The document discusses various theories and aspects of learning. It begins by defining learning as the acquisition of habits, knowledge, and attitudes through new experiences that allow adjustment to changing environments. Several key points are then made: - Learning is a lifelong process that begins at birth and involves physical, cognitive, and emotional development. - Factors like motivation, environment, experiences, and reinforcement influence learning. - Different learning theories are proposed, including trial-and-error, classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and cognitive theories. - Laws of learning like exercise, effect, readiness are described. Different types and processes of learning are also outlined.

2.  One of the most important characteristics
of human beings is their capacity to learn.
An individual starts learning immediately
after his birth, or in a strict sense even
earlier in the womb of the mother.
 All our adaptive as well as maladaptive, our
cognitive as well as affective behavior are
formed by learning processes. These are
of vital importance in helping the individual
to adapt to his changing environment.

3. Definition :
 Crow & Crow-1973:
 Learning is the acquisition of habits,
knowledge, and attitudes. It involves
new ways of doing things and it
operates on an individual attempts to
overcome obstacle or to adjust to new
situations. It represents progressive
changes in behavior. It enables him to
satisfy interest to attain a goal.

4. Nature of learning
 Learning is a process not a product
 It involves all those experiences and
training of an individual (from birth) which
help him to produce to change in his
behavior.
 Learning brings changes in the behavior
but it does not necessarily mean these
changes always improvement or
development in the positive direction.
 It prepares an individual for the necessary
adjustment & adaptation.
 All learning is purposeful & goal oriented

5.  The scope of learning is too wide to explain in
words. It is comprehensive process (like
cognitive, conative, affective)
 It is universal and continuous. Every creature
that lives learns.
 It doesn’t include the changes in behavior on
account of maturation, fatigue, illness or drugs.
 It is transferable from one situation to another.
 It helps in the proper growth and development
 It helps in the balanced development.

6. Learning process
 Perception learning
 Conceptual learning
 Association learning
 Appreciational learning
 Attitudinal learning

7. Perception learning
 All knowledge is bases on sense
perception.
 The individual receives information from
sense organs and interprets them in the
light of previous experience.
 Learning is dependent on relative
perception of the senses. The learning is
confirmed to the presentation of the
concrete object.

8. Conceptual learning
 The learning implies that the individual
starts thinking in the abstract terms.
 He/she understand about the object
without its concrete form.
 These abstract gradually multiply and
become a part of mental make-up.

9. Association learning
 The individual has some mental pictures
of his previous observations. He tries to
link up his new associations with his
previous mental pictures.
 He uses his memory and recalls his
previous observations.

10. Appreciational learning
 At the level the ideas, attitudes and
mental dispositions which are related to
our feelings come into play.
 The individual starts attaching some
worthwhile values to the knowledge
which he has acquired.

11. Attitudinal learning
 The individual by now has a firm grasp
over the knowledge acquired and
develops certain attitudes of mind.
 These attitudes are confirmed as the
individual acquires more and more
knowledge.

12. Steps in learning process
 A motive or drive
 An attractive goal &
 A block to the attainment of the goal.
(reinforcement, integration, learning
situation)

13. motive or drive:
 Motives are the dynamic force that
energize behavior and compel the
individual to act.
 The directions of learning will depend
upon the relative strength of motives.
Goal:
 For satisfaction of needs the individual
sets definite goal for achievement.
 The setting of goal helps in making the
learning purposeful and interesting.

14. Block to the attainment of the goal:
 In the individual faces no difficulty in
attaining the goal, he will not change his
present behavior. This means there is
no necessity to learn. If block or barrier
obstructs the individual to reach a goal
then the individual will try to change or
modify his behavior.

15. Types of learning
 Conditioning learning
 Verbal learning
 Motor learning
 Concept learning
 Problem solving learning
 Attitude learning
 Serial learning
 Paired associate learning

16. Conditioning learning
 It involves the conditioning of respondent
behavior through a process of stimulus
association and substitution.
Verbal learning
 All learning taking place in formal education
is verbal learning.
 The language we speak, communication,
devices we use are the result of such
learning.

17. Motor learning
 When learning involves primarily the use of
muscles, it called motor leaning.
 Learning to walk, swim, play throw ball,
piano are example of motor learning.
Concept learning
 A concept s form of mental images that
denotes a generalized idea about things,
persons, or events.
 In learning concept, an individual tires to
find out some common property in group or
objects.

18. Problem solving learning
 It is higher type of learning. This learning
requires the use of cognition abilities like
thinking, reasoning, generalization,
imagination.
Attitude learning
 Much of learning is based on attitudes.
Because of formation of attitudes we show
favorable or unfavorable responses various
objects, persons or situations.

19. Serial learning
 The learner is represented with learning
which exhibits some sequential order.
 Leaning of alphabets, multiplication tables,
these are examples of serial learning.
Paired associate learning
 Learning tasks are such a way that they may
be learned by reason of their associations.
 Much of the verbal or motor learning may be
acquired by means of the techniques of
paired multiple associations.

20. Purpose of learning
 Acquiring knowledge : it include aspects
such as perception, conception and
associate of learning.
 Acquiring skill : it include writing,
reading, art, drawing, handwork, musical
performance, other sensory motor
process.
 Acquiring attitude and ideals : it include
behavior falling under sphere of affective
Domain.

21. Factors influencing
learning
 Three elements are there:
 The learner whose behavior is to be
changed or modified.
 The type of experience or training required
for modification in the learner behavior.
 The men & material resource needed for
providing desired experiences.

22. Factors associated with
learner
 Learner physical health: physical health
of the learner is an important factor.
Fever, sensory defects particularly of the
eyes or the ears malnutrition, loss of
sleep and fatigue some of the physical
handicap that hinder effective learning.
 Learners mental health basic potential of
the learner.
 Learner’s innate ability and capacity for
the learning.

23.  Learner’s general intelligence knowledge ,
understanding skills etc.
 Learner’s basic interest, aptitude & attitude
related to the learning of a particular thing or
area.
 The level of motivation
 Goals of life
 Readiness and will power
 Maturation
 Age
 Emotion
 Sex

24. Factors associated with type
of learning
 Nature of learning experience
 Methodology of learning
 linking the recent learning with those of the past,
 correlating learning in one area with that of
another,
 utilization of maximum number of senses,
revision and practice,
 provision of proper feedback and reinforcement.
 Meaningfulness of material
 Amount or length of material

25. Laws of learning
 Law of readiness
 Law of effect
 Law of exercise
 Law of frequency
 Law of disuse
 Law of recency
 Law of primacy
 Law of purpose
 Law of association

26. Law of readiness
 Learning takes place best when person is
ready to learn. Some sort of preparatory
attitude or a mindset is necessary.
 Learner’s reaction depends upon the
readiness of the sensory and motor neurons.
Law of effect
 A successful reaction gives satisfaction to
the individual, and the same reaction tends
to be repeated.
 An unsucessful reaction gives annoyance to
the individual and tends to be inhibited.

27. Law of exercise
 native reactions are strengthened by practice.
The use of any response strengthens it, and
makes it more prompt, easy, and certain.
Law of frequency
 The law of frequency is correlated to law of
use.
 If one response strengthens the situation-
response connection. Two responses
strengthen it further, three still further and so
on.

28. Law of disuse
 Any learning process which is not practice
for something gradually decays.
 Disuse weakens the connection.
Law of recency
 The law of recency is correlated to law of
disuse.
 The more recent is the exercise, the
stronger is the connection between a
situation and the response.

29. Law of primacy
 The first experience and acts are novel and apt to
attract attention. They readily impressed in the
mind.
Law of purpose
 With a clear or definite goal in mind. The student
works towards a definite purpose.
Law of association
 It is on the basis of association of ideas that we can
explain why one idea gives way to the other.
 Ex: Taj mahal, we recall it is made of marble
because these ideas are closely associated with
one another.

30. Theories of learning
 Trial and error learning
 Conditioned learning
 Theory of insightful learning (Gestalt )
 Cognitive theory of learning

31. Trial and error theory of learning
Edward Lee Thorndike
 This theory was propagated by Edward Lee Thorndike (1874-
1949) According to Thorndike, learning consists of making
bonds or connections between stimuli and responses.
 In this typical experiment, a hungry cat was placed inside the
puzzle box, and a piece of fish was kept outside the box.
 The cat could not reach the fish unless it opened the door. In
order to escape from the box, the cat had to perform a simple
action as required by the experimenter.
 The cat had to pull a loop or press a lever in order to open the
door. Once the door was opened, the cat could escape and
eat the fish.
 Initially it made random movements and ineffective
responses. On the first trial, the cat struggled valiantly;

32.  In the second trial, the time taken to pull the
loop reduced a bit. Every time the cat came out
of the box and took a piece of fish, Thorndike
put the cat inside the box again.
 Thorndike and the cat kept up this exercise for
a while. With increasing trials, the time taken to
pull the loop (response latency) decreased. The
wrong responses (errors) that the cat was
showing also decreased, as trials increased.
 Finally, the cat learned the trick. As soon as it
was put in the box, it pulled the loop to escape
for a well-deserved reward. The name, trial-
and-error learning comes from the fact that
errors decreased over trials. The cat learned
from its errors.

33.  From the experiment Thorndike said that the
fallowing components or elements are
involved in the process of learning:
 Drive
 Goal
 Barrier or blocks which prevent the individual
reaching the goal
 Random attempts to overcome the barriers
 Chances success selection of the correct
response in the neuromuscular system of the
individual

34.  Major theoretical principles which form the basis of
Thorndike's theory of learning are:
 It involve trial and error or selection and connection.
 Learning is the result of the formation of
connections.
 Learning is improvement in performance , not
insightful
 Learning is direct, not mediated by ideas based on
his theory, Thorndike put forward the fallowing laws
of learning.
 Laws of readiness
 Law of effect
 Law of exercise
 Law of multiple response
 Law of attitude
 Law of associative shifting

35. Educational implication
 According to him: when child is ready to learn he
learn more quickly and effectively . He warns that
the child should not be forced to learn when he is
not ready. (law of readiness)
 The teacher must try to strengthen the bonds or
connections between stimuli and responses
through repetition.
 The child must be suitably provided with learning
experience which gives him a sense of satisfaction.
 The learner should try to see the similarity and
dissimilarity.
 Learner should be encouraged to perform his task
independently.

36. Classical conditioning
 A theory of classical conditioning or respondent
learning. The theory of classical conditioning
was propagated by Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936)
 He experienced on dog and found that food
placed in the mouth of hungry dog automatically
causes salivation.
 In case salivation is an unlearned response,
and the food is an unconditioned stimulus. Later
on bell was rung each time before that food was
presented.
 Pavlov found that dog started to salivate at the
sound of the bell, and this was termed as
conditioned response.

37.  Also called RESONSE CONDITIONING
 Prior to conditioning, the ringing of a bell. –
does not bring about salivation.
 During the conditioning, the bell is rung just
before the presentation of the food.
 Eventually (after conditioning)- the ringing of
the bell alone brings about salivation.

38.  Before conditioning
 Neutral stimulus(sound of bell) –response
unrelated food
 Unconditional stimulus (food) – unconditioned
response (salivation)
 During conditioning
 Neutral stimulus (sound of bell )
unconditioned
 Unconditioned stimulus (meat)
response(salivation )
 After conditioning
 Conditioned stimulus (sound of bell) –
conditioned response ( salivation )

39.  Neutral stimulus : a stimulus that before
conditioning does not naturally bring about
the response of interest.
 Unconditioned stimulus : a response that
is natural and needs no training (salivation at
the smell)
 Conditioned stimulus : that has been
paired with an unconditioned stimulus to
bring about a response earlier caused only
by the unconditioned stimulus.
 Conditioned response: a response that
after conditioning follow a previously neutral
stimulus (salivation at the ringing of a bell)

40. Educational implication
 Fear, love, hatred towards a particular subject
is created through conditioning. a teacher with
his harsh treatment of his student , may create
strong dislike among them towards the subject.
 The theory emphasis that the student should be
exposed to positive stimuli in order to develop
desirable habits, interest & attitudes in them.
 It can be remove unhealthy attitude from the
minds.

41. Theory of operant conditioning
– B.F. skinner(1904-1990)
 Operant conditioning is also called
instrumental conditioning.
 According to skinner, operant behavior is
determined by the events or consequences
that fallow the responses.
 If the consequences are favorable, the
individual will repeat the same behavior.
 Alternatively, if the consequences are
unfavorable, they reduce the chances of the
same behavior from getting repeated.

42.  Reinforcement : the process by which a stimulus
increases the probability that a preceding behavior
will be repeated.
 Reinforcer : any stimuli that increase the probability
that a preceding behavior will occur again.
 Positive reinforcer : A stimulus added to the
environment brings about an increase in the future.
 Negative reinforcer : An unpleasant stimulus
whose removal leads to an increase in the
probability that a preceding response will occur
again in the future.
 Punishment : A stimulus that decreases the
probability that a previous behavior will occur again.

43. Schedule of reinforcement
 Primary reinforcement
 Secondary or conditioned reinforcement
 Continuous reinforcement
 Fixed interval reinforcement
 Fixed ratio reinforcement
 Variable ratio reinforcement

44. Educational implication
 Individual learn correct response
 It apply the behavior application
 It avoid punishment for unlearning the
undesirable behavior.
 It shows favor chances for failure and more
opportunity for success.
 It given rapid feedback concerning the
accuracy of his learning.
 The learner is able to learn at his own pace.

45. Theory of insightful learning
 Gestalt psychology was founded in Germany
in 1912 by Max Wertheimer.
 The word ‘Gestalt’ means form or particular
arrangement of elements.
 Gestalt psychologists used term as ‘insight’ to
describe the perception of the whole situation
by the learner, and his intelligence in
responding to the proper relationships.
 Past experience which help in the insightful
solution.

46.  Intelligence - insightful solution depend upon
the basic intelligence of the learner
 Learning situation – insight recurs when the
learning situation is so arranged the
necessary aspects are open for observation.
 Initial efforts
 Repetition and generalization

47. Educational implication
 That trial and error learning must be
minimized.
 Subject must be presented in gestalt
 It brought motivation.
 Learner must be given in plenty opportunity.

48. Cognitive theory of learning
albert bandura (1977):
Observational learning
According to Bandura, observational learning
takes place in four steps.
 It take place in four steps:
 Paying attention and perceiving the most
critical features of another person’s behavior.
 Remember the behavior.
 Reproducing the action.
 Being motivated to learn and carry out the
behavior.

49. Summery of theory of
learning
 Trial and error theory of learning, classical
conditioning and operant conditioning
theories interpret learning in terms of
connection or association b/w stimulus and
response.
 Insightful and observational learning
emphasizes the role of purpose , insight
understanding , reasoning, memory and
other cognitive factors.

50. Learning during illness
 Physiological factors: patients who are ill,
critically in severe pain, restlessness, deaf or
vision impaired. These obstacles interfere with
readiness to learn because they reduce the
person’s concentration.
 Psychological factors: psychological stresses
interfere with concentration. Patients who are
anxious, fearful and angry about their illness.
 Environmental factors : learning is facilitated
in a pleasant, free from distraction. Lack of
privacy, noise can disrupt learning process.

51. Nursing implication
 Apply in clinical situation and academic
situation
 Many of subjective feelings, emotions and
attitude are probably conditioned
responses.
 Understand different kind of patients (all
factors)
 Define purpose and goal in all learning.
 Connect new learning method to old
method. Repeated practice.

52. Technique of effective study
 Being self prepared
 Wholeness
 Planning and organization
 Clarity of purpose
 Search for essential in an assignment
 Note taking
 Review and over learn
 Paying attention towards charts, tables, and
formulate
 Proper physical surroundings
 interrelationship

53. Thank you