Nucleic acids DNA and RNA are made up of nucleotides which consist of a 5-carbon sugar (deoxyribose in DNA and ribose in RNA), a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base. DNA contains the bases adenine, guanine, cytosine, and thymine and is located in the cell nucleus, while RNA contains adenine, guanine, cytosine, and uracil and is found throughout the cell. Nucleic acids store and transmit genetic information through their sequence of nucleotides and are essential for all known life.
RECOMBINATION MOLECULAR BIOLOGY PPT UPDATED new.pptxSabahat Ali
This ppt is about recombination and where it occurs. Types of recombination and models of recombination along with many factors in prokaryotic and eukaryotic recombination
RNA- A polymer of ribonucleotides, is a single stranded structure. There are three major types of RNA- m RNA,t RNA and r RNA. Besides that there are small nuclear,micro RNAs, small interfering and heterogeneous RNAs. Each of them has a specific structure and performs a specific function.
There are two types of nucleic acids, namely deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA). Primarily, nucleic acids serve as repositories and transmitters of genetic information.
Nucleic acids are the polymers of nucleotides (polynucleotides) held by 3′and 5′phosphate bridges. In other words, nucleic acids are built up by the monomeric units—nucleotides (It may be recalled that protein is a polymer of amino acids).
Nucleotides are composed of a nitrogenous base, a pentose sugar and a phosphate. Nucleotides perform a wide variety of functions in the living cells, besides being the building blocks or monomeric units in the nucleic acid (DNA and RNA) structure.
RECOMBINATION MOLECULAR BIOLOGY PPT UPDATED new.pptxSabahat Ali
This ppt is about recombination and where it occurs. Types of recombination and models of recombination along with many factors in prokaryotic and eukaryotic recombination
RNA- A polymer of ribonucleotides, is a single stranded structure. There are three major types of RNA- m RNA,t RNA and r RNA. Besides that there are small nuclear,micro RNAs, small interfering and heterogeneous RNAs. Each of them has a specific structure and performs a specific function.
There are two types of nucleic acids, namely deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA). Primarily, nucleic acids serve as repositories and transmitters of genetic information.
Nucleic acids are the polymers of nucleotides (polynucleotides) held by 3′and 5′phosphate bridges. In other words, nucleic acids are built up by the monomeric units—nucleotides (It may be recalled that protein is a polymer of amino acids).
Nucleotides are composed of a nitrogenous base, a pentose sugar and a phosphate. Nucleotides perform a wide variety of functions in the living cells, besides being the building blocks or monomeric units in the nucleic acid (DNA and RNA) structure.
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Embracing GenAI - A Strategic ImperativePeter Windle
Artificial Intelligence (AI) technologies such as Generative AI, Image Generators and Large Language Models have had a dramatic impact on teaching, learning and assessment over the past 18 months. The most immediate threat AI posed was to Academic Integrity with Higher Education Institutes (HEIs) focusing their efforts on combating the use of GenAI in assessment. Guidelines were developed for staff and students, policies put in place too. Innovative educators have forged paths in the use of Generative AI for teaching, learning and assessments leading to pockets of transformation springing up across HEIs, often with little or no top-down guidance, support or direction.
This Gasta posits a strategic approach to integrating AI into HEIs to prepare staff, students and the curriculum for an evolving world and workplace. We will highlight the advantages of working with these technologies beyond the realm of teaching, learning and assessment by considering prompt engineering skills, industry impact, curriculum changes, and the need for staff upskilling. In contrast, not engaging strategically with Generative AI poses risks, including falling behind peers, missed opportunities and failing to ensure our graduates remain employable. The rapid evolution of AI technologies necessitates a proactive and strategic approach if we are to remain relevant.
Synthetic Fiber Construction in lab .pptxPavel ( NSTU)
Synthetic fiber production is a fascinating and complex field that blends chemistry, engineering, and environmental science. By understanding these aspects, students can gain a comprehensive view of synthetic fiber production, its impact on society and the environment, and the potential for future innovations. Synthetic fibers play a crucial role in modern society, impacting various aspects of daily life, industry, and the environment. ynthetic fibers are integral to modern life, offering a range of benefits from cost-effectiveness and versatility to innovative applications and performance characteristics. While they pose environmental challenges, ongoing research and development aim to create more sustainable and eco-friendly alternatives. Understanding the importance of synthetic fibers helps in appreciating their role in the economy, industry, and daily life, while also emphasizing the need for sustainable practices and innovation.
2024.06.01 Introducing a competency framework for languag learning materials ...Sandy Millin
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Published classroom materials form the basis of syllabuses, drive teacher professional development, and have a potentially huge influence on learners, teachers and education systems. All teachers also create their own materials, whether a few sentences on a blackboard, a highly-structured fully-realised online course, or anything in between. Despite this, the knowledge and skills needed to create effective language learning materials are rarely part of teacher training, and are mostly learnt by trial and error.
Knowledge and skills frameworks, generally called competency frameworks, for ELT teachers, trainers and managers have existed for a few years now. However, until I created one for my MA dissertation, there wasn’t one drawing together what we need to know and do to be able to effectively produce language learning materials.
This webinar will introduce you to my framework, highlighting the key competencies I identified from my research. It will also show how anybody involved in language teaching (any language, not just English!), teacher training, managing schools or developing language learning materials can benefit from using the framework.
Read| The latest issue of The Challenger is here! We are thrilled to announce that our school paper has qualified for the NATIONAL SCHOOLS PRESS CONFERENCE (NSPC) 2024. Thank you for your unwavering support and trust. Dive into the stories that made us stand out!
Operation “Blue Star” is the only event in the history of Independent India where the state went into war with its own people. Even after about 40 years it is not clear if it was culmination of states anger over people of the region, a political game of power or start of dictatorial chapter in the democratic setup.
The people of Punjab felt alienated from main stream due to denial of their just demands during a long democratic struggle since independence. As it happen all over the word, it led to militant struggle with great loss of lives of military, police and civilian personnel. Killing of Indira Gandhi and massacre of innocent Sikhs in Delhi and other India cities was also associated with this movement.
A Strategic Approach: GenAI in EducationPeter Windle
Artificial Intelligence (AI) technologies such as Generative AI, Image Generators and Large Language Models have had a dramatic impact on teaching, learning and assessment over the past 18 months. The most immediate threat AI posed was to Academic Integrity with Higher Education Institutes (HEIs) focusing their efforts on combating the use of GenAI in assessment. Guidelines were developed for staff and students, policies put in place too. Innovative educators have forged paths in the use of Generative AI for teaching, learning and assessments leading to pockets of transformation springing up across HEIs, often with little or no top-down guidance, support or direction.
This Gasta posits a strategic approach to integrating AI into HEIs to prepare staff, students and the curriculum for an evolving world and workplace. We will highlight the advantages of working with these technologies beyond the realm of teaching, learning and assessment by considering prompt engineering skills, industry impact, curriculum changes, and the need for staff upskilling. In contrast, not engaging strategically with Generative AI poses risks, including falling behind peers, missed opportunities and failing to ensure our graduates remain employable. The rapid evolution of AI technologies necessitates a proactive and strategic approach if we are to remain relevant.
Acetabularia Information For Class 9 .docxvaibhavrinwa19
Acetabularia acetabulum is a single-celled green alga that in its vegetative state is morphologically differentiated into a basal rhizoid and an axially elongated stalk, which bears whorls of branching hairs. The single diploid nucleus resides in the rhizoid.
How to Make a Field invisible in Odoo 17Celine George
It is possible to hide or invisible some fields in odoo. Commonly using “invisible” attribute in the field definition to invisible the fields. This slide will show how to make a field invisible in odoo 17.
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3. Nucleic Acids: DNA and RNA
• Nucleic acids are polymeric macromolecules (High molecular weight) or
large biological macmolecules, essential for all known forms of life.
• Nucleic acids, which include DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) and RNA (ribonucleic
acid), are made from monomers known as nucleotides.
• Each nucleotide has three components: a 5-carbon sugar, a phosphate group, and
a nitrogenous base. If the sugar is deoxyribose, the polymer is DNA. If the sugar
is ribose, the polymer is RNA.
They are responsible for 2 fundamental properties:
1) Their ability to reproduce their kind or transfer genetic information
2) To undergo mutation
-Nucleic acids are found in all living cells and viruses.
- Friedrich Miescher in 1869 isolated what he called nuclein from the nuclei of pus
cells. Nuclein was shown to have acidic properties, hence it became called nucleic
acid
4. • Together with proteins, nucleic acids are the most important biological
macromolecules; each is found in abundance in all living things,
• Where they function in encoding, transmitting and expressing genetic
information.
• In other words, information is conveyed through the nucleic acid sequence, or
• The order of nucleotides within a DNA or RNA molecule.
• Strings of nucleotides strung together in a specific sequence are the
mechanism for storing and transmitting hereditary,
OR genetic, information via protein synthesis.
5. • In Eukaryotic cells, DNA occurs in combination with proteins called
nucleoproteins chiefly histones of several types.
• Histones are small, highly basic proteins (known amino acid sequence)
• Genes of eukaryotes are present in chromatin which is made up of
protein and DNA along with some RNA.
• Chromatin contains about equal amounts (by weight) of DNA and
protein.
• Prokaryote (unicellular) with single chromosome without true nucleus.
• Nuclear material scattered in cytoplasm, nucleoproteins found in
cytoplasm associated particularly with ribosome where RNA is
ultimately concerned with protein synthesis.
6. The nucleus contains the cell’s DNA (genome) RNA is synthesized
in the nucleus and exported to the cytoplasm
Nucleus
Cytoplasm
DNA
RNA (mRNA)
Proteins
replication
transcription
translation
7. Importance of Nucleic acids
1) Nucleic acids are large molecules that carry tons of small details: all
the genetic information. Nucleic acids are found in every living
thing — plants, animals, bacteria, viruses, fungi — that uses and
converts energy. Every single living thing has something in
common.
2) DNA is carrier of genetic information in all organisms with few exceptions
e.g. Tobacco mosaic virus, poliovirus, influenza virus and some
bacteriophages use RNA for this purpose.
3) Nucleic acids direct synthesis of proteins including enzymes.
4) Mutations are essential for evolution of new varieties and species.
5) All plant viruses have RNA while bacterial and animal viruses have either
DNA or RNA e.g Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and
poliomyelitis are RNA viruses while vaccinia and Herpes are DNA
viruses.
8. 6) Cancer research involves extensive studies of nucleic acids.
7) Diseases like Gout and Orotic-aciduria are inborn errors of purine and
pyrimidine metabolism respectively.
8) It is possible to find out defective genes leading to serious diseases
even before birth.
9) It is possible to synthesize genes and incorporate into genome of
selected host cells.
10) Genomic maps and libraries have been prepared.
11) DNA from blood, seminal fluid can be analyzed by which parentage
and involvement of crimes like murder or raps can be detected
with great precision. This is called DNA finger-printing.
12) Gene therapy for certain genetic diseases in human beings is being
studied.
9. 9
Historical Summary of the Discovery of DNA
By the 1950s, it was clear that DNA was the genetic material. The key
scientists who discovered and reported the structure of DNA were:
Linus Pauling 1901-1994 Robert Corey (1897-1971) Rosalind Franklin 1920-1958
Maurice Wilkins 1916- James Watson 1928- Francis Crick 1916-2004
10. DNA secondary structure – double helix
James Watson and Francis Crick, 1953- proposed a model for DNA structure
•DNA is the molecule of heredity (O.Avery, 1944)
•X-ray diffraction (R.Franklin and M. Wilkins)
•E. Chargaff (1940s) G = C and A = T in DNA
Francis Crick Jim Watson
11. Watson-Crick model of DNA was based on X-ray diffraction picture of DNA
fibres (Rosalind Franklin and Maurice Wilkins)
Rosalind Franklin
12. Functions/Biochemical role of Nucleotides
• Enter in structure of ATP
• Form building blocks (Units) of Nucleic Acids (DNA & RNA)
• Enter in structure of coenzymes (NAD, NADP, FMN, FAD: Hydrogen
carriers), acid carrier (Coenzyme-A), methyl donor (S-adenosyl methionine).
• Enter in structure of cyclic AMP (cAMP, cGMP): 2nd messenger
• Nucleoside 5'-triphosphates are carriers of energy.
• Bases serve as recognition units.
• Cyclic nucleotides are signal molecules and regulators of cellular metabolism
and reproduction.
• ATP is central to energy metabolism.
• GTP drives protein synthesis.
• CTP drives lipid synthesis.
• UTP drives carbohydrate metabolism.
19. Nucleic Acids
DNA RNA
Central Dogma of Biology
DNA RNA Proteins Cellular Action
transcription translation
DNA
replication (deoxyribonucleic acids) (ribonucleic acids)
20. Two types of nucleic acid are found:
• Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
• Ribonucleic acid (RNA)
DNA is found in the nucleus with small amounts in mitochondria and
chloroplasts
RNA is found throughout the cell
Nucleic acids are polynucleotides
Their building blocks are nucleotides
21. DNA as genetic material: The circumstantial evidence
1. Present in all cells and virtually restricted to the nucleus
2. The amount of DNA in somatic cells (body cells) of any given species is
constant (like the number of chromosomes)
3. The DNA content of gametes (sex cells) is half that of somatic cells.
In cases of polyploidy (multiple sets of chromosomes), the DNA content
increases by a proportional factor
4. The mutagenic effect of UV light peaks at 253.7nm. The peak for the
absorption of UV light by DNA
22. DNA contains two kinds of information:
• The base sequences of genes that encode the amino acid sequences
of proteins and the nucleotide sequences of functional RNA (rRNA
and tRNA).
• The gene regulatory networks that control the expression of protein-
encoding (and functional RNA-encoding) genes.
24. Garrett and Grisham, Biochemistry, Third Edition
(a) The pyrimidine ring system; by convention, atoms are numbered as indicated. (b) The
purine ring system, atoms numbered as shown.
26. The Building Blocks of DNA
-O
O
H(OH)
HH
HH
O
OP
O
O-
Purine or
Pyrimidine
Base
Phosphate
Pentose sugar
Nucleoside
Nucleotide
1'
2'3'
4'
5'
-N-glycosidic bond
28. DNA and RNA nucleobases
N
N
N
N
H
NH2
N
NH
NN
H
O
NH2
N
N
H
NH2
O
H3C
NH
N
H
O
O
Guanine (G)Adenine (A)
Thymine (T)Cytosine (C)
NH
N
H
O
O
Uracil (U)
N
N
NN
H
Purine
N
N
H
Pyrimidine
1
2
3
4
5
6
3
2
1
6
4
5
7
8
9
(DNA only) (RNA only)
32. Structural differences between DNA and RNA
H3C
NH
N
H
O
O
Thymine (T)
NH
N
H
O
O
Uracil (U)
DNA RNA
O
H
HH
H
CH2
H
O
HO
Base
2'-deoxyribose
O
OH
HH
CH2
H
O
HO
Base
ribose
H
33. Preferred conformations of nucleobases and sugars in
DNA and RNA
HO
O
OH
N
N
NH2
O
Anti conformation
HO
O
OH
N
N
NH2
O
Syn conformation
HO
O
H (OH)
HO
BASE
HO
O
H (OH)
HO
BASE
2' endo (B-DNA)
1'
3' endo (RNA)
3'
1'
3'
2' 5'5'
7.0 A
5.9 A
Sugar puckers:
34. Nucleosides must be converted to 5’-Triphosphates to be part of DNA and RNA
HO
O
OH
O
O
OH
P
HO
HO
O
O
O
OH
P
O
P
O
HO
HO
O
OH
Base Base
Base
O
O
OH
P
O
P
O
O
OH
Base
OH
OP
O
HO
HO
Kinas e
Kinas e
Kinas e
Monophosphate
DiphosphateTriphosphate
ATP
ATP
ATP
35. 35
Structure of Nucleic Acids
• Polymers of four nucleotides
• Linked by alternating sugar-phosphate bonds
• RNA: ribose and A, G, C, U
• DNA: deoxyribose and A,G,C,T
nucleotide nucleotide nucleotide nucleotide
P sugar
base
P sugar
base
P sugar
base
P sugar
base
36. Phosphodiester bonds
– Formed by Polymerase and Ligase activities
– C-5' OH carries the phosphate in nucleotides
– C5' - O - P - O - C3'
– Phosphate pKa ~ 0
– Natural Oligonucleotides have 5‘-P and 3‘-0H
– Base hydrolysis due to ionizaiton of 2' OH in RNA
37. The Structure of DNA
An antiparallel double helix
• Diameter of 2 nm
• Circular in prokaryotic cells.
• Length of 1.6 million nm (E. coli)
• Compact and folded (E. coli cell is only 2000 nm long)
• The linear eukaryotic DNA is wrapped around histone proteins to
form nucleosomes.
• Base pairs: A-T, G-C
38. DNA is arranged 5’ to 3’
Connected by Phosphates
Linking in DNA biopolymer: DNA primary structure
42. A, B and Z DNA
• A form – favored by RNA
• B form – Standard DNA
double helix under
physiological conditions
• Z form – laboratory
anomaly,
– Left Handed
– Requires Alt. GC
– High Salt/ Charge
neutralization
A, B & Z DNA Kinemages
43. •Polymers linked 3' to 5' by phosphodiester bridges.
•Sequence is always read 5' to 3'.
• In terms of genetic information, this corresponds to "N to C" in
proteins.
• The base sequence of a nucleic acid is its distinctive characteristic.
• pGpApCpU, GpApCpUp, pGpApCpUp, GACU, dGACT
44. Types of Nucleic acids
• DNA - one type, one purpose:
- a single DNA molecules in virus and bacteria
- Eukaryotic cells have many diploid chromosomes mainly in nucleus,
but also mitochondria and chloroplasts.
• RNA - 3 (or 4) types, 3 (or 4) purposes
– ribosomal RNA - the basis of structure and function of ribosomes
– messenger RNA - carries the message
– transfer RNA - carries the amino acids
– Small nuclear RNA
– Small non-coding RNAs
48. RNA: Typically single stranded: Produced during transcription
• mRNA: Carries information encoded in genes to direct protein synthesis on ribosomes
– Derive from heterogeneous nuclear RNA (hnRNA)
– RNA processed by splicing (removal of introns and joining of exons), capping (5’ end),
and polyA tail addition (3’ end)
• rRNA: Components of ribosome: Protein synthesis
– Small subunit of ribosome: Single rRNA
– Large subunit of ribosome: Large subunit rRNA, 5S rRNA, and in eukaryotes 5.8S
rRNA
• tRNA: Carriers of activated amino acids used by ribosome for protein synthesis
• snRNA: Small nuclear RNAs (Important in converting hnRNA to mature mRNA)
• siRNAs: Small interfering RNAs: Degrade mRNAs (post-transcriptional gene silencing)
• miRNAs: micro RNAs: Bind to mRNA and block translation
• snoRNAs: Small nucleolar RNAs: Required for certain RNA modification
49. Messenger RNAs
• Contain protein coding information
– ATG start codon to UAA, UAG, UGA Stop Codon
– A cistron is the unit of RNA that encodes one polypeptide chain
– Prokaryotic mRNAs are poly-cistronic
– Eukaryotic mRNAs are mono-cistronic
• Base pairing/3D structure is the exception
– Can be used to regulate RNA stability termination, RNA editng, RNA
splicing
50. Distinctive Base composition foretell base
pairing patterns
– Hydrolysis of DNA and analysis of base
composition
• Same for different individuals of a given species
• Same over time
• Same in different tissues
• %A = %T and %G = %C (Chargaff's Rules)
– Amino acid compositions vary under all three
conditions
– No quantitative relationships in AA composition
51. Telomeres
Telomeres are sequences at the end of eukaryotic chromosomes that
help stabilize the chromosome. Telomeres are repeats of the
following sequence:
5’-(TxGy)n x and y = 1 to 4
3’-(AxCy)n The TG strand is longer
5’-TTTGGTTTGGTTTGGTTTGGTTTGGTTTGG…
3’-AAACCAAACCAAACC…
Can be >10,000 nucleotides in mammals. The ends of the
chromosome are replicated by the enzyme telomerase.