stress index.
Evaluating Plantmate organic manure and prime EC foliar on plant performance ...Innspub Net
Trials for the effectiveness of Plantmate organic manure and Prime EC Foliar Plant Food for increased yields for selected crops were done in five different Agro-ecological zones and soil types, in Kenya. The approach was executed through controlled greenhouse experiment and in the field. The trials data obtained indicated Plantmate organic manure and Prime EC Foliar Plant Food in combination with half the rate of recommended inorganic fertilizer performed significantly (p<0.05) better than all other treatments. Thus, plots treated with Plantmate organic manure and Prime EC Foliar Plant Food gave higher yields in common beans, French beans, maize, onions, cabbages, capsicum with percentages exceeding 100 compared to the control in most cases. In many soils fertilizers are fixed and rendered insoluble under certain soil conditions such as soil pH. The Plantmate organic manure and Prime EC Foliar Plant Food ameliorated the soil conditions as it interacted with inorganic fertilizer thus increasing its use efficiency by crops. Plantmate organic manure and Prime EC Foliar Plant Food not only increased soil chemical fertility but also improves water use efficiency at low matric potential and generally improves plant vigor and soil health.
Analytical Approach to Recycle the Vegetable and Fruit Waste into Feedijtsrd
The worlds population is projected to grow from about 7.7 billion in 2019 to 9.6 billion people by 2050. More than half of this growth is expected in Sub Saharan Africa SSA China and India. In addition to population growth, per capita meat and milk consumption is also growing, especially in China and India. As the cities are urbanizing and population is migrating in search of better living standards there is double impulse for food in these magnets of growth. In food the demand of fruits and vegetables as well as dairy and meat products is increased gradually in last decade which correspondingly lead to the demand of feed for animals. In this research paper we are presenting a mechanism to convert the vegetable and fruit waste into animal feed by designed feed making machine and its impact on environment in terms of fewer quanta discarded to dumping yard and less production of methane emission due to fruit and vegetable waste. And the scope of recycling the waste will be assessed on pigsty in Pune. Anuja Padole | Abhay Shelar ""Analytical Approach to Recycle the Vegetable and Fruit Waste into Feed"" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-3 | Issue-4 , June 2019, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd24033.pdf
Paper URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/engineering/environment-engineering/24033/analytical-approach-to-recycle-the-vegetable-and-fruit-waste-into-feed/anuja-padole
Response of Maize (Zea mays L.) for Moisture Stress Condition at Different Gr...paperpublications3
Abstract: A field experiment was conducted for two consecutive seasons (2011/12 and 2012/13) at Koka Research Station of Wondo Genet Agricultural Research Center, Ethiopia8°26’ N latitude, 39°2’ E longitude and 1602masl altitude with the objective to identify maize growth stages sensitive to soil moisture stress, determine critical time for irrigation application for limited water resources and productivity of water. Fifteen treatments was used depriving irrigation on combination of four growth stages of maize (Zea maize L.) Variety Melkass-II. Randomized completely block design (RCBD) with three replication was used. Results indicated that both years plant height, 1000 seed weight, above ground biomass, grain yield and water use efficiency (WUE) were significantly (p<0.001)><0.01)><0.05).><0.001)><0.05) affected. The study had shown that during both the first and second year maximum grain yield (9253kg/ha and 11748kg/ha) was obtained due to stressing maize only at initial stage enhance grain yield which indicated that stressing moisture only at initial stage enhance grain yield. Moisture stress at mid-season should be avoided especially when combined with moisture stress at development stage. Moreover, moisture stress at initial and late seasons enhance water use efficiency without significantly reducing the yield from the higher yielding treatments.
Keywords: Depriving irrigation, growth stages, maize, moisture stress.
Productivity and quality of sugar beet as affecting by sowing and irrigation ...Innspub Net
Two field experiments were carried out at Kalabsho Experimental Farm, Dakahlia Governorate, Sugar Crops Research Institute, Agricultural Research Center, Egypt, during 2014/2015 and 2015/2016 seasons to study the effect of sowing methods (mechanical and manual methods), irrigation methods (surface and drip irrigation system) and hill spacings (10, 15 and 20cm between hills) on yield and its components, as well as quality of sugar beet cv. Hossam as a multigerm variety under sandy soil conditions. The obtained results could be summarized as follows; the optimum sowing method that produced the highest values of yield and its components as well as root quality parameters was mechanical sowing method (planter machine) in both seasons. Irrigation sugar beet plants by using drip irrigation system yielded the highest values of yield and its components as well as root quality parameters and followed by using surface flooding irrigation system in both seasons. Planting sugar beet seeds on one side of the ridge, 60cm width, and 20cm between hills, resulting plant population density 35000 plants/fed produced, the highest values of yield and its components and root quality parameters and followed by planting on 15cm between hills, resulting plant population density 46666 plants/fed and finally planting on 10cm between hills, resulting plant population density 70000 plants/fed in the two seasons. From the obtained data in this study, it can be concluded that sowing sugar beet using mechanical sowing method (planter machine), irrigation by using drip irrigation system and planting on one side of the ridge, 60cm width, and 20cm between hills, resulting plant population density 35000 plants/fed in order to maximizing its productivity and quality under the environmental conditions of sandy soil in Kalabsho region, Dakahlia Governorate, Egypt.
Aspects for Agricultural Water Management in Water Stress Conditions: Case St...Agriculture Journal IJOEAR
The major aim of the study was to propose sustainable agro-water management strategies, particularly for water poor-ecologies. In current work, information was obtained from worldwide previous findings of studies relevant to the water management. In order to maximize water productivity in those environments exposing climate changes following applicable suggestions were presented: changing crop pattern in accordance of available current water resources, increasing utilization areas in favor of modern irrigation systems, if possible converting of water delivery networks to pipe systems, improving share of low water consuming crops in current crop patterns, practicing deficit irrigation program, collecting water charges based on volumetric basis, more uses of rainwater harvesting systems, training of farmers about irrigated agriculture, and if possible transferring some water from neighbor basins to irrigation farms.
Spearmint (Mentha spicata L.) Response to Deficit Irrigationpaperpublications3
Abstract: An experiment was conducted with the objective to identify the level of deficit irrigation which allows achieving optimal yield and investigate the effect of deficit irrigation practice on spearmint (Mentha Spicata L.) yield and yield components. The experiment was conducted at Koka research station of Wondo Genet Agricultural Research Center, Ethiopia latitude 8O26’, longitude 39O2’ and altitude 1602masl for two years (2011/2012 and 2012/2013 dry season). Nine treatments three level of irrigation water amount percentage based on evapo-transpiration of the crop (ETc) (100%ETc, 75%ETc and 50%ETc) and three types of furrow irrigation water application method (alternate furrow, fixed furrow and conventional furrow) were used in randomized completely block design (RCBD) with three replications. The pooled mean of two year data showed different level of deficit irrigation had a significant effect (p<0.05)><0.01) variation among treatments due to deficit irrigation on dry biomass yield per hectare, dry leaf yield per hectare, essential oil yield per hectare and water use efficiency. However, different deficit irrigation level had no significant influence on wet harvesting index. The highest fresh biomass, dry biomass, fresh leaf, dry leaf and essential oil yield per harvesting cycle of 12093kg/ha, 3746kg/ha, 8133kg/ha, 2441.1kg/ha and 37.0kg/ha respectively was obtained due to 100%ETc with conventional furrow application method. Moreover, the highest water use efficiency of 16.3x10-3kg/m3 was achieved due to deficit irrigation to 50%ETc with alternate furrow irrigation water application method. The study showed that the best treatment is deficit irrigation to 50%ETc with conventional furrow application method which had no significant variation with treatments that showed higher yields of spearmint including water use efficiency.
Spearmint (Mentha spicata L.) Response to Deficit Irrigationpaperpublications3
Abstract: An experiment was conducted with the objective to identify the level of deficit irrigation which allows achieving optimal yield and investigate the effect of deficit irrigation practice on spearmint (Mentha Spicata L.) yield and yield components. The experiment was conducted at Koka research station of Wondo Genet Agricultural Research Center, Ethiopia latitude 8O26’, longitude 39O2’ and altitude 1602masl for two years (2011/2012 and 2012/2013 dry season). Nine treatments three level of irrigation water amount percentage based on evapo-transpiration of the crop (ETc) (100%ETc, 75%ETc and 50%ETc) and three types of furrow irrigation water application method (alternate furrow, fixed furrow and conventional furrow) were used in randomized completely block design (RCBD) with three replications. The pooled mean of two year data showed different level of deficit irrigation had a significant effect (p<0.05)><0.01) variation among treatments due to deficit irrigation on dry biomass yield per hectare, dry leaf yield per hectare, essential oil yield per hectare and water use efficiency. However, different deficit irrigation level had no significant influence on wet harvesting index. The highest fresh biomass, dry biomass, fresh leaf, dry leaf and essential oil yield per harvesting cycle of 12093kg/ha, 3746kg/ha, 8133kg/ha, 2441.1kg/ha and 37.0kg/ha respectively was obtained due to 100%ETc with conventional furrow application method. Moreover, the highest water use efficiency of 16.3x10-3kg/m3 was achieved due to deficit irrigation to 50%ETc with alternate furrow irrigation water application method. The study showed that the best treatment is deficit irrigation to 50%ETc with conventional furrow application method which had no significant variation with treatments that showed higher yields of spearmint including water use efficiency.
Keywords: Alternate furrow, conventional furrow, deficit irrigation, fixed furrow, spearmint.
Effect of Deficit Irrigation on Yield and Water Productivity of Onion (Allium...Premier Publishers
The field experiment was conducted in Bennatsemay Woreda, Enchete kebele during 2018 season with objective of investigating the effect of deficit irrigation on yield and water productivity of onion under conventional furrow irrigation system. Six treatments (T1=100% ETc, T2=85% ETc, T3=70% ETc, T4=50% ETc, T5=100% ETc Is, 85% ETc Ds, 70% ETc Ms, 50% ETc Ls and T6=85% ETc Is, 70% ETc Ds, 50% ETc Ms, 0% ETc Ls) were imposed on onion (Allium cepa L.) and laid out in randomized complete block design (RCBD) with four replications. Results indicated that the different deficit irrigation levels had highly significant (p < 0.01) effect on vegetative growth, yield, yield components and water use efficiency of onion. The highest bulb yield of 21.3 t/ha were obtained from T1 which was significantly different to all other treatments while yield from T6 (12.86 t/ha) was recorded as the lowest one. Similarly, the highest IWUE (2.41 kg/m3) and CWUE (4.02 kg/m3) were obtained from T6. However, at T4 and T6 high yield reduction was recorded which may not be attractive for producers. Therefore, it could be concluded that increased water saving and water productivity through irrigation at 70% ETc deficit irrigation level under conventional furrow irrigation system can solve the problem of water shortage and would ensure the opportunity of further irrigation development in the study area and similar agro-ecology.
Water Use Efficiency in Plants by Soumique Ahamed.pdfSOUMIQUE AHAMED
Water Use Efficiency in Plants by Soumique Ahamed, Division of Agronomy, Faculty of Agriculture - Wadura, Sher-e-Kashmir University of Agricultural Sciences and Technology of Kashmir.
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Mean water balance dynamics and smallholder management options for improved a...africa-rising
Poster prepared by F. Kizito, E. Salifu, W. Agyare and Cofie, O for the Africa RISING West Africa Review and Planning Meeting, Accra, 1-2 February 2017
Karkheh Basin Focal Project: Synthesis of approach, findings and lessons. Poolad Karimi on behalf of the BFP1 team 2nd International Forum on Water & Food Addis Ababa, Ethiopia November 2008
Rainwater harvesting (RWH) considering as a technique system is being exploited of the variance topographic nature of the earth's surface, such as the use of valleys, depressions and oases , or through the berms or small dams from stone or cisterns building , to collect then reserve and store rainwater and floods during winter periods in various ways that differs in the purpose of collecting them depending on their rainfall rates and reuse when needed, whether for drinking, supplementary agricultural irrigation or to feed groundwater. Iraq in general and Nineveh Governorate in particular have been experiencing severe environmental conditions in the past two years, (2020/2021) & (2021/2022), and the most important of which is the rainfall lowing and the increasing demographic growth offset by significant water consumption, so as to ensure continued food production, increased irrigation projects have become urgent. Iraq is one of the countries that suffers from water scarcity in general and the amount of rainfall ranges (99.8 billion cubic meters/year) fluctuating and irregular distribution, so it requires investing this quantity and managing its use rationally by the system of rainwater harvesting .Northern of Iraq, including Nineveh Governorate is characterize by cereal winter crops production by depends mainly on rain fall to produce winter crops such as Wheat and Barley by rainfed agriculture method with rain requirements of more than (400mm/year), the rate of rainfall for a period (1970-2011) reached (170.3 mm/year).The rainy season in Nineveh Governorate extends from November to the end of May with fluctuating falls and small amounts that do not meet the needs of agricultural crops. This current study was prepared to activate the potential for harvesting rainwater for agricultural uses in the rain-fed areas prevailing in Nineveh Governorate. The agricultural system in semi-dry areas, including Nineveh Governorate, suffers from drought due to lack of rain and lack of yield in winter crops, including wheat and barley, which attracts the attention of researchers and stakeholders in finding a strategic solution to this problem, which lies in the activation of rainwater harvesting techniques, which is an integrated system for water management in rain lands in semi-dry areas to meet the lack of water need for agricultural crops. This system includes facilitating the flow of rainwater through canyons according to the decline of the land towards depressions, valleys and water basins prepared for this purpose to conduct supplementary irrigation with sprinkler irrigation techniques to activate the productivity of agricultural crops ,improve the performance capacity of rainfed farming systems, sustain green cover, reduce biodiversity extinction and address the problem of environmental drought to achieve agricultural sustainability.
Integrated Effect of Mulching Materials and Furrow Irrigation Methods on Yiel...Premier Publishers
A field experiment was conducted at Werer, Middle Awash Valley during the dry season of the 2016-17, 2017-18 and 2018-19 to investigate the effects of mulching materials and furrow irrigation methods on onion yield and water productivity under semi-arid conditions. Split plot design with three replications, in which the irrigation methods (Conventional, Fixed and Alternate Furrow) were assigned to the main plot and the three mulching materials (no mulch, wheat straw and white plastic mulch), were to the sub-plot. Results indicate that marketable onion bulb yield and water use efficiency were affected by the main effect of furrow irrigation methods and mulching materials (p< 0.05). But the interaction of irrigation methods and mulch had no significant effect on marketable onion bulb yield and water use efficiency. The conventional furrow irrigation (10081.52kg ha-1) and wheat straw mulch (12121.63 kg ha-1) resulted in the maximum marketable bulb yield. The highest water use efficiency (3.27 kg/m3) was obtained from alternate furrow irrigation method with straw mulch. This suggests that under limited irrigation water, alternate furrow irrigation along with wheat straw mulch minimize evaporation loss; maximize water productivity and sustain onion production at Amibara and similar agro-ecology and soil type.
Effect of Untreated Brewery Wastewater on the Physicochemical Properties of A...ijtsrd
The increasing rate of environmental pollution especially of water bodies due to discharges from industries has become a serious challenge. Wastewater reuse is a useful tool in minimizing the amount of effluent discharge into the environment. This research was conducted to evaluate the effect of untreated brewery effluent on the physicochemical of soil and crop yield. The physicochemical properties of untreated effluent from a brewery and its effects on soil physiochemical properties and maize crop yield, were studied using standard analytical methods. The potential of brewery effluent as a nutrient source for crop production was assessed through pot culture experiments. The effluent was found to be slightly acidic in nature, and had high BOD and COD due to the presence of large amounts of solids. The effluent was rich in nitrate, phosphate and potassium, so that its application to the soil increased the values of available nutrients in the soil. The pH of the soil decreased gradually with increasing concentration of the effluent. The brewery effluent increased the moisture content and plant nutrients of the irrigated soil. In the pot culture studies, the growth parameters such as plant height, number of leaves, root length, fresh and dry weight, number of seeds per cob and the total chlorophyll content of the maize plants were measured. The growth of the maize plant was highest with 100 untreated effluent but low in productivity, while its productivity was highest with 50 effluent. The heavy metals content of the harvested maize analysed were all within permissible limit. This research revealed that brewery wastewater reuse in agriculture at 50 is an efficient tool for pollution control as well as improved soil properties and crop yield. Mbonu, C. F. | Onuorah, S. C. | Anaukwu, C. G. "Effect of Untreated Brewery Wastewater on the Physicochemical Properties of Agricultural Soil and Crop Yield" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-6 | Issue-4 , June 2022, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd50203.pdf Paper URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/other-scientific-research-area/other/50203/effect-of-untreated-brewery-wastewater-on-the-physicochemical-properties-of-agricultural-soil-and-crop-yield/mbonu-c-f
Similar to Maximizing Water Productivity of Maize using Alternate Furrow Irrigation at Clay-loam Soil, Raya valley, Ethiopia (20)
Evaluation of Agro-morphological Performances of Hybrid Varieties of Chili Pe...Premier Publishers
In Benin, chilli pepper is a widely consumed as vegetable whose production requires the use of performant varieties. This work assessed, at Parakou and Malanville, the performance of six F1 hybrids of chilli including five imported (Laali, Laser, Nandi, Kranti, Nandita) and one local (De cayenne), in completely randomized block design at four replications and 15 plants per elementary plot. Agro-morphological data were collected and submitted to analysis of variance and factor analysis of mixed data. The results showed the effects of variety, location and their interactions were highly significant for most of the growth, earliness and yield traits. Imported hybrid varieties showed the best performances compared to the local one. Multivariate analysis revealed that 'De cayenne' was earlier, short in size, thin-stemmed, red fruits and less yielding (≈ 1 t.ha-1). The imported hybrids LaaliF1 and KrantiF1 were of strong vegetative vigor, more yielding (> 6 t.ha-1) by developing larger, long and hard fruits. Other hybrids showed intermediate performances. This study highlighted the importance of imported hybrids in improving yield and preservation of chili fruits. However, stability and adaptation analyses to local conditions are necessary for their adoption.
An Empirical Approach for the Variation in Capital Market Price Changes Premier Publishers
The chances of an investor in the stock market depends mainly on some certain decisions in respect to equilibrium prices, which is the condition of a system competing favorably and effectively. This paper considered a stochastic model which was latter transformed to non-linear ordinary differential equation where stock volatility was used as a key parameter. The analytical solution was obtained which determined the equilibrium prices. A theorem was developed and proved to show that the proposed mathematical model follows a normal distribution since it has a symmetric property. Finally, graphical results were presented and the effects of the relevant parameters were discussed.
Influence of Nitrogen and Spacing on Growth and Yield of Chia (Salvia hispani...Premier Publishers
Chia is an emerging cash crop in Kenya and its production is inhibited by lack of agronomic management information. A field experiment was conducted in February-June and May-August 2021, to determine the influence of nitrogen and spacing on growth and yield of Chia. A randomized complete block design with a split plot arrangement was used with four nitrogen rates as the main plots (0, 40, 80, 120 kg N ha-1) and three spacing (30 cm x 15 cm (s1), 30 cm x 30 cm (s2), 50 cm x 50 cm (s3)). Application of 120 kg N ha-1 significantly increased (p≤0.05) vegetative growth and seed yield of Chia. Stem height, branches, stem diameter and leaves increased by 23-28%, 11-13%, 43-55% and 59-88% respectively. Spacing s3 significantly increased (p≤0.05) vegetative growth. An increase of 27-74%, 36-45% and 73-107% was recorded in number of leaves, stem diameter and dry weight, respectively. Chia yield per plant was significantly higher (p≤0.05) in s3. However, when expressed per unit area, s1 significantly produced higher yields. The study recommends 120 kg N ha-1 or higher nitrogen rates and a closer spacing of 15 cm x 30 cm as the best option for Chia production in Kenya.
Enhancing Social Capital During the Pandemic: A Case of the Rural Women in Bu...Premier Publishers
Social capital plays an essential role in empowering people for social and economic change even during the pandemic. A livelihood project of the government was implemented among the members of a women’s association of a disadvantaged upland community in Bukidnon province, Southern Philippines for inclusive development. This study was conducted to determine the influence of some socio-economic attributes and the change in the knowledge level on the social capital of the rural women amidst the pandemic. The activities of the project were implemented considering the health protocols imposed by the government during the health crisis. The findings revealed that the trainings conducted resulted to a positive change in the knowledge level among the rural women. This facilitated the production of vegetables for their households and generated additional income very necessary during the pandemic especially that other economic activities were hindered. Similarly, there was a significant increase in the social capital of the rural women during the last two years. The main occupation, sources of income and their ethnicity significantly influenced the social capital of the rural women. The rural development workers and policymakers must consider the social capital of the group in the implementation of poverty alleviation programs.
Impact of Provision of Litigation Supports through Forensic Investigations on...Premier Publishers
This paper presents an argument through the fraud triangle theory that the provision of litigation supports through forensic audits and investigations in relation to corporate fraud cases is adequate for effective prosecution of perpetrators as well as corporate fraud prevention. To support this argument, this study operationalized provision of litigation supports through forensic audit and investigations, data mining for trends and patterns, and fraud data collection and preparation. A sample of 500 respondents was drawn from the population of professional accountants and legal practitioners in Nigeria. Questionnaire was used as the instrument for data collection and this was mailed to the respective respondents. Resulting responses were analyzed using the OLS multiple regression techniques via the SPSS statistical software. The results reveal that the provision of litigation supports through forensic audits and investigations, fraud data mining for trends and patterns and fraud data collection and preparation for court proceedings have a positive and significant impact on corporate fraud prevention in Nigeria. This study therefore recommends that regulators should promote the provision of litigation supports through forensic audits and investigations in relation to corporate fraud cases in publicly listed firms in Nigeria, as this will help provide reports that are acceptable in court proceedings.
Improving the Efficiency of Ratio Estimators by Calibration WeightingsPremier Publishers
It is observed that the performances of most improved ratio estimators depend on some optimality conditions that need to be satisfied to guarantee better estimator. This paper develops a new approach to ratio estimation that produces a more efficient class of ratio estimators that do not depend on any optimality conditions for optimum performance using calibration weightings. The relative performances of the proposed calibration ratio estimators are compared with a corresponding global [Generalized Regression (GREG)] estimator. Results of analysis showed that the proposed calibration ratio estimators are substantially superior to the traditional GREG-estimator with relatively small bias, mean square error, average length of confidence interval and coverage probability. In general, the proposed calibration ratio estimators are more efficient than all existing estimators considered in the study.
Urban Liveability in the Context of Sustainable Development: A Perspective fr...Premier Publishers
Urbanization and quality of urban life are mutually related and however it varies geographically and regionally. With unprecedented growth of urban centres, challenge against urban development is more in terms of how to enhance quality of urban life and liveability. Making sense of and measuring urban liveability of urban places has become a crucial step in the context of sustainable development paradigm. Geographical regions depict variations in nature of urban development and consequently level of urban liveability. The coastal regain of West Bengal faces unusual challenges caused by increasing urbanization, uncontrolled growth, and expansion of economic activities like tourism and changing environmental quality. The present study offers a perspective on urban liveability of urban places located in coastal region comprising of Purba Medinipur and South 24 Parganas districts. The study uses the liveability standards covering four major pillars- institutional, social, economic and physical and their indicators. This leads to develop a City Liveability Index to rank urban places of the region, higher the index values better the urban liveability. The data for the purpose is collected from various secondary sources. Study finds that the eastern coastal region of the country covering state of West Bengal depicts variations in index of liveability determined by physical, economic, social and institutional indicators.
Transcript Level of Genes Involved in “Rebaudioside A” Biosynthesis Pathway u...Premier Publishers
Stevia rebaudiana Bertoni is a plant which has recently been used widely as a sweetener. This medicinal plant has some components such as diterpenoid glycosides called steviol glycosides [SGs]. Rebaudioside A is a diterpenoid steviol glycoside which is 300 times sweeter than table sugar. This study was done to investigate the effect of GA3 (50 mg/L) on the expression of 14 genes involved in Rebaudioside A biosynthesis pathway in Stevia rebaudiana under in vitro conditions. The expression of DXS remarkably decreased by day 3. Also, probably because of the negative feedback of GA3 on MEP-drived isoprenes, GGDS transcript level reached its lowest amount after GA3 treatment. The abundance of DXR, CMS, CMK, MCS, and CDPS transcripts showed a significant increase at various days after this treatment. A significant drop in the expression levels of KS and UGT85C2 is detected during the first day. However, expression changes of HDR and KD were not remarkable. Results revealed that the level of transcript of UGT74G1 and UGT76G1 up regulated significantly 4 and 2 times higher than control, respectively. However, more research needs to shed more light on the mechanism of GA3 on gene expression of MEP pathway.
Multivariate Analysis of Tea (Camellia sinensis (L.) O. Kuntze) Clones on Mor...Premier Publishers
Information on genetic variability for biochemical characters is a prerequisite for improvement of tea quality. Thirteen introduced tea clones characterized with objective; assessing tea clones based on morphological characters at Melko and Gera research stations. The study was conducted during 2017/18 cropping season on experimental plots in RCBD with three replications. Data recorded on morphological traits like days from pruning to harvest, height to first branch, stem diameter, leaf serration density, leaf length, leaf width, leaf size, petiole length, leaf ratio, internode length, shoot length, number of shoot, canopy diameter, hundred shoot weight, fresh leaf yield per tree. Cluster analysis of morphological trait grouped into four clusters indicated, the existence of divergence among the tested clones. The maximum inter-cluster distance was between clusters I and IV (35.27) while the minimum inter cluster distance was observed between clusters I and II (7.8).Principal components analysis showed that the first five principal components with eigenvalues greater than one accounted 86.45% for 15 morphological traits. Generally, the study indicated presence of variability for several morphological traits. However, high morphological variation between clones is not a guarantee for a high genetic variation; therefore, molecular studies need to be considered as complementary to biochemical studies.
Causes, Consequences and Remedies of Juvenile Delinquency in the Context of S...Premier Publishers
This research work was designed to examine nature of juvenile offences committed by juveniles, causes of juvenile delinquency, consequences of juvenile delinquency and remedies for juvenile delinquency in the context of Sub-Saharan Africa with specific reference to Eritrea. Left unchecked, juvenile delinquents on the streets engage in petty theft, take alcohol or drugs, rape women, rob people at night involve themselves in criminal gangs and threaten the public at night. To shed light on the problem of juvenile delinquency in the Sub-Saharan region data was collected through primary and secondary sources. A sample size of 70 juvenile delinquents was selected from among 112 juvenile delinquents in remand at the Asmara Juvenile Rehabilitation Center in the Eritrean capital. The study was carried out through coded self-administered questionnaires administered to a sample of 70 juvenile delinquents. The survey evidence indicates that the majority of the juvenile respondents come either from families constructed by unmarried couples or separated or divorced parents where largely the father is missing in the home or dead. The findings also indicate that children born out of wedlock, families led by single mothers, lack of fatherly role models, poor parental-child relationships and negative peer group influence as dominant causes of juvenile infractions. The implication is that broken and stressed families are highly likely to be the breeding grounds for juvenile delinquency. The survey evidence indicates that stealing, truancy or absenteeism from school, rowdy or unruly behavior at school, free-riding in public transportation, damaging the book of fellow students and beating other young persons are the most common forms of juvenile offenses. It is therefore, recommended that parents and guardians should exercise proper parental supervision and give adequate care to transmit positive societal values to children. In addition, the government, the police, prosecution and courts, non-government organizations, parents, teachers, religious leaders, education administrators and other stakeholders should develop a child justice system that strives to prevent children from entering deeper into the criminal justice process.
The Knowledge of and Attitude to and Beliefs about Causes and Treatments of M...Premier Publishers
Stigma and discrimination associated with mental illness are a common occurrence in the Sub-Saharan region including Eritrea. Numerous studies from Sub-Saharan Africa suggest that stigma and discrimination are major problems in the community, with negative attitudes and behavior towards people with mental illness being widespread. In order to assess the whether such negative attitudes persist in the context of Eritrea this study explored the knowledge and perceptions of 90 Eritrean university students at the College of Business and Economics, the University of Asmara regarding the causes and remedies of mental illness A qualitative method involving coded self-administered questionnaires administered to a sample of 90 university students to collecting data at the end of 2019. The survey evidence points that almost 50% of the respondents had contact with a mentally ill person suggesting that the significant number of the respondents experienced a first-hand encounter and knowledge of mental illness in their family and community. The findings show an overall greater science-based understanding of the causes of mental illness to be followed by recommended psychiatric treatments. The survey evidence indicates that the top three leading causes of mental illness in the context of Eritrea according to the respondents are brain disease (76%), bad events in the life of the mentally ill person (66%) and substance abuse or alcohol taking, smoking, taking drugs like hashish. (54%). The majority of the respondents have a very sympathetic and positive outlook towards mentally ill persons suggesting that mentally illness does not simply affect a chosen individual rather it can happen to anybody regardless of economic class, social status, ethnicity race and religion. Medical interventions cited by the majority of the respondents as being effective treatments for mental illness centered on the idea that hospitals and clinics for treatment and even cures for psychiatric disease. Changing perceptions of mental illnesses in Eritrea that paralleled the very caring and sympathetic attitudes of the sample university students would require raising public awareness regarding mental illness through education, using the mass media to raise public awareness, integrating mental health into the primary health care system, decentralizing mental health care services to increase access to treatment and providing affordable service to maintain positive treatment outcomes.
Effect of Phosphorus and Zinc on the Growth, Nodulation and Yield of Soybean ...Premier Publishers
An investigation was carried out at Kogi State University Student Research and Demonstration farm Anyigba during the 2019 wet season to observe the effect of phosphorus and zinc on the growth, nodulation and yield of soybean. The treatments comprised three levels: phosphorus and zinc (0, 30 and 60 kg P2O5/ha; 0, 5 and 10kg Zn/ha) and two varieties TGX 536 – 02D and Samsoy 2. The investigation revealed that application of phosphorus affected growth, nodulation, yield and some yield components of soybean while zinc application, apart from the plant height, which is reduced significantly, had no significant effect on other growth characters, nodulation, yield and yield components. However, it was generally found to decrease most of the characters. Application of 60 kg P2O5/ha gave the highest growth and yield, while 30 kg P2O5/ha gave the highest nodulation. Application of 60 kg P2O5/ha significantly increased yield to 1.9t/ha, which was significantly higher over the control plots, which gave 1.7t/ha. Crude protein and oil contents of the seeds were not significantly affected by phosphorus application but were significantly affected by zinc application, which significantly decreased protein content as its amount an increase from 0 to 10 kg/ha, and significantly increased oil content from 0 to 5kg/ha and decreased it below 5kg/ha. It was also revealed that the two varieties responded similarly to phosphorus and zinc in terms of growth, grain yield and crude protein content of the seeds.
Influence of Harvest Stage on Yield and Yield Components of Orange Fleshed Sw...Premier Publishers
A field experiment was conducted at Adami Tullu Agricultural Research Center in 2018 under rainfed condition with supplementary irrigation to determine the influence of harvest stage on vine yield and tuberous root yield of orange fleshed sweet potato varieties. The experiment consisted of four harvest stages (105, 120, 135 and 150 days after planting) and Kulfo, Tulla and Guntute varieties. A 4 X 3 factorial experiment arranged in randomized complete block design with three replications was used. Interaction of harvest stage and variety significantly influenced above ground fresh biomass, vine length, marketable tuberous root weight per hectare, commercial harvest index and harvest index. The highest mean values of above ground fresh biomass (66.12 t/ha) and marketable tuberous root weight (56.39 t/ha) were produced by Guntute variety harvested at 135 days after planting. Based on the results, it can be recommended that, farmers of the study area can grow Guntute variety by harvesting at 135 days after planting to obtain optimum vine and tuberous root yields.
Performance evaluation of upland rice (Oryza sativa L.) and variability study...Premier Publishers
This study aimed at assessing genetic variability and to evaluate the performance of 13 improved upland rice varieties for yield and its components based on morphological traits. The field experiment was conducted using a randomized block design at Guraferda and Gimbo districts in the 2019 main cropping season. The analysis of variance (ANOVA) over the two locations revealed significant differences (p≤ 0.05) among varieties for days to 50% heading, days to 85% maturity, panicle length, thousand-grain weight, and grain yield. Similarly, the ANOVA for variety by location interactions depicted significant differences among the tested varieties for days to 50% heading, days to 85% maturity, and thousand-grain weight. High heritability was obtained from days to heading (88.5%), panicle length (85.0%), and grain yield (85.2%), which indicates these traits can be easily improved through selection. High to medium broad sense heritability and genetic advance as percentage of the mean for days to heading, thousand-grain weight, and grain yield indicates a good opportunity for improvement through selection using their phenotypic performance. This is mainly due to the high role of additive gene action in the expression of such traits. This study confirmed the presence of variability among varieties for most of the studied traits, which will create an opportunity for breeders to improve rice yield and other attributes.
Harnessing the Power of Agricultural Waste: A Study of Sabo Market, Ikorodu, ...Premier Publishers
Nigeria is still burdened with huge responsibilities of waste disposal because the potential for benefits of proper waste management is yet to be harnessed. The paper evaluates the capacity of the Sabo Cattle market in producing the required quantities of waste from animal dung alongside decomposed fruits with a view to generating renewable energy possibilities for lighting, security and other business activities of the market. It is estimated that about 998 million tons of agricultural waste is produced yearly in the country with organic wastes amounting to 80 percent of the total solid wastes. This can be categorized into biodegradable and non-biodegradable wastes. The paper evaluates the capacity of the Sabo Cattle market in producing the required quantities of waste from animal dung alongside decomposed fruits with a view to generating renewable energy possibilities for lighting, security and other business activities of the market. The Sabo market was treated as a study case with the adoption of in-depth examinations of the facility, animals and products for sale and waste generated. A combination of experimental, interviews (qualitative) and design simulation (for final phase) was adopted to extract, verify and analyse the data generated from the study. Animal waste samples were subjected to compositional and fibre analysis with results showing that the sample has high potency for biogas production. Biodegradable Wastes are human and animal excreta, agricultural and all degradable wastes. Availability of high quantity of waste generated being organic in Sabo market allows the use of anaerobic digestion to be proposed as a waste to energy technology due to its feasibility for conversion of moist biodegradable wastes into biogas. The study found that at peak supply period during the Islamic festivities, a conservative 300tonnes of animal waste is generated during the week which translates to over 800kilowatts of electricity.
Influence of Conferences and Job Rotation on Job Productivity of Library Staf...Premier Publishers
The general purpose of this study is to investigate the influence of conferences and job rotation on job productivity of library staff in tertiary institutions in Imo State, Nigeria. The survey research design was used for this study using questionnaire as an instrument for data collection. This study covered the entire population of 661. Out of these, 501 copies of the questionnaire representing 75.8% were duly completed and returned for analysis. Student’s t-test was used to analyze the research questions. The finding showed that conferences had no significant influence on the job productivity of library staff in tertiary institutions in Imo State, Nigeria (F cal= 7.86; t-vale =6.177; p >0.005). Finding also showed that job rotation significantly influences job productivity of library staff in tertiary institutions in Imo State, Nigeria (F-cal value= 18.65; t-value = 16.225; P<0.05). This study recommended that, government should ensure that library staff participate in conferences with themes and topics that are relevant to the job they perform and also ensure that there should be proper evaluation and feedback mechanism which aimed to ensuring control and minimize abuse of their development opportunities. Again, there should be written statement of objectives in order to sustain job rotation programmes. Also, that training and development needs of library staff must be identified and analyzed before embarking on job rotation processes as this would help to build skills, competences, specialization and high job productivity.
Scanning Electron Microscopic Structure and Composition of Urinary Calculi of...Premier Publishers
Microscopic examination of urine samples collected from geriatric dogs revealed increased numbers of erythrocytes, leucocytes, epithelial cells and pus cells along with casts, bacteria, spermatozoa and crystals of various shapes. Among the different crystals, triple phosphate or struvite were predominant, followed by calcium oxalate dihydrate, calcium oxalate monohydrate and ammonium urate or biurate. The struvite crystals were, coffin-lid shape and while calcium oxalate dihydrate were octahedron or envelope and monohydrate crystals demonstrated “picket fence” and “dumbbell” and “hemp seed” appearance. Brown or yellow-brown spherical bodies with irregular borders with thorn-apple appearance were shown by ammonium urate or biurate crystals. SEM aspects of magnesium ammonium phosphate crystals revealed perpendicular columnar strata, few with scattered hexa or octa-hedral coffin-lid shaped crystals and calcium phosphate crystals were like cracked eggshells. Presence of wavy phases with sundry areas (uric acid), picket fence (calcium oxalate monohydrate) and typical envelope (calcium oxalate dehydrate) were electron microscopic appearance of various crystals.
Gentrification and its Effects on Minority Communities – A Comparative Case S...Premier Publishers
This paper does a comparative analysis of four global cities and their minority districts which have been experiencing the same structural pressure of gentrification. The main contribution of this paper is providing a detailed comparison of four micro geographies worldwide and the impacts of gentrification on them: Barrio Logan in San Diego, Bo-Kaap in Cape Town, the Mission District in San Francisco, and the Rudolfsheim-Fünfhaus District in Vienna. All four cities have been experiencing the displacement of minority communities due to increases in property values. These cities were chosen because their governments enacted different policies to temper the gentrification process. It was found that cities which implemented social housing and cultural inclusionary policies were more successful in maintaining the cultural and demographic make-up of the districts.
Oil and Fatty Acid Composition Analysis of Ethiopian Mustard (Brasicacarinata...Premier Publishers
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A major challenge faced by diabetic patients is infected diabetic ulcers usually associated with substantial morbidity and mortality. Worse issues arise from antibiotic resistant microorganisms. This study was conducted to determine the antibiogram of bacteria isolated from wounds of diabetic patients on hospital admission. Nine wound swab samples were collected from nine diabetic in-patients with ulcers. These were processed using standard protocols. Multi antibiotic sensitivity discs (Gram negative and Gram positive) containing ten antibiotics respectively were used. Total of 91 bacterial isolates were obtained belonging to five species. Staphylococcus aureus was most predominant (34.07%) and Proteus mirabilis was the least isolated (7.69%). Pseudomonas aeruginosa showed highest (100%) resistance to the antibiotics used, followed by Proteus mirabilis (90%), Staphylococcus aureus (80%) and Escherichia coli (30%). Klebsiella pneumoniae was 100% susceptible. Streptomycin was the most efficacious antibiotic while Ciprofloxacin and Augmentin were the least. The level of resistance exhibited by these clinical isolates is worrisome and likely to impede treatment outcomes. Streptomycin showed broad spectrum activity and may be the best drug of choice for treating wounds in diabetic patients however, there is need for antibiotic susceptibility testing and consideration of patient’s physiologic disposition before introducing antibiotic regimen.
Operation “Blue Star” is the only event in the history of Independent India where the state went into war with its own people. Even after about 40 years it is not clear if it was culmination of states anger over people of the region, a political game of power or start of dictatorial chapter in the democratic setup.
The people of Punjab felt alienated from main stream due to denial of their just demands during a long democratic struggle since independence. As it happen all over the word, it led to militant struggle with great loss of lives of military, police and civilian personnel. Killing of Indira Gandhi and massacre of innocent Sikhs in Delhi and other India cities was also associated with this movement.
The French Revolution, which began in 1789, was a period of radical social and political upheaval in France. It marked the decline of absolute monarchies, the rise of secular and democratic republics, and the eventual rise of Napoleon Bonaparte. This revolutionary period is crucial in understanding the transition from feudalism to modernity in Europe.
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The Roman Empire A Historical Colossus.pdfkaushalkr1407
The Roman Empire, a vast and enduring power, stands as one of history's most remarkable civilizations, leaving an indelible imprint on the world. It emerged from the Roman Republic, transitioning into an imperial powerhouse under the leadership of Augustus Caesar in 27 BCE. This transformation marked the beginning of an era defined by unprecedented territorial expansion, architectural marvels, and profound cultural influence.
The empire's roots lie in the city of Rome, founded, according to legend, by Romulus in 753 BCE. Over centuries, Rome evolved from a small settlement to a formidable republic, characterized by a complex political system with elected officials and checks on power. However, internal strife, class conflicts, and military ambitions paved the way for the end of the Republic. Julius Caesar’s dictatorship and subsequent assassination in 44 BCE created a power vacuum, leading to a civil war. Octavian, later Augustus, emerged victorious, heralding the Roman Empire’s birth.
Under Augustus, the empire experienced the Pax Romana, a 200-year period of relative peace and stability. Augustus reformed the military, established efficient administrative systems, and initiated grand construction projects. The empire's borders expanded, encompassing territories from Britain to Egypt and from Spain to the Euphrates. Roman legions, renowned for their discipline and engineering prowess, secured and maintained these vast territories, building roads, fortifications, and cities that facilitated control and integration.
The Roman Empire’s society was hierarchical, with a rigid class system. At the top were the patricians, wealthy elites who held significant political power. Below them were the plebeians, free citizens with limited political influence, and the vast numbers of slaves who formed the backbone of the economy. The family unit was central, governed by the paterfamilias, the male head who held absolute authority.
Culturally, the Romans were eclectic, absorbing and adapting elements from the civilizations they encountered, particularly the Greeks. Roman art, literature, and philosophy reflected this synthesis, creating a rich cultural tapestry. Latin, the Roman language, became the lingua franca of the Western world, influencing numerous modern languages.
Roman architecture and engineering achievements were monumental. They perfected the arch, vault, and dome, constructing enduring structures like the Colosseum, Pantheon, and aqueducts. These engineering marvels not only showcased Roman ingenuity but also served practical purposes, from public entertainment to water supply.
We all have good and bad thoughts from time to time and situation to situation. We are bombarded daily with spiraling thoughts(both negative and positive) creating all-consuming feel , making us difficult to manage with associated suffering. Good thoughts are like our Mob Signal (Positive thought) amidst noise(negative thought) in the atmosphere. Negative thoughts like noise outweigh positive thoughts. These thoughts often create unwanted confusion, trouble, stress and frustration in our mind as well as chaos in our physical world. Negative thoughts are also known as “distorted thinking”.
2. Maximizing Water Productivity of Maize using Alternate Furrow Irrigation at Clay-loam Soil, Raya valley, Ethiopia
Mehari et al. 772
which is good disease tolerance, economically important
and food security crop (Worku et al., 2012). Maize is
mainly grown in a wide range of soils under rainfed
conditions. Under erratic and low rainfall, a rather deep soil
with good water holding capacity is required. It has a deep
root system (1 to 1. 2 m), thus, soil water can be extracted
up to great depths. Maize is particularly sensitive to boron
deficiency (Lordkaew et al., 2010).
The termwater productivity (WP) is defined by Cai and
Rosegrant (2003) as the relationship between crop yield
per cubic meter of water consumption, including ‘green’
water (effective rainfall) for rain-fed areas and both ‘green’
water and ‘blue’ water (diverted water from water systems)
for irrigated areas. Water productivity with dimensions of
kg m-3 is a useful indicator for quantifying the impact of
irrigation scheduling decisions with regard to water
management. Similarly, water productivity (WP) is
aquantitative term used to define the relationship between
the crop produced and the amount of water involved in the
crop production, and is defined as the amount of crop
produced per volume of water applied (Elsheikh, 2015;
Molden et al., 2010).WP is estimated from the amount of
water directly consumed by the agricultural system that is,
evaporation and transpiration, not simply the amount of
water supplied. While it was used primarily to evaluate the
function of irrigation systems as ‘more crop per drop’
approach in the evaluation of deficit irrigation (DI)
strategies it seems useful to extend the concept to include
other types of livelihood support, such as mixed cropping,
pasture, fisheries or forests (Cook et al., 2006).
Traditionally, agricultural research has focused primarily
on maximizing total production. However, in recent years,
focus has shifted to the limiting factors in production
systems, notably the availability of either land or water.
Within this context, DI (irrigation application below the full
evapotranspiration) has been widely investigated for
maximizing water productivity as a valuable strategy for
dry regions (Fereres and Soriano, 2007; Ket, 2019) where
water is the limiting factor in crop cultivation.
Nowadays, many water conservation techniques are
implemented to improve water productivity, such as partial
irrigation, drip irrigation and deficit irrigation. Moreover,
water productivity can be improved by increasing yield per
unit of the land area usinga better crop variety, reducing
unproductive water losses and improved agronomic
practices, or by growing the crop during the most suitable
period (Rockstrom and Barron, 2007). Thus, water
productivity can be achieved by factors other than water
management without reducing crop yield. Water
productivity might be increased with a small reduction in
grain yield although the total biomass might be reduced
with less irrigation. Higher productivity does not
necessarily mean that the crop effectively uses a higher
proportion of the water input. For this reason, maximizing
water productivity alone would not be particularly useful in
identifying water-saving opportunities of the system under
consideration.
Water is the most limiting resource for improving
agricultural production in northern Ethiopia particularly
where this research was conducted, i.e. Raya valley.
Besides, now a day's problems of irrigation water
management lead to shortage of water and competitions
among different agricultural and non- agricultural
demands. Moreover, the farmers applied large amounts of
water over an extended period of time whit out considering
irrigation schedule. With respect to this the need of suitable
water resourcemanagement is, therefore, serious concern
for maximizing water productivity and call the attention for
very efficient use of irrigation water among different
sectors in the area, where furrow irrigated cropping is the
standard practice. In addition, under such circumstance,
proper use of furrow irrigation techniques and scheduling
of irrigation is one of the key practices in irrigated
agriculture to maximize irrigation efficiencies, enhanced
crop yield and crop water productivity with smaller initial
investment.
Now a days, due to the progress of science and the
importance of efficient use of irrigation water for
agriculture, various irrigation equipments and methods
have been devised to increase water productivity.
Previous studies have been conducted to study the water
productivity for different crops under various water supply
levels (Ali et al., 2007; Elsheikh, 2015; Vazifedoust et al.,
2008; Zhang, 2003). Hence, in this study considering
scarcity of irrigation water in Raya valley alternate furrow
irrigation (AFI) technique, in which the furrows are irrigated
alternatively is one of the newly designed and scientifically
tested irrigation method for maize production and to
increase water productivity with low cultivation cost with
the objectives of (1) investigating the effect of alternate
furrow irrigation system on maximizing water productivity
(2) identifying the interaction and main effect ofalternate
furrow irrigation technique and deficit irrigation level on
yield and water productivity of maize crop.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Site Description
Practical field data for this study were collected in 2018
from Mekhoni Agricultural Research Center (MeARC)
Fachagama experimental site located in Raya valley,
Northern Ethiopia. The experimental site is located at
12°41'50''N latitude and 39°42'08''E longitude at an
altitude of 1578 m above sea level. From the hydrological
point of view, the site is located within the Afar drainage
basin. It is 668Kms north of Addis Ababa and about
128Kms south of Mekelle, the capital of the National
Regional State of Tigray.
Soil particle size distribution was determined at Mekelle
University Soil Laboratory by Boycouos hydrometer
method and it was assigned to a textural class based on
the mass ratio of the three particles (clay, silt and sand)
3. Maximizing Water Productivity of Maize using Alternate Furrow Irrigation at Clay-loam Soil, Raya valley, Ethiopia
Int. J. Plant Breed. Crop Sci. 773
with the help of the soil textural triangle of the United
States Department of Agriculture (USDA, 2008). Hence,
soil at the experimental site is classified as clay- loam
textural class (36.5% sand, 36.0% clay and 27.5% silt)
which consisted of Vertisols and Fluvisols soil types
dominantly. The pH of the soil was also found as 7.77. The
average soil water retention capacity or volumetric water
contentvalues for a 1m soil profile depthat field capacity
(FC) and permanent wilting point (PWP) during the study
period were found as 37.57% and 21.61%, respectively
with an average bulk density of 1.16 g cm−3. Thus, the
total available soil water holding capacity (WHC) of the
experimental site was determined as 185.57 mm per unit
meter of the soil profile. WHC was determined by the
difference between the water content at FC and PWP.
The average monthly weather conditions of the study area
which were collected on daily basis from Velley verd foods
P.L.C. automatic weather station located about 1.5 km
away east of the experimental site duringthe study period
are shown in Table 1. The climate of the area is
characterized as semi-arid climate region and hot almost
throughout the year, except the cooler short winter season
(November and December). The mean monthly minimum
and maximum temperatures during the study period were
14.45oC and 30.2oC, respectively. The study area has
unevenly distributed and erratic annual rainfall amount
which ranges between 450 and 600 mm (RVLZ, 2007),
with most of the rain falling in July-August.Therefore,
maximizing water productivity using deficit irrigation was
necessary for crop production in the area. Relatively
warmer conditions were prevailed in the month of March
which is usually a month with the peak reference
evapotranspiration (ETo) value for the study area. Daily
potential or reference evapotranspiration (ETo) was
estimated using CROWAT software version 8.0.
Table 1. Average daily values of metrological statistic
during the experimental study
Month Tmin
(0C)
Tmax
(0C)
RH
(%)
SH
(hrs)
U2
(km
day−1)
ETo
(mm
day−1)
January 14.7 30.3 47.1 8.9 134.1 4.47
February 15.0 30.7 48.0 8.5 138.0 4.83
March 14.9 31.8 52.2 8.2 127.3 5.0
April 13.2 27.9 51.0 8.3 121.4 4.82
Average 14.45 30.2 49.58 8.45 130.2 4.78
Where, minimum air temperature (Tmin), maximum air
temperature (Tmax),relative humidity (RH), sunshine
hours(SH), wind speed at 2-m height (U2), and grass
reference evapotranspiration (ETo) for the month of
January – April at Raya Azebo woreda (MeARC), during
2018 growing season.
Experimental Layout and Irrigation Treatments
The experimental design followed was a split-plot design
with three replications. The treatment variation was based
on irrigation techniques, irrigation levels and/or their
interactionswith the maize “Melkassa-II variety”. Hence,
the experimental treatments consisted in: three furrow
irrigation techniques Viz., alternate furrow (AF), fixed
furrow (FF), and conventional furrow (CF) as the main
plots and three levels of irrigation: 100%ETc, 75%ETc,
and 50% ETc were applied in subplots as sub-treatments
at each irrigation techniques. Thus, the field experiment
had a total of nine irrigation treatment (T) combinations:
AF @ 100% ETc (T1), AF @ 75% ETc (T2), AF @ 50%
ETc (T3), FF @ 100% ETc (T4), FF @ 75%ETc (T5), FF
@ 50% ETc (T6), CF @ 100% ETc (T7), CF @ 75% ETc
(T8), CF @ 50% ETc (T9).
The CFI at 100%ETc treatment was considered as full
irrigation or controltreatment while the other treatments
were considered as deficit irrigations. No treatment
included zero amounts of irrigation and the treatment
variation was based on the furrow irrigation techniques
and the amount of irrigation water applied irrespectiveof
maize phenological growth stage. Treatment 1, treatment
4 and treatment 9 were stressed by one-half (50%deficit)
than the full irrigation. The area of each main plot was kept
at 17.5 m × 4.5 m and a sub plot size of 4.5 m by 4.5 m to
accommodate six furrows with spacing of 75 cm between
rows were used. A buffer zone spacing of 3 m was
provided between main plots as well as the replications,
while 2 m distance was used between subplots to minimize
lateral water movement to adjacent plots.
After the soil or furrow preparation, the soil water content
reached near the field capacity before the sowing. An early
maturing seed of maize (“Melkassa-II variety”) were
sownon1st January, 2018 at a spacing of 75 cm between
rows and 25 cm between plants. Standard cultural
practices were adopted during the crop-growing season.
Based on soil analysis maize plots were uniformly fertilized
with triple superphosphate at a rate of 46 kg ha-1 P2O5
before seeding and 130 kg ha-1 urea in two splits, ⅓ at
planting and ⅔ when the plants reached knee height. Top
dressing of N was applied to every furrow in CFI and to the
irrigated furrows in FFI and AFI. Weeding was done
manually five times before harvesting. Maize was
harvested on 21th May, 2018.
Irrigation Water Application Procedure
In Raya valley irrigation scheme the farmers irrigate their
crops depending on their observations and rotations
among the users. This caused the farmers tend to over-
irrigate their crops beyond the field capacity, which
reduces water productivity and net income. In this study
three furrow irrigation techniques and three irrigation levels
were used to irrigate theexperimental field plots to
increase water productivity. The source of water for the
study was pumped from groundwater and was flowed
through closed pipe to the experimental field. Before
planting, the experimental plot was uniformly pre-irrigated
to maintain the soil moisture at field capacity.
4. Maximizing Water Productivity of Maize using Alternate Furrow Irrigation at Clay-loam Soil, Raya valley, Ethiopia
Mehari et al. 774
The first and second irrigation events were similar in all
irrigation treatments (a total amount of about 90 mm) to
ensure optimum germination and vegetation stands. i.e.
light irrigations were applied prior to starting treatment
applications after planting until the plants reached the
established stageand to allow the crops to be established
before being subjected to moisture stress. Treatment
management of irrigation water application began from
maize three leaf growth stage. Irrigation was initiated for
all plots whenever the soil moisture content in the control
treatment was depleted by 55%. That is, in the deficit-
irrigated treatments irrigation occurred on the same day as
the fully irrigated plots, but the duration of irrigation
application was reduced to obtain the predefined water
depths. All the treatments were watered on the same day.
Irrigation water was applied through furrows in three ways
as the main plots: conventional furrow irrigation (CFI),
alternate furrow irrigation (AFI), and fixed furrow irrigation
(FFI). In CFI, irrigation water was applied to every furrow
at each irrigation event; in AFI irrigation water was applied
to alternate furrows which were dry in the preceding
irrigation cycle, while in FFI, irrigation water was applied to
fixed furrows throughout the growing season or one of the
adjacent furrows receives water in fixed form.
Based on the pre-prepared irrigation schedule, the amount
of irrigation water was allowed into the plot and/or each
furrow for the calculated time and volume as required.
Immediately after the desired depth of water applied plots
were closed with the channel banks to stop water from
entering the plots. 60% irrigation application efficiency was
adopted. The total irrigation water applied over the season
at each irrigation event for each treatment to achieve field
capacity was recorded. All irrigations in the field were
applied with a pre-measured flow from motor pump. An
average time of 2.8 minutes was used to apply the desired
depth of water into each plot. The time required to irrigate
the field plot to a required irrigation depth was calculated
as:
𝑡 =
𝐴𝐷
𝑄
(1)
where Q is discharge (m3 min-1) from the pipe of irrigation
motor pump, T is time (minutes), A is area of plot (m2) and
D is depth of irrigation (m).
The depths of water applied to satisfy the crop water
requirement were based on the daily reference
evapotranspiration of the study area. Determination of the
reference evapotranspiration (ETo) is the most common
method to estimate crop water use from the local climatic
data and crop coefficient for different crop stages. Hence,
the daily reference evapotranspiration was calculated
using the FAO-Penman-Monteith method (Allen et al.,
1998) using CROWAT software version 8.0. Irrigation
scheduling at the site was done using a scheduling
spreadsheet that used the calculated daily maize
evapotranspiration as input to estimate daily soil water
content in the crop root zone. The control treatment plot
was monitored before reached the permanent wilting point
and used as a reference to apply irrigation water in other
treatments. Water applications for full irrigation treatments
were based on the estimated crop waterrequirement
calculated over the entire growing season and those deficit
treatments imposed less water as planned comprised of
75% and 50% ETc of the full irrigation treatment (CFI
100%ETc).
The features of irrigation water applied during the
experimental year was also analyzed (electrical
conductivity: 0.36 dS m-1, pH: 7.58, SAR=4.93 and
RSC=3.2meqL-l)) and considering EC (0.36 dS m-1)
classified as class two (C2) indicating medium salinity
hazard may be due to groundwater outflow and low alkali
hazard according to graphical method of the United States
Salinity Laboratory (US Salinity Laboratory, 1954).
Measurement of Grain Yield and Development of
Water Productivity
In the study, maize grain yield per plot (kg ha-1) was
determined from the grain weight of all maize plants in
each net plot area. Thus, only the central four rows of each
plot maize plants were used to analyze the effect of the
irrigation treatments on grain yield and the remaining two
rows were excluded to reduce border effects. The grains
were shelled manually and dried, and finally weighed when
moisture content reached at 12.5%, then converted to ton
per hectare for each treatment. Crop water productivity
was also determined as the total grain yield harvested per
total crop water used (ETc) relation throughout the growing
season (Zwart and Bastiaanssen, 2004) as:
𝐶𝑊𝑃 = (𝑌/𝐸𝑇) (2)
where, CWP is crop water productivity (kg m -³), Y is crop
yield (kg ha-1) and ET is the seasonal crop water
consumption by evapotranspiration (m³ ha-1).
Data Analysis
For the comparisons of grain yield among treatments the
collected data were statistically analyzed using SAS
software version 9.0. When treatment effects are
significant mean separation using least significant
difference (LSD) i.e. Fisher's Protected LSD test at P < 5%
level was employed to compare the differences among the
treatment means.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Total Irrigation Water Applied in Each Irrigation
Treatments
Table 2 summarizes the predefined timings of irrigation
events and amounts of total water applied to each irrigation
treatment.
5. Maximizing Water Productivity of Maize using Alternate Furrow Irrigation at Clay-loam Soil, Raya valley, Ethiopia
Int. J. Plant Breed. Crop Sci. 775
Table 2. Depth of net irrigation applied in each treatments (mm)
Irrigation
date
Irrigation
interval
(days)
CFI
100% ETc
CFI
75% ETc
CFI 50% ETc,
AFI and/ FFI
100%ETc
AFI and/FFI
75% ETc
AFI and/FFI
50%ETc
14/1/2018 14 23.88 17.91 11.94 8.95 5.97
27/1/2018 13 23.95 17.96 11.97 8.97 5.98
06/2/2018 10 25.65 19.24 12.83 9.62 6.42
17/2/2018 11 38.85 29.14 19.43 14.57 9.72
25/2/2018 08 34.47 25.85 17.24 12.93 8.62
06/3/2018 09 38.89 29.16 19.44 14.59 9.72
21/3/2018 15 84.57 63.43 42.29 31.72 21.15
06/4/2018 16 89.26 66.94 44.63 33.47 22.31
20/4/2018 14 67.49 50.62 33.74 25.31 16.87
30/4/2018 10 51.66 38.75 25.83 19.37 12.91
09/5/2018 09 43.26 32.45 21.63 16.22 10.81
Total 521.93 391.45 260.97 195.72 130.48
CFI= Conventional furrow irrigation, AFI = Alternate furrow irrigation and FFI = Fixed furrow irrigation, AFI and/ FFI
100%ETc = AFI at 100% ETc and FFI at 100% ETc.
A total of eleven irrigation events were used for all
treatments during the growing season. The average
irrigation interval for maize to re-fill the field capacity before
crop water stress occurs in the study area reached 12
days. As can be observed from the table, irrigation depths
were lower relatively during initial and late growing stages.
The large amount of irrigation water was applied on the 7th
and 8th irrigation intervals. Regardless of other factors this
may be due to high ETo or atmospheric variations, high
Kc, crop water up take and longer irrigation intervals (see
details in Table 2). The rain events for the entire growing
season were very small (two rain events) and only 15.3
mm an effective rainfall were recorded. Hence, the total
crop water requirement of maize in the study area was
found to be 537.23 mm for the growing periods of 140
days. Hence, by adopting 60% a field application efficiency
the net and gross irrigation requirement for fully irrigated
treatment (CFI at 100% ETc) were found to be 521.93 and
869.89 mm, respectively and no stress occurred.
Based on the full irrigation treatment the amount of
irrigation for other treatments was then calculated, and this
resulted in large variation in irrigation depth applied. The
least (130.48 and 217.47 mm) net and gross irrigation
requirement, respectively were also applied for both AF
and FF at 50%ETc equally.
Effect of Irrigation Treatments on Grain Yield
The interaction effects of the different irrigation treatments
on maize grain yield obtained is presented in Table 3.
Variance analysis of mean grain yield was showed that the
interaction effects of the three furrow irrigation techniques
and the three irrigation levels treatments had shown
statistically a significant (P < 0.01) impact on grain yield.
The results revealed that grain yields decreased as the
amount of irrigation water applied decreased especially
under fixed furrow irrigation techniques. The highest grain
yield of maize (6.32 tons ha-1) was obtained in the fully
irrigated treatment (CFI @ 100%ETc), T7,due to a better
environment created and resulted in a better performance
of the crop, but this treatment had no statistically
significance difference in grain yield with AFI at 100% ETc
treatment, T1, which resulted in 5.89 tons ha-1 with up to
50% reduction in irrigation amount.
Table 3. Amount of gross irrigation applied, water saved
and grain yield response
Treatment Number
of
irrigations
Applied
water
(m3 ha-1)
Water
saved
(%)
Grain
yield
obtained
(ton ha-1)
Yield
penalty
(%)
CFI 100%
ETc
11 8,698.90 0.00 6.32a 0.00
CFI 75%
ETc
11 6,524.20 25.00 4.84b 23.41
CFI 50%
ETc
11 4,349.50 50.00 3.53cd 44.15
AF
I100%ETc
11 4,349.50 50.00 5.89ab 6.96
AFI 75%
ETc
11 3,262.00 62.50 4.64b 26.58
AFI 50%
ETc
11 2,174.70 75.00 3.35cde 46.99
FFI 100%
ETc
11 4,349.50 50.00 4.44bc 29.75
FFI 75%
ETc
11 3,262.00 62.50 3.82c 39.56
FF 50%
ETc
11 2,174.70 75.00 3.12ef 50.63
LSD (0.05) = 0.47
In contrast, imposition of higher water deficit treatment
interaction (FFI @ 50% ETc), T6, resulted in the lowest
grain yields (3.12 tons ha-1) and crops in this treatment was
more severely stressed and was not adequate to maintain
a wet soil profile than the other treatments. Accordingly,
the results revealed that the soil moisture deficits of FFI @
6. Maximizing Water Productivity of Maize using Alternate Furrow Irrigation at Clay-loam Soil, Raya valley, Ethiopia
Mehari et al. 776
50%ETc can adversely affect the activities of reproductive
organs such as grains and other grains components. This
is because of the high sensitivity of maize to water stress
during flowering and pollination stages and may not be a
viable irrigation strategy/treatment given the significant
reduction in grain yield. The yield of the other treatments
also varied between these two treatments.
Results of this research agreed with Tagheinaghdam et al.
(2015) who reported as the mean comparison of grain
yields showed that the most grain yield contributes to CFI
treatment and AFI treatment was in the next rate.
However, FFI treatment contributes the lowest grain yield
which could be due to the competition of plants for water.
Moreover, the result of this practical research showed that
AFI at 100% ETc is the most appropriate and an alternate
irrigation option when water is a limiting factor during dry
season for maize production in dry regions like Raya valley
because this technique saves water consumption by 50%
compare to control treatment against 6.96% reduction in
grain yield.
The study reveals that the AFI technique results in better
root development compared to the other techniques. The
result also can be used to estimate the range of water use
within which deficit irrigation would be more profitable than
full irrigation. Hence, practicing of this research and
creating a better environment in the semiarid area of Raya
valley helps the cultivation of maize crops that increases
cultivation area using the water saved and acceptable for
farmers with limitations of water for irrigation. Previous
studies of Kang et al. (2000) and Nasri et al. (2010) also
reported as when less irrigation was applied, the alternate
furrow irrigation (AFI) system had the smallest grain yield
reduction. In fact, this yield reduction was not statistically
significant in the AFI treatments, but substantial and
significant with FFI and CFI treatments which agreed with
the present result.
Moreover, Mintesinot et al. (2004) also point out that the
lowest production cost is found under alternate furrows
scientific scheduling, as the amount of labour required
during irrigation is 50% less than the other practices.
Conversely, the highest cost of production is observed
under every furrow-scientific scheduling management.
The same author also concludes that where agricultural
labour costs are low, every furrow-scientific scheduling is
economic. On the other hand, where both water and
agricultural labor are limiting, alternate furrows-scientific
scheduling can be considered an option. The observation
here is that depending on the availability of resource
(labour and water), one can decide to use either of the
alternate management options to obtain economically
reasonable yield.
Effect of Irrigation Treatments on Crop Water
Productivity
Table 4 demonstrates calculated crop water productivity
(CWP) of maize based on yield data and depths of water
applied under different irrigation levels and furrow irrigation
techniques. Analysis of variance on CWP revealed that the
interaction effects of the irrigation treatmentssignificantly
(p<0.01) influenced the CWP of maize. As it can be seen
from Table 4, estimates of WP range from 1.18 to 2.29
kg/m3. Significantly higher CWP value (2.29 kg m-3) was
obtained from AFI with 50%ETc application and had no
significant difference with AFI at 75% ETc which resulted
in 2.19 kg m-3. In contrast, the interaction effect of CFI with
100%ETc (full irrigation) resulted in lowest CWP (1.18 kg
m-3) and had no significance difference with CFI at 75%
and 50% ETc interaction.
According to Yazar et al. (2009), globally measured
average CWP values for maize ranged from 1.1 kg m−3 to
2.7 kg m−3 which in line with this study. Similar findings
have been reported in some studies (Greaves and Wang,
2017; Igbadun et al., 2008). Data from the table show that
the interaction effect of AFI with 100%ETc treatment also
resulted in 2.13kg m-3 CWP with only 6.96% yield penalty
than fully irrigated treatment. The Comparison suggests
that increasing the areas irrigated with the water saved
would compensate for any yield loss.
Table 4. Calculated CWP values of maize for each
irrigation treatment
No. Irrigation
treatment
CWP
(kg m-3)
Rank on
CWP
1 CFI 100% ETc 1.18e 9
2 CFI 75% ETc 1.19e 8
3 CFI 50% ETc 1.28e 7
4 AF I100%ETc 2.13b 4
5 AFI 75% ETc 2.19a 2
6 AFI 50% ETc 2.29a 1
7 FFI 100% ETc 1.61d 6
8 FFI 75% ETc 1.81c 5
9 FF 50% ETc 2.14b 3
The result of this study showed that even though grain
yield of maize were higher for CFI with 100% ETc
interaction (fully irrigated) treatment, when the mean yield
is evaluated in terms of the amount of water used, AFI
techniques resulted in higher WP values without significant
yield penalty compared to CFI and FFI irrigation
techniques and hence it is taken as proper irrigation
scheduling and sustainable water management technique.
Similar finding has been reported by Mintesinot et al.
(2004). Hence, lower crop water productivity was recorded
when maize received higher irrigation amount, this agreed
that CWP can be enhanced with less water as reported as
well by (Elsheikh, 2015). Earlier findings of Ximing and
Rosegrant (2001) also concluded that increased WP
reveals an increase in management efficiency. Generally,
WP values are influenced by crop yield potential, crop
environment, irrigation management practice and climatic
characteristics of a region.
7. Maximizing Water Productivity of Maize using Alternate Furrow Irrigation at Clay-loam Soil, Raya valley, Ethiopia
Int. J. Plant Breed. Crop Sci. 777
CONCLUSIONS
Nowadays, water resources are shrinking and worsened
by climate change as the sustainable use of water is
increasingly a worldwide problem. Under conditions of
scarce water supply crop production demand, the
maximum use of every drop of water and an increase in
water productivity using proper irrigation techniques. If
water used properly, the suggested methods can increase
both of production and cultivation areas. Therefore, the
overall result of this practical research concludes that if the
alternate furrow irrigation technique was used, less
irrigation amount and low labour cost could maintain
statistically the same grain yield of maize as that of full
irrigation or conventional furrow irrigation technique, and
as a result water productivity for irrigated water was
substantially increased. The reduced yield and other
irrigation expenses would also be compensated with the
water saved by irrigating additional land. Hence, in areas
for possible intervention, the findings of our experiment will
be important to end users and decision makers.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors are grateful to National Irrigation and
Drainage Research Project, Ethiopian Institute of
Agricultural Research (EIAR), for providing funds for the
experimental task and technical support. The authors also
truthfully appreciate to Mekhoni Agricultural Research
Center (MeARC) staff members for their technical
assistance and kind cooperation during field
experimentation and data collection.
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