The document discusses types, levels, and approaches to learning. It describes several types of learning including motor learning, verbal learning, concept learning, and discrimination learning. It then outlines Robert Gagne's learning hierarchy, which includes 8 levels of learning from simple signal learning to complex problem solving. Finally, it compares behaviorist, cognitivist, and constructivist approaches to learning, noting key theorists like Skinner, Bruner, and how knowledge is actively constructed in constructivism.

2. UNIT 2
TYPES, LEVELS, AND
APPROACHES TO
LEARNING

3.  Types of learning
 Learning Hierarchy:
 Signal learning stimulus
 Response learning
 Motor and verbal
 Chain learning
 Multiple discriminations
 Concept learning
 Learning rules and problem solving
 Learning Levels from imprint to intuition - Examples of
learning at different levels.
 Approaches of Learning: Behaviourist - Cognitivist and
Constructivist.

4. TYPES OF LEARNING
Motor Learning
Verbal Learning
Concept Learning
Discrimination Learning

5. Motor Learning
Motor learning involves acquiring of new motor skill
or functions as a result of practice or experience.
This learning helps us in executing motor functions,
for example walking, running, skating, driving,
climbing, etc

6. Verbal Learning
 It involves acquiring skills to communicate with other
by using words, sounds, pictures, etc

7. Concept Learning
The type of learning in which we learn to
classify stimuli based on its characteristics
and features. For example, our ability to
identify a barking, four legged and a tail
animal as a ‘dog’, is the part of concept
learning. We have learned that the word
dog refers to this particular type of
described animal.

8. Discrimination Learning
Our ability to discriminate between stimuli
and giving response accordingly is known as
discrimination learning. For example, our
ability to discriminate vehicles based on its
horns.

9. LEARNING HIERARCY
GAGNE :
Robert Mills Gagné was an American Educational
Psychologist best known for his conditions of
learning. Gagné's work is sometimes summarized as "the
Gagné assumption".Gagné's theory stipulates that there are
several types and levels of learning, and each of these types
and levels requires instruction that is tailored to meet the
needs of the pupil.

10. EIGHT LEVEL OF LEARNING :

11. Signal learning
This is the simplest form of learning, and consists essentially
of the classical conditioning first described by the behavioral
psychologist Pavlov. In this type of learning the animal or
individual acquires a conditioned response to a given signal.
Example : a. When there is a Red Signal in road, people stop
their Vehicles.
b. When door bell rings, people suddenly rushes to
door to open it.

12. Stimulus-response learning
This is also known as operand conditioning,
was originally developed by Skinner. Stimulus-response
learning is all about getting a response to a Stimuli.
Example : a. When a Teacher instructs the Students to
raise their hands, the Students immediately raise
their hands
b. When we place a plant in dark room, it get
destroyed and when it is placed in a sun shade
it grows well

13. Chaining
This type of learning is the ability to connect two or more
previously-learned stimulus-response bonds into a
linked sequence. It is the process whereby most complex
psycho motor skills (e.g. riding a bicycle or playing the
piano) are learned. In this type of learning the person
links together previously learned Stimulus - Response
Example :
a. When a Child saw a Doll, it first represent it as a Baby,
it dresses up the Doll, do make up to the Doll, then Feeds
the Doll
b. Selecting an appropriate key from the Bunch of Keys.

14. Verbal association
This is a form of chaining in which the links
between the items being connected are verbal in nature.
Verbal association is one of the key processes in the
development of language skills.This learning is a type of
chaining, but the links are verbal units. The simplest
verbal association is the activity of naming an object,
which involves a chain of two links
Example : a. When a Child names an object "BALL " , it
also says " ROUND BALL ", "BLACK and WHITE BALL"

15. Discriminationlearning
This involves developing the ability to make appropriate
(different) responses to a series of similar stimuli that
differ in a systematic way. This involves the
development of the ability to differentiate an OBJECT ,
by its COLOUR, SHAPE etc..
Example : a. When a student develops the ability to
differentiate and call each student by his/her correct
name.
b. When seeing lots of cars in the road,
differentiating the cars by its name

17. Concept learning
This involves developing the ability to make a
consistent response to different stimuli that form a common
class or category of some sort. It forms the basis of the ability
to generalize, classify etc.In learning a concept we respond to
stimuli in terms of abstract characteristics like color, shape,
position and number as opposed to concrete physical
properties like specific wavelengths or particular intensities.
Example : Observing the Common Concept in the objects.
a. While Driving a bike, one must Start with Clutch, gear
and then slowly release the clutch and raise the Accelerator
b. While Driving a Car, one must Start with Clutch, gear
and then slowly release the clutch and raise the Accelerator

19. Rule learning
This is a very-high-level cognitive process that involves being
able to learn relationships between concepts and apply these
relationships in different situations, including situations not
previously encountered. In learning a rule we relate two or
more concepts. Rules are, in effect, chains of concepts. We
may represent knowledge as a hierarchy of rules, in which we
must learn two or more rules before learning a higher order
rule which embraces them.
Example : When an air filled Ball is kicked, it flies, rolls and
revolves, it is a common rule. In this rule concepts such as
flying, rolling, revolving etc are learned. It represents the
chaining of more than one concept in a rule.

21. Problem solving
This is the highest level of cognitive process according
to Gagne. It involves developing the ability to invent a
complex rule, algorithm or procedure for the purpose of
solving one particular problem, and then using the method
to solve other problems of a similar nature.
In the set of events called problem solving, individuals use
rule to achieve some goal. When the goal is reached, however
the student has learned something more and is then capable
of new performances using his new knowledge.
hat is learned, is a higher order rule, the combined product of
two or more lower order rules. Thus the problem solving
requires those internal events usually called thinking..
Without knowledge of the prerequisite rules, the problem
can not be solved.

22. Approaches of Learning:
Behaviorist - Cognitivist and
Constructivist.
 Behaviorism is among the most dominant of modem
theories of learning.
 The behaviorist view is quite comprehensive and
includes a variety of thoughts, but all these thoughts
suggest a common approach to learning in terms of
the development of connections between stimuli
received and responses displayed by
organisms/learners.

23. Cont..
The major principles of the theories to key behaviorists
such as Thorndike, Pavlov and Skinner. These theories
have most influence upon the development of a theory
of design. According to behavioral theories, learning is
viewed as the ability to perform new behaviors which are
established as goals. There is an effort to create
conditions which will enable the learners to demonstrate
these behaviors.

24. Cont..
 Edward L. Thorndike has put forward three main laws
of learning: The law of effect, the law of readiness and
the law of exercise. The law of effect stresses the
importance of the effect of a stimulus-response (S-R).
Satisfying results reinforce the response while
inadequate results weaken it. Reward and punishment
are, therefore, important ingredients of learning. The
law of readiness indicates the learner's willingness to
make (S-R) connection while the law of exercise is
related to the strengthening of the connection through
practice.

25. Educational implications
The behaviorist approach to learning has greatly
influenced modem educational practices. Behaviorists have
conceived of teaching as a I manipulation of the
environment in order to produce desired behavioral
changes+ learners and thus make education more effective.
They suggest the adoption of the following three principles
towards making a teaching learning transaction yield
desirable results.
 knowledge of results and use of positive reinforcement,
 minimum delay in reinforcement, and
 elaboration of complex behaviour by dividing learning into
a series of small steps.

26. Skinner's theory of operant
conditioning
Skinner (1958) propagated a theory related to stimulus-
response relationship and reinforcement. In his view,
learning is a change in behaviour. As the learner learns,
hisher responses in terms of changed behaviour
increase.Learning is, therefore, formally defined by him
as a change in the likelihood or probability of a response.

27. Operant conditioning is a learning force which effects
the desired response more frequently by providing a
reinforcing stimulus immediately following the
response. The most important principle of this type of
learning is that behaviour changes according to its
immediate 'consequences'. Pleasurable consequences
strengthen behaviour while unpleasant consequences
weaken it. For example, in Skinner's famous experiment,
a pigeon pecks the red ball and gets food. Because of
food (reinforcement), the pigeon is likely to peck the
same ball again and again.

28. Educational implications
 The basic implication of operant conditioning for
instructional activities is their dependence on
observable behavior. For Skinner, reinforcement
facilitates learning. Further, he thinks that the most
effective control on human learning requires
instrumental aids.

29. COGNITIVE APPROACH
'Cognitive approach' has taken an important place in the
psychology of learning over the last few decades, and
has posed a challenge to behaviourism. It has put back
on the agenda the nature of the complex . mental
process of a learner. While conducting experimental
investigation, cognitivism takes intdkconsideration
activities such as perception, concept formation,
language use, thinkipg, understanding, problem solving,
attention and memory.

30. Cont..
Cognitive theorists have made investigations to show
that people learn by perceiving, comprehending and
conceptualizing problems. The comprehension of
concepts and rules is transferable to the solution of new
problems or from one situation to another. The
cognitivists in arguing that people grasp things as a
whole, are, therefore opposing the behaviorist approach
to teaching which employs drills to memories the
information.

31. Cont..
Cognitivists believe that learning is a question both of
insight formation and of successful problem solving, and
not a mechanical sequence of stimuli and responses.
And so, teaching, according to them, should encourage
understanding based on problem solving and insight
formation.

32. The contemporary cognitivists equate human mental
activities with the process that goes on in a 'computer' in
operation. They conceptualize human beings as
information processing systems. The following
discussion explains the process of information system
and the three different types of memories, each of which
serves a different function in the total process. The three
different types of memories are :
(i) the sensory memory,
(ii) (ii) short-term memory and
(iii) (iii) the long-term memory.

33. Educational implications
Cognitive psychologists have investigated complex
mental behaviors in a scientific way. And their views are
becoming increasingly important in their application to
education and instruction. The major emphasis of this
approach is on how to design educational activities in
order to promote cognitive learning.

34.  Bruner's theory
 Bruner defines learning as a process in which a learner
achieves instructional objectives with little or no help
from the teacher. He emphasizes 'the training of
students in the use of mind' with confidence, energy
and honesty. Thus, a theory of instruction should take
into account:
a) the ways of structuring knowledge,
b) the presentation sequence,
c) the motivating experience, and
d) the nature of pacing of rewards and punisLent.

35. Difference between Behaviourist
and Constructivist approach
Theory Behaviorist Constructivist
Activities Drill and Practice
Tutorials
Independent learning,
experiential learning,
Programming
Learning Processes Individual
instructional
feedback, drill and
practice
Generalizable skills
based on individual
discovery

36. CONSTRUCTIVISM
Constructivism is centered on the idea that human
knowledge and learning is actively constructed by the
leather, not passively received from he environment.
Knowledge is always someone's knowledge. It is created or
constructed by the experiencing individual. It is not
impersonal or absolute. How do learners actively build or
'construct' this new knowledge? They do this on the
bedrock of their prior knowledge. Learners in a classroom
have their individual experiences and a cognitive
structure, which are built on those prior experiences.

37. TYPES CONSTRUCTIVISIM
 Trivial Constructivism
 Radical Constructivism
 Personal and Social Constructivism
 Objectivism and Constructivism

38.  Trivial constructivism does not discuss the objective
reality of the environment but believes that this reality
is knowable by the learner through the process of
personal construction.
 Radical constructivism does not deny the objective
reality, but considers it unimportant.
 Personal constructivism regards the individual learner
as the constructor of knowledge and prioritizes the
individual aspects of learning.
 Social constructivism is centered around the idea that
the culture is a constituent of mind and therefore
provides for structures which determine construction
of reality

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