Learning involves a permanent change in behavior resulting from experience. There are many types of learning including motor, verbal, concept, and discrimination learning. Learning is influenced by factors related to the learner, teacher, and content. Several theories aim to explain the process of learning, including Thorndike's law of effect, Pavlov's classical conditioning, and Skinner's operant conditioning. Thorndike's theory proposes that behaviors followed by satisfaction become strengthened over time through rewards. Pavlov's theory demonstrates that a learned reflex can be developed by associating a stimulus with a response. Skinner's theory shows that behaviors can be shaped by reinforcing consequences.

1. LEARNING
Sadia Ahmad

2. Scope of presentation
o Definition of learning
o Nature and characteristics of learning
o Types of learning
o Domains of learning
o Factor influencing learning
o Theories of learning

3. Definition of Learning
 Gardner Murphy (1968)- the term learning covers every modification in behaviour to
meet environmental requirements.
 Gates (1946) – learning is the modification of behaviour through experience.
 Woodworth (1945) – any activity can be called learning so far as it develops the
individual (in any respect, good or bad) and makes his later behaviour and experiences
different from what they would otherwise have been.
 Kingsley and Garry (1957) - learning is the process by which behaviour changed
through practice or training.

4. Definition: Learning is…
 A permanent change in behavior as a result of experience or
practice.
 To gain knowledge of, or skill in, something through study,
teaching, instruction or experience.
 The process of gaining knowledge.
 A process by which behavior is changed, shaped or
controlled.
 The individual process of constructing understanding based
on experience from a wide range of sources.

5. Nature and characteristics of
learning
1. Learning is the change in behaviour.
2. Learning is a continuous life long process.
3. Learning is a universal process.
4. Learning is purposive and goal directed.
5. Learnring involves reconstruction of experiences.
6. Learning is the product of activity and environment.

6. 8. Learning is transferable from one situation to another.
9. Learning helps in attainment of teaching – learning
objectives.
10. Learning helps in the proper growth and development.
11. Learning helps in the balanced development of the
personality.
12. Learning helps in proper adjustment.
13. Learning helps in the realization of goals of life.
14. Learning does not necessarily imply improvement.

7. Types of learning
1. Motor learning:
Most of our activities in our day-to-days life refer to motor
activities. The individual has to learn them in order to
maintain his regular life, for example walking, running,
skating, driving, climbing, etc. All these activities involve
the muscular coordination

8.  2. Verbal learning:
This type of learning involves the language we speak, the
communication devices we use. Signs, pictures, symbols,
words, figures, sounds, etc, are the tools used in such
activities. We use words for communication.

9. 3. Concept learning:
It is the form of learning which requires higher order mental
processes like thinking, reasoning, intelligence, etc. we learn
different concepts from childhood. For example, when we see
a dog and attach the term ‘dog’, we learn that the word dog
refers to a particular animal. Concept learning involves two
processes, viz. abstraction and generalisation. This learning is
very useful in recognising, identifying things

10.  4. Discrimination learning:
Learning to differentiate between stimuli and showing an
appropriate response to these stimuli is called
discrimination learning. Example, sound horns of different
vehicles like bus, car, ambulance, etc.

11.  5. Learning of principles:
 Individuals learn certain principles related to
science, mathematics, grammar, etc. in order to
manage their work effectively. These principles
always show the relationship between two or more
concepts. Example: formulae, laws, associations,
correlations, etc.

12. 6. Problem solving:
This is a higher order learning process. This learning
requires the use of cognitive abilities-such as thinking,
reasoning, observation, imagination, generalization, etc.
This is very useful to overcome difficult problems
encountered by the people.

13.  7. Attitude learning:
Attitude is a predisposition which determines and directs
our behaviour. We develop different attitudes from our
childhood about the people, objects and everything we
know. Our behaviour may be positive or negative depending
upon our attitudes. Example: attitudes of nurse towards her
profession, patients, etc.

14. Domains of Learning
 Cognitive domain of learning
 Conative domain of learning
 Affective domain of learning

15. Factor influencing learning
 Learner Related Factor –
 Learner’s physical and mental health
 The basic potential of the learner
 The level of aspiration and achievement motivation
 Goal of life
 Readiness and will power

16.  Teacher Related Factor –
 Mastery over the subject matter
 Art and skill teaching
 Personality traits and behaviour of the teacher
 Level of adjustment and mental health of the teacher
 Type of discipline and interaction maintained by them

17.  Contents Related Factor-
 Nature of the contents or learning experience
 Selection of the content or learning experiences
 Organization of the contents or learning
experience

18. Theories of learning

19. Theories of Learning:
 Psychologists have tried to explain how people learn and why
they learn. They have conducted many experiments on animals
and children and come to certain definite conclusions which
explain the modes of learning.
 These are called as theories of learning. In many books, these
explanations are treated as kinds of learning. In a sense it is
true. But the term learning is very comprehensive. It covers a
wide range of activities which cannot be explained within a
limited framework. There are many theories explaining modes
of learning. Important among them are:

20. Trial and Error
Method of
Learning –
Thorndike (1874-1949)

21. Thorndike’s Experiment
 He used a 24 hours hungry cat. The cat was fully fed 24 hours
back. He used a puzzle box which had a door that could be
opened by a device – by pressing a lever, the latch or pulling a
string. The box had ventilation. The hungry cat was put inside
the box and a fish was placed outside. The cat tried to come
out by random movements. These random movements and
actions are called exploratory movements. By chance it
happens to press the lever – the door opens, it comes out and
eats the fish. The cat is starved again and put in the box and
the whole thing is repeated many times. The cat learns the
method to open the door. Now if it is put in the box, it can
easily open the door. It is called trial and error.

22. This is a chance learning or S.R.
(Stimulus Response) learning.This is
also called Associative learning

23. thorndike’s experiment

25. THE THEORY
 Learning means establishing proper bond between stimulus
and response. This theory is also called connectionism.
According to Thorndike Learning is a mechanical process.
We learn from mistakes.
The correct responses are rewarded and they are
stamped in.
 “Learning is a process
of acquiring and stabilizing successful or rewarded
responses and ofeliminating the unsuccessful or
unrewarded responses.”
 Education is the process of acquiring and stabilizing
successful habit pattern through rewarded responses.

26. Thorndike's laws of
learning
and its educational
implications

27. 1) Law of Readiness:-
First primary law of learning, according to him, is
the ‘Law of Readiness’ or the ‘Law of Action
Tendency’, which means that learning takes place
when an action tendency is aroused through
preparatory adjustment, set or attitude. Readiness
means a preparation of action. If one is not
prepared to learn, learning cannot be automatically
instilled in him, for example, unless the typist, in
order to learn typing prepares himself to start, he
would not make much progress in a lethargic &
unprepared manner

28. 2) Law of Exercise:-
The second law of learning is the ‘Law of Exercise’, which means
that
drill or practice helps in increasing efficiency and durability of
learning and according to Throndike’s S-R Bond Theory, the
connections are strengthened with trail or practice and the
connections are weakened when trial or practice is discontinued.
The ‘law of exercise’, therefore, is also understood as the ‘law of
use and disuse’ in which case connections or bonds made in the
brain cortex are weakened or loosened.
Many examples of this case are found in case of human learning.
Learning to drive a motor-car, typewriting, singing or memorizing a
poem or a mathematical table, and music etc. need exercise and
repetition of various movements and actions many times.

29. 3) Law of Effect:-
The third law is the ‘Law of Effect’, according to which
the trial or steps leading to satisfaction stamps in the
bond or connection. Satisfying states lead to
consolidation and strengthening of the connection,
whereas dis-satisfaction, annoyance or pain lead to the
weakening or stamping out of the connection.
In fact, the ‘law of effect’ signifies that if the response
satisfy the subject, they are learnt and selected, while
those which are not satisfying are eliminated.
Teaching, therefore, must be pleasing. The educator must
obey the tastes and interests of his pupils. In other words,
greater the satisfaction stronger will be the motive to
learn. Thus, intensity is an important condition of ‘law of
effect’

30. 4) Law of Multiple – Response-
According to it the organism varies or changes its
response till an appropriate behaviour is hit upon.
Without varying the responses, the correspondence
for the solution might never be elicited. If the
individual wants to solve a puzzle, he is to try in
different ways rather than mechanically persisting in
the same way.
Throndike’s cat in the puzzle box moved about and
tried many ways to come out till finally it hit the latch
with her paw which opened the door and it jumped
out.

31. 5) The Law of Set or Attitude-
Learning is guided by a total set or attitude of the organism,
which determines not only what the person will do but what
will satisfy or annoy him.
For instance, unless the cricketer sets himself to make a
century, he will not be able to score more runs.
A student, similarly, unless he sets to get first position and
has the attitude of being at the top, would while away the
time and would not learn much.
Hence, learning is affected more in the individual if he is set
to learn more or to excel.

32. 6) The Law of Associative
Shifting-
According to this law we may get an response, of which
a learner is capable, associated with any other situation
to which he is sensitive.
Thorndike illustrated this by the act of teaching a cat to
stand up at a command. A fish was dangled before the
cat while he said ‘ stand up’.
After a number trails by presenting the fish after uttering
the command ‘stand up’, he later ousted the fish and the
over all command of ‘stand up’ was found sufficient to
evoke the response in the cat by standing up or her hind
legs.

33.  According to this theory the task can be started from the easier aspect towards
its difficult side. This approach will benefit the weaker and backward children.

A small child learns some skills through trial and error method only such as sitting,
standing, walking, running etc. In teaching also the child rectifies the writing after commiting
mistakes.
In this theory more emphasis has been laid on motivation. Thus, before starting teaching
in the classroom the students should be properly motivated.
Practice leads a man towards maturity. Practice is the main feature of trial and error
method. Practice helps in reducing the errors committed by the child in learning any concept.
Habits are formed as a result of repeitition. With the help of this theory the wrong habits
of the children can be modified and the good habits strengthened.




34.  The effects of rewards and punishment also affect the learning of the child.
Thus, the theory lays emphasis on the use of reward and punishment in the class by
the teacher.

The theory may be found quite helpful in changing the behaviour of the delinquent
children. The teacher should cure such children making use of this theory.
With the help of this theory the teacher can control the negative emotions of the
children such as anger, jealousy etc.
The teacher can improve his teaching methods making use of this theory. He must
observe the effects of his teaching methods on the students and should not hesitate to
make necessary changes in them, if required.
The theory pays more emphasis on oral drill work. Thus, a teacher should conduct oral
drill of the taught contents. This help in strengthening the learning more.




35. Pavlov’s theory of
classical conditioning

36. Ivan Pavlov
Ivan Pavlov was a famous Russian psychologist
He lived from 1849 to 1936
He made many discoveries in the psychology field
Pavlov won the Nobel Prize in psychology in 1904

37. What is Classical Conditioning?
Classical Conditioning- A learned
reflex/response that you do when evoked
by a stimulus (pairing)
Pavlov performed experiments with dogs
on to collect saliva
He noticed that the dogs would salivate
when powdered meat was present

38. Pavlov associated the ringing of a bell
with the presence of powdered meat
He rang the bell every time the dogs
were served food
Pavlov started ringing the bell and the
dogs would salivate without the
powdered meat being present
Thus, a learned reflex

41. In the Classroom
 Teachers can use classical conditioning to quiet down
the students
 Example:
 First day of class, students walk into class and teacher sits at
desk
 Teacher goes towards board when ready to teach and children
quiet down
 Second day of class, students are chatty when the teacher goes
to the board. Teacher asks to be quiet.
 Third day of class, students are automatically quiet when the
teacher walks to the board

42. Students will be conditioned in a
positive manner
Students will learn the expectations of
their teachers
Students will learn the expectations of
their school

43. Principles of Classical Conditioning
 Acquisition
 Extinction
 Spontaneous Recovery
 Generalization
 Stimulus Discrimination
 Higher Order Conditioning

44. Operant Conditioning theory
(Skinner)

45. Experiment with Rats
 MATERIALS: Skinner Box which is a small
chamber in which an animal learns how to make a
particular response for which the consequence
can be controlled by the researcher, it contains
a speaker, signal lights, lever, food dispenser
which dispenses pellets, and grid floors which can
deliver a mild electric shock. There is also a
cumulative recorder which records the frequency
and speed of the desired response which is made
by the pressing of a lever.

46. PROCEDURE: A hungry rat was
placed in the Skinner box and every
time it pressed the lever it was
rewarded with a food pellet in the
food dish which was used to
reinforce its behaviour.

47. RESULTS: Rats scurried around the box
randomly touching parts of the floor and
wall. Eventually the rat accidently touched
the lever and a food pellet was released.
The same sequence was repeated and with
more trials the time taken to press the lever
eventually decreased. The random
movements of the rat eventually became
deliberate, rats then ate the food as fast as
they could press the lever.

49. Operant conditioning can be described as a
process that attempts to modify behaviour
through the use of positive and negative
reinforcement. Through Operant conditioning, an
individual makes a association between a
particular behaviour and a consequence. Example-
parents rewarding a child’s excellent grade
with candy or some other prize.

50. Principles of Operant Conditioning
 Acquisition
 Extinction
 Spontaneous Recovery
 Generalization
 Discrimination
 Shaping
 Reinforcement

51. Reinforcement
is any event that strengthens or increases the behaviour it follows.
There are two kinds of reinforcers:
Positive reinforcers
are favourable events or outcomes that are presented after the
behaviour. In situations that reflect positive reinforcement, a
response or behaviour is strengthened by the addition of something,
such as praise or a direct reward.
Negative reinforcers
involve the removal of an unfavourable events or outcomes after the
display of a behaviour. In these situations, a response is
strengthened by the removal of something considered unpleasant
In both of these cases of reinforcement, the behaviour increases.

52. Schedules of Reinforcement
 Continuous reinforcement schedule
 Fixed interval reinforcement schedule
 Fixed ratio reinforcement schedule
 Variable reinforcement schedule

53.  Punishment, on the other hand, is the presentation of an adverse
event or outcome that causes a decrease in the behaviour it follows.
There are two kinds of punishment:
Positive punishment, sometimes referred to as punishment by
application, involves the presentation of an unfavourable event or
outcome in order to weaken the response it follows.
Negative punishment, also known as punishment by removal, occurs
when a favourable event or outcome is removed after a behaviour
occurs.
In both of these cases of punishment, the behaviour decreases.

54. Social learning theory
Albert Bandura

55. Basic Social Learning
Concepts
 There are three core concepts at the heart of social learning
theory. First is the idea that people can learn through
observation. Next is the notion that internal mental states are
an essential part of this process.
Finally, this theory recognizes that just because something has
been learned, it does not mean that it will result in a change in
behavior.
Let's explore each of these concepts in greater depth.

56. 1. People can learn through
observation
 Observational Learning
In his famous Bobo doll experiment, Bandura demonstrated
that children learn and imitate behaviors they have observed
in other people. The children in Bandura’s studies observed an
adult acting violently toward a Bobo doll. When the children
were later allowed to play in a room with the Bobo doll, they
began to imitate the aggressive actions they had previously
observed.

57. Bandura identified three basic
models of observational learning:
 A live model, which involves an actual individual
demonstrating or acting out a behavior.
 A verbal instructional model, which involves
descriptions and explanations of a behavior.
 A symbolic model, which involves real or fictional
characters displaying behaviors in books, films,
television programs, or online media.

58. 2. Mental states are
important to learning
Intrinsic Reinforcement
Bandura noted that external, environmental
reinforcement was not the only factor to influence
learning and behavior. He described intrinsic
reinforcement as a form of internal reward, such as pride,
satisfaction, and a sense of accomplishment. This
emphasis on internal thoughts and cognitions helps
connect learning theories to cognitive developmental
theories. While many textbooks place social learning
theory with behavioral theories, Bandura himself describes
his approach as a 'social cognitive theory.

59. 3. Learning does not necessarily
lead to a change in behavior
While behaviorists believed that
learning led to a permanent change in
behavior, observational learning
demonstrates that people can learn
new information without
demonstrating new behaviors.

60. The Modeling Process
Not all observed behaviors are effectively
learned. Factors involving both the model and
the learner can play a role in whether social
learning is successful. Certain requirements and
steps must also be followed. The following steps
are involved in the observational learning and
modeling process:

61. Attention:
 In order to learn, you need to be paying
attention. Anything that distracts your
attention is going to have a negative effect
on observational learning. If the model
interesting or there is a novel aspect to the
situation, you are far more likely to
dedicate your full attention to learning.

62. Retention:
 The ability to store information is also an
important part of the learning process.
Retention can be affected by a number of
factors, but the ability to pull up
information later and act on it is vital to
observational learning.

63. Reproduction:
 Once you have paid attention to the model
and retained the information, it is time to
actually perform the behavior you
observed. Further practice of the learned
behavior leads to improvement and skill
advancement.

64. Motivation:
 Finally, in order for observational learning to be successful, you
have to be motivated to imitate the behavior that has been
modeled. Reinforcement and punishment play an important role in
motivation. While experiencing these motivators can be highly
effective, so can observing other experience some type of
reinforcement or punishment. For example, if you see another
student rewarded with extra credit for being to class on time, you
might start to show up a few minutes early each day

65. Kohler’s Insight
Learning

66. What is insight learning
Insight learning is the abrupt realization of a problem's
solution. Insight learning is not the result of trial and error,
responding to an environmental stimulus, or the result of
observing someone else attempting the problem. It is a
completely cognitive experience that requires the ability to
visualize the problem and the solution internally - in the
mind's eye, so to speak - before initiating a behavioural
response.

67. Experiment 1
1. In one experiment, Kohler put the chimpanzee,
“Sulthan” inside a cage and a banana was hung
from the roof of a cage. A box was placed
inside the cage. The chimpanzee tried to reach
the banana by jumping but could not succeed.
Suddenly he got an idea and used the box as a
jumping platform by placing it just below the
hanging banana.
2. In another experiment Kohler made this
problem complicated that two or three boxes
were required to reach the banana

69. 3. In a more complicated experiment, a
banana was kept far outside the cage and
two sticks – one larger than the other-
were kept inside the box. When failed to
reach the banana by one stick, with a
sudden bright idea the chimpanzee tried
to reach the banana by joining the two
sticks.

71. STEPS IN INSIGHT LEARNING
1. Identifying the problem: The learner recognizes the
presence of an intervening obstacles on his way to the goal.
2. Understanding the Problem: The learner observes the
problematic situation, analyse it
between the goal and the obstacles.
and perceive the relation
3. Incubation of Ideas: After analyzing the total
hesitation,situation he reaches in conclusions
pause, concentrated attention etc.
by means of

72. 4. Sustained Attention: The learner maintains
frequently recurrent attention to the goal and motivation.
5. Insight Development: In a certain moment there is
a sudden perception of the relationship in the total
situation and the organism directly performs the required
acts.

73. 7. Steady Repetition of Adaptive Behaviour: After
getting an insightful solution, the individual tries to
implement it in another situation.
8. Comprehension of Ability: The learner reaches the
ability to understand the relevant parts of the situation
and overlooking the irrelevant ones.