Different View points of learning

2. Definitions: Learning is:
1. “A persisting change in human performance
or performance potential . . . (brought) about as a
result of the learner’s interaction with the
environment” (Driscoll, 1994, ).
2. “The relatively permanent change in a
person’s knowledge or behavior due to experience”
(Mayer, 1982, p. 1040).
3.“An enduring change in behavior, or in the
capacity to behave in a given fashion, which results
from practice or other forms of experience” (Shuell,
1986, p. 412).
4.Learning is a change in behavior or in potential
behavior that occurs as a result of experience.

3. Types of Learning
1. Learning through association - Classical Conditioning
2. Learning through consequences – Operant Conditioning
3. Learning through observation – Modeling/ observational
Learning

4. Types of Learning
Cognitive Learning: When learning refers to gaining of
information, memorization, ability to perceive
relationships between different ideas, explaining
phenomena in different ways etc.
Psychomotor Learning: The learning of skills that have
large physical or motor components.
Affective Learning: This is largely outcome of the socio-
cultural and emotional atmosphere surrounding us.
Concomitant Learning: The unconscious learning from
environment as attitudes, values, likes and dislikes,
sentiments. Behaviour related to moral values,
nationalism, truthfulness etc. are largely an outcome of
this type of learning.
Perceptual learning: Learning through the effects of past
experience on sensory perceptions.

5. Gagne’s Types of Learning
Gagné's Hierarchy of learning
In 1956, the American educational psychologist
Robert M. Gagné proposed a system of classifying
different types of learning in terms of the degree of
complexity of the mental processes involved.
He identified eight basic types. According to Gagné,
the higher orders of learning in this hierarchy build
upon the lower levels, requiring progressively greater
amounts of previous learning for their success. The
lowest four orders tend to focus on the more
behavioural aspects of learning, while the highest four
focus on the more cognitive aspects.

6. Signal Learning. simplest form of learning, and consists
essentially of the classical conditioning. conditioned
stimulus along with another stimulus (known as the
unconditioned stimulus) which produces the desired response
naturally; after a certain number of repetitions of the double
stimulus, it is found that the subject emits the desired response
when exposed to the conditioned stimulus on its own.
2. Stimulus-response learning. This somewhat more
sophisticated form of learning, which is also known as operant
conditioning, It involves developing desired stimulus-response
bonds in the subject through a carefully-planned reinforcement
schedule based on the use of 'rewards' and 'punishments'.
Operant conditioning differs from classical conditioning in that
the reinforcing agent (the 'reward' or 'punishment') is
presented after the response. It is this type of conditioning that
forms the basis of programmed learning in all its various
manifestations.

7. 3. Chaining. This is a more advanced form of learning in which
the subject develops the ability to connect two or more
previously-learned stimulus-response bonds into a linked
sequence. It is the process whereby most complex psychomotor
skills (eg riding a bicycle or playing the piano) are learned.
4. Verbal association. This is a form of chaining in which the
links between the items being connected are verbal in nature.
Verbal association is one of the key processes in the
development of language skills.
 5. Discrimination learning. This involves developing the
ability to make appropriate (different) responses to a series of
similar stimuli that differ in a systematic way. The process is
made more complex (and hence more difficult) by the
phenomenon of interference, whereby one piece of learning
inhibits another. Interference is thought to be one of the main
causes of forgetting.

8. 6. Concept learning. This involves developing the ability
to make a consistent response to different stimuli that
form a common class or category of some sort. It forms
the basis of the ability to generalise, classify etc.
7. Rule learning. This is a very-high-level cognitive
process that involves being able to learn relationships
between concepts and apply these relationships in
different situations, including situations not previously
encountered. It forms the basis of the learning of general
rules, procedures, etc.
8. Problem solving. This is the highest level of cognitive
process according to Gagné. It involves developing the
ability to invent a complex rule, algorithm or procedure
for the purpose of solving one particular problem, and
then using the method to solve other problems of a similar
nature.

9. Levels of Learning
Reflective level ( most thoughtful learning)
Understanding level (thoughtful learning)
Memory level (thoughtless learning)
Memory: 4 steps
i. Registration or attention
ii. Retention
iii. Recall
Iv. Recognition

10. Learning Approaches
Q: How do people learn?
A: Nobody really knows.
But there are 6 viewpoints of learning:
•Behaviorism
•Cognitivism
•Social Learning Theory
•Social Constructivism
•Multiple Intelligences
•Information Processing
•Humanistic Approach

11. BEHAVIOURISM

12. Behaviorism
Confined to observable and measurable behavior
 Classical Conditioning - Pavlov
 Operant Conditioning – Skinner
 Thorndike Theory of Association

13. Behaviorism
 Classical Conditioning - Pavlov
S R
A stimulus is presented
in order to get a response:

14. Behaviorism
 Classical Conditioning - Pavlov
S US
UR
CS US
CR

15. Behaviorism
 Operant Conditioning - Skinner
The response is made first,
then reinforcement follows.

16. Behaviorism
Learning is defined by the outward expression of new
behaviors
Focuses solely on observable behaviors
A biological basis for learning
Learning is context-independent
Classical & Operant Conditioning
Reflexes (Pavlov’s Dogs)
Feedback/Reinforcement (Skinner’s Pigeon Box)

17. Behaviorism in the ClassroomRewards and
punishments
Responsibility for
student learning rests
squarely with the
teacher
Lecture-based, highly
structured

18. Critiques of Behaviorism
Does not account for processes taking place in the
mind that cannot be observed
Advocates for passive student learning in a teacher-
centric environment
One size fits all
Knowledge itself is given and absolute
Programmed instruction & teacher-proofing

19. COGNITIVISM

20. Cognitivism
Grew in response to Behaviorism
Knowledge is stored cognitively as symbols
Learning is the process of connecting symbols in a
meaningful & memorable way
Studies focused on the mental processes that facilitate
symbol connection

21. Cognitive Learning Theory
 Discovery Learning - Jerome
Bruner
 Meaningful Verbal Learning
- David Ausubel

22. Cognitive Learning Theory
 Discovery Learning
1. Bruner said anybody can learn anything at
any age, provided it is stated in terms
they can understand.

23. Cognitive Learning Theory
 Discovery Learning
2. Powerful Concepts (not isolated facts)
a. Transfer to many different situations
b. Only possible through Discovery Learning
c. Confront the learner with problems and help
them find solutions. Do not present
sequenced materials.

24. Cognitive Learning Theory Meaningful Verbal Learning
Advance Organizers:
New material is
presented in a
systematic way, and
is connected to
existing cognitive
structures in a
meaningful way.

25. Cognitive Learning Theory
 Meaningful Verbal Learning
When learners have
difficulty with new
material, go back to
the concrete anchors
(Advance Organizers).
Provide a Discovery
approach, and they’ll
learn.

26. Cognitivism in the Classroom
Inquiry-oriented projects
Opportunities for the
testing of hypotheses
Curiosity encouraged
Staged scaffolding

27. Critiques of Cognitivism
Like Behaviorism, knowledge itself is given and
absolute
Input – Process – Output model is mechanistic and
deterministic
Does not account enough for individuality
Little emphasis on affective characteristics

28. SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY

29. Social Learning Theory (SLT)
Grew out of Cognitivism
A. Bandura (1973)
Learning takes place through observation and
sensorial experiences
Imitation is the sincerest form of flattery
SLT is the basis of the movement against violence in
media & video games

30. Social Learning Theory
Learning From Models -
Albert Bandura
1. Attend to pertinent clues
2. Code for memory (store a visual
image)
3. Retain in memory
4. Accurately reproduce the observed
activity
5. Possess sufficient motivation to apply
new learning

31. Social Learning Theory
Research indicates that the following factors
influence the strength of learning from models:
1. How much power the model seems to have
2. How capable the model seems to be
3. How nurturing (caring) the model seems to be
4. How similar the learner perceives self and
model
5. How many models the learner observes

32. Social Learning Theory
Four interrelated processes establish and
strengthen identification with the model:
1. Children want to be like the model
2. Children believe they are like the
model
3. Children experience emotions like
those the model is feeling.
4. Children act like the model.

33. Social Learning Theory
Through identification, children come to believe
they have the same characteristics as the model.
When they identify with a nurturant and
competent model, children feel pleased and
proud.
When they identify with an inadequate model,
children feel unhappy and insecure.

34. SLT in the Classroom
Collaborative learning
and group work
Modeling responses and
expectations
Opportunities to
observe experts in action

35. Critiques of Social Learning Theory
Does not take into account individuality, context,
and experience as mediating factors
Suggests students learn best as passive receivers of
sensory stimuli, as opposed to being active learners
Emotions and motivation not considered important
or connected to learning

36. SOCIAL CONSTRUCTIVISM

37. Social Constructivism
Grew out of and in response to Cognitivism, framed
around metacognition
Knowledge is actively constructed
Learning is…
A search for meaning by the learner
Contextualized
An inherently social activity
Dialogic and recursive
The responsibility of the learner
Lev Vygotsky
Social Learning
 Zone of Proximal Development
 Cultural tools

38. Social Constructivism in the Classroom
Inquiry learning
Problem based learning
Instructional conversations
Cognitive apprenticeship (MKO-
More Knowledgeable Other)
Experiential activities
Personal focus
Collaborative & cooperative
learning

39. Critiques of Social Constructivism
Suggests that knowledge is neither given nor absolute
Often seen as less rigorous than traditional
approaches to instruction
Does not fit well with traditional age grouping and
rigid terms/semesters

40. MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCE

41. Multiple Intelligences (MI)
 Grew out of Constructivism, framed around metacognition
 H. Gardner (1983 to present)
 All people are born with eight intelligences:
 Enables students to leverage their strengths and purposefully target and
develop their weaknesses
1. Verbal-Linguistic 5. Musical
2. Visual-Spatial 6. Naturalist
3. Logical-Mathematical 7. Interpersonal
4. Kinesthetic 8. Intrapersonal

42. MI in the Classroom
Delivery of instruction
via multiple mediums
Student-centered
classroom
Authentic Assessment
Self-directed learning

43. Critiques of MI
Lack of quantifiable evidence that MI exist
Lack of evidence that use of MI as a curricular and
methodological approach has any discernable impact
on learning
Suggestive of a departure from core curricula and
standards

44. INFORMATION PROCESSING
APPROACH

45. INFORMATION PROCESSING
APPROACH
Cognitive theory that examines the way knowledge
enters and is stored in and retrieved from memory.
Based on computer analogy
Human-computer analogy is based on the
observation that both computers and humans engage
in cognitive processes such as learning (acquiring
knowledge), remembering (retrieving knowledge),
making decisions, answering questions and so on.
Has three major components:
Information stores
Cognitive processes
Metacognition

46. HUMANISTIC APPROACH

47. HUMANISTIC APPROACH
Emphasizes the uniqueness and value of every person
determined by his/her need for self actualization.
Focusses on subjective qualities of human experience
and the personal meanings of experiences to a person.
All students are intrinsically motivated to self
actualize or learn
Learning is dependent upon meeting a hierarchy of
needs (physiological, psychological and intellectual)
Learning should be reinforced.
Rogers- A prominent thinker in humanistic app.

48. Class in Humanistic Approach
Major purpose of education is to help develop each
student’s individuality, to assist him in realizing the
potential that already exists within him.
Co-operative learning, open classroom
Teacher is less that of a director, manipulator and
more that of one who assists and helps students in
their process of becoming.
Two elements of teaching-learning process:
student-teacher relationship (genuine, accepting,
empathetic)
classroom climate (safe, collective effort of teacher and
student)