Longwall; Longwall in coal; Longwall in Hard Rock; Sublevel Caving; Characteristics of the ore body and mining method; Development; Production; Equipments Used; Block Caving, Introduction, Historical evolution of the method, Condition deposit; Principles of the method; Methodology of block caving; Basic issues of geomechanical to the black caving method; Caveability;Mine design Block caving; Fragmentation and extraction control; Subsidence associated; Advantages and Disadvantages of Block Caving
Room and Pillar mining method is one of the oldest existing mining methods. This system in which the mined material is extracted across a horizontal plane, creating horizontal arrays of rooms and pillars. Usually those room and pillars are uniform size. Pillars may or may not be removed after extraction.
Used for soft as well as hard rock mining and is commonly associated with coal, potash, uranium, and other industrial materials.
Practical importance of the Room and pillars method; Different applications of the R & P method; R & P in hard rocks; Conditions of deposit for application of R & P in hard rock; R & P equipment in hard-rock; R & P in soft rocks; Conditions of deposit for application of R & P in soft rock; Characteristics of R & P method in non-coal applications; R & P classic;Step mining; Post-pillar mining; Configuring the R & P method in coal; Main design parameters of R & P in coal; dimensions of the galleries; dimensions of the pillars; Mining with or without recovery of pillars; number of front panel; Advantages and Disadvantages; Screws Ceiling; Design of pillars in coal mine
Longwall; Longwall in coal; Longwall in Hard Rock; Sublevel Caving; Characteristics of the ore body and mining method; Development; Production; Equipments Used; Block Caving, Introduction, Historical evolution of the method, Condition deposit; Principles of the method; Methodology of block caving; Basic issues of geomechanical to the black caving method; Caveability;Mine design Block caving; Fragmentation and extraction control; Subsidence associated; Advantages and Disadvantages of Block Caving
Room and Pillar mining method is one of the oldest existing mining methods. This system in which the mined material is extracted across a horizontal plane, creating horizontal arrays of rooms and pillars. Usually those room and pillars are uniform size. Pillars may or may not be removed after extraction.
Used for soft as well as hard rock mining and is commonly associated with coal, potash, uranium, and other industrial materials.
Practical importance of the Room and pillars method; Different applications of the R & P method; R & P in hard rocks; Conditions of deposit for application of R & P in hard rock; R & P equipment in hard-rock; R & P in soft rocks; Conditions of deposit for application of R & P in soft rock; Characteristics of R & P method in non-coal applications; R & P classic;Step mining; Post-pillar mining; Configuring the R & P method in coal; Main design parameters of R & P in coal; dimensions of the galleries; dimensions of the pillars; Mining with or without recovery of pillars; number of front panel; Advantages and Disadvantages; Screws Ceiling; Design of pillars in coal mine
Considerations on the sublevel stoping method; Conditions for application of the deposit; Characteristic of Sublevel Stoping Method; Application; Development; Sublevel overhand; Sublevel underhand; Slot; Configuration of stopes; Drawpoints
Definition of Open pit Mining Parameters, Open pit Mining method, Bench, Open Pit Bench Terminology; Bench height; Cutoff grade; Open Pit Stability, Pit slope, Pit wall stability, Rock strength, Pit Depth, Pit diameter, Water Damage, Strip Ratio, Open-pit mining sequence, Various open-pit and orebody configurations; Ultimate Pit Definition, Manual Design, Computer Methods, Lerchs-Grossman method, Floating cone method; Open pit Optimization, The management of pit optimization, A simple example; The effects of scheduling on the optimal outline ; Optimum production scheduling; Materials handling Ex-Mine; Waste disposal; Dump design; Stability of mine waste dumps; Mine reclamation; Example of Open Pit Mining Methods
ground control in coal mines, stress regime, pressure arch concept, ground reaction curve, mechanics of strata failure, caving mechanism in bord & pillar, longwalls, roof falls, cavability, ground control practices or techniques in coal mines or metal mines
As a mining project is developed from conceptual to production phases, there exist a variety of uncertainties and difficulties that affect the operation’s designs and economic value.
A notable design parameter to be taken into account is the factor of dilution.
DILUTION
Planned and Unplanned Dilution
Internal and External Dilution
Primary and Secondary Dilution
Factors of Dilution
Mine Value Diminutions Due to Dilution
ORE RECOVERY
Room and Pillar Example
Ore Dilution & Recovery in Mining
Rate of Extraction
Induction for new employees joining African Underground Mining Services - a complete transformation of a previously Australian centric communication into a Ghana specific communication
Considerations on the sublevel stoping method; Conditions for application of the deposit; Characteristic of Sublevel Stoping Method; Application; Development; Sublevel overhand; Sublevel underhand; Slot; Configuration of stopes; Drawpoints
Definition of Open pit Mining Parameters, Open pit Mining method, Bench, Open Pit Bench Terminology; Bench height; Cutoff grade; Open Pit Stability, Pit slope, Pit wall stability, Rock strength, Pit Depth, Pit diameter, Water Damage, Strip Ratio, Open-pit mining sequence, Various open-pit and orebody configurations; Ultimate Pit Definition, Manual Design, Computer Methods, Lerchs-Grossman method, Floating cone method; Open pit Optimization, The management of pit optimization, A simple example; The effects of scheduling on the optimal outline ; Optimum production scheduling; Materials handling Ex-Mine; Waste disposal; Dump design; Stability of mine waste dumps; Mine reclamation; Example of Open Pit Mining Methods
ground control in coal mines, stress regime, pressure arch concept, ground reaction curve, mechanics of strata failure, caving mechanism in bord & pillar, longwalls, roof falls, cavability, ground control practices or techniques in coal mines or metal mines
As a mining project is developed from conceptual to production phases, there exist a variety of uncertainties and difficulties that affect the operation’s designs and economic value.
A notable design parameter to be taken into account is the factor of dilution.
DILUTION
Planned and Unplanned Dilution
Internal and External Dilution
Primary and Secondary Dilution
Factors of Dilution
Mine Value Diminutions Due to Dilution
ORE RECOVERY
Room and Pillar Example
Ore Dilution & Recovery in Mining
Rate of Extraction
Induction for new employees joining African Underground Mining Services - a complete transformation of a previously Australian centric communication into a Ghana specific communication
This Mine Hazard topic is disruption of basic Mining Activity hazard occur during mining operation of Drilling,Blasting,Excavation,Transportation ,Dumping
Introduction; Application of Cut-and-Fill (C & F) stoping; The activity cycle of the (C & F) method; Stages of the production cycle of the C & F method; Sequences of extracting ore bodies; Filling in C & F Method; About filling of stopes; Functions of filler; Types of fillers; Advantages and disadvantages of the C & F method
Open pit mining is the process of mining a near surface deposit by means of a surface pit excavated using one or more horizontal benches.
The term open pit mining is usually used for metallic or non-metallic deposits and sparingly used for bedded deposits like coal.
Chapter-1
Introduction
1.0 BACKGROUND
Content in Time New Roman, Size 12
Fig. 1.1: Effect of fragmentation on the cost of drilling, blasting, loading and hauling.[Source: Wyllie and Mah(2005)]
Drilling and blasting costs can account for up to 25% of a project's overall production cost. Despite this, the planning and execution of a blast is rarely given the attention it deserves in our country. Drilling and blasting executed properly can significantly contribute to profitability of the mine, thus these parameters must be optimized.
The term optimization refers to attaining the best possible result, i.e., achieving the maximum or minimum value of the operating parameters. Blasting optimization is influenced by a number of complex aspects such as the rock, explosive, initiation, drill-hole characteristics, and their layout. Drilling optimization is mainly influenced by the rock characteristics, target production and drilling equipment characteristics. The current research is a step toward building a rudimentary model with simple procedures that the mining industry may use to improve blasthole drilling performance.
What is a Stope In Mining: Uncovering the Hidden Treasures of Ore DepositsHetherington
Explore the significance of this underground excavation in extracting precious ore deposits. Learn about the methods, challenges, and the crucial role stopes play in the mining industry. Unlock the hidden treasures beneath the surface with our comprehensive guide.
This lecture provides an overview of the issues influencing dilution in an underground production environment.
The lecture reviews the dilution problem throughout the entire mining process, and provides a rational approach to underground mine design in order to minimize dilution.
The stages contributing to dilution include orebody delineation, design and sequencing, stope development, drilling and blasting, production and mine management issues.
This lecture provides an overview of the issues influencing dilution in an underground production environment.
The lecture reviews the dilution problem throughout the entire mining process, and provides a rational approach to underground mine design in order to minimize dilution.
The stages contributing to dilution include orebody delineation, design and sequencing, stope development, drilling and blasting, production and mine management issues.
Nature of Mineralization
Geological dilution
Mining Methods and Dilution
Underground Mine Design:
Basic Input
Global (Block) Design Issues
Detailed design issues
Geotechnical Monitoring
Parameters Influencing Dilution:
Orebody delineation
Design and sequencing
Stope development
Drilling and blasting
Production stages
Issues for mine management
Underground mining methods + swot analysis of maddhapara graniteShahadat Saimon
This document will provide information on two important topics of Mining.
One is the different methods used in underground mining along with underground mine anatomy and other is the SWOT (Strength, Weakness, Opportunity and Threat) analysis of Maddhapara Granite, Parbatipur, Dinajpur, Bangladesh.
The Evolution of Sublevel Caving at Trojan Mine, Bindura, Zimbabwe, J G TaylorJohn Guy Taylor
Several technical and economic factors have to be taken into
consideration in developing an optimal mining method. This paper
describes some of the important factors learnt during the evolution of the
sub-level cave mining method at Trojan Nickel Mine, part of the Bindura
Nickel Corporation (BNC) in Zimbabwe.
The objectives of this course in iron ore Resources and iron industry are:
i) acquainting students (majors and non-majors) with the basic tools necessary for studying iron ore deposits and processes,
ii) different processes for phosphorus removal from iron ore
iii) beneficiation processes of iron ore deposits.
iv) different processes and techniques that used to enrichment low-grade iron ore resources
v) understanding the different ironwork processes and technology,
vi) understanding the different types of iron ore products,
vii) prominent routes for steelmaking
viii) understanding the relationship between the distribution of iron ore and scrap, as well as steelmarkets,
ix) steel industry in Egypt , and
x) gaining some knowledge of the global iron ore as well as environmental problems associated with the extraction and utilization of iron ore resources.
There are plenty of hard-to-beneficiate iron ores and high-grade tailings in India and all over the world; As the volume of high-grade iron ores declines.
Minerals phase transformation by hydrogen reduction (MPTH) can efficiently revitalize hard-to-beneficiate iron ore resources and tailings, turning the waste into profitable products. It may also improve the concentrate quality comparing to that from the previous method. From the economic and environmental aspects, MPTH is the most effective method to recover iron oxides.
The clean minerals phase transformation by hydrogen reduction (MPTH) was proposed.
Industrial utilization of limonite/goethite, limonite-hematite, sulfur-bearing refractory iron ore was achieved, where Sulfur-bearing minerals decomposed or formed sulfate after oxidation roasting.
Sulfur content of iron ore concentrate was significantly reduced to 0.038 %.
Improving utilization efficiency of refractory iron ore resources is a common theme for the sustainable development of the world’s steel and iron industry.
Magnetization Roasting is considered as an effective and typical method for the beneficiation of refractory iron ores.
After magnetization roasting, the weakly magnetic iron minerals, including hematite, limonite and siderite, are selectively reduced or oxidized to ferromagnetic magnetite, which is relatively easier to enrich by Magnetic Separation after liberation pretreatments.
The Primary Magnetization Roasting Methods include: Shaft Furnace Roasting, Rotary Kiln Roasting, Fluidized Bed Roasting, and Microwave assisted roasting. The developments in magnetization roasting of difficult to treat iron ores, including: Shaft Furnace Roasting, Rotary Kiln Roasting, Fluidized Bed Roasting, and Microwave Assisted Roasting in the Past Decade.
Shaft Furnace Roasting is gradually eliminated due to its high energy consumption and low industrial processing capacity, and the primary problem for rotary kiln roasting is the kiln coating which affects the yield of iron resource and its industrial application.
Fluidized Bed Roasting and Microwave assisted roasting are considered as the most effective and promising methods.
Suspension (Fluidized) Magnetization Roasting is recognized as the most effective and promising technology due to its high reaction efficiency, low energy consumption and large processing capacity. Moreover, an industrial production line with a throughput of 1.65 million t/a for beneficiation of a specularite ore has been built.
Microwave Assisted Roasting is a potential alternative technology for magnetizing iron ores. However, it is currently limited to laboratory research and has no industrial application. Forwarding microwave assisted magnetization roasting methods into industrial applications needs long way and time to achieve.
Furthermore, using biomass, H2 or siderite as a reducing agent in the magnetic reduction roasting of iron ores is a beneficial way to reduce carbon emissions, which can be called clean and green magnetization roasting technology.
In the future, technical research on clean and green magnetization roasting should be strengthened. Maybe microwave magnetization roasting using biomass/H2/siderite as reductant can be further studied for a more effective and greener magnetization of iron ores.
WORLD RESOURCES IRON DEPOSITS
Iron Ore Pellets Market Industry Trends
Scope and Market Size
Market Analysis and Insights
DRI Production in Plants Using Merchant Iron Ore
Outlook for DR grade pellet supply‐demand out to 2030
DRI and the pathway to carbon‐neutral steelmaking
Supply‐side challenges for the steel & iron ore industries
scrap is the main raw material, is growing in the structure of global steelmaking capacities; SCARP/ RECYCLING IRON ; EAF steel production method in the world; Scrap for Stock; A Global Scrap Shortage;Availability of Ferrous Scrap Resources; EGYPT IRON SCRAP IMPORTS.
The iron ore production has significantly expanded in recent years, owing to increasing steel demands in developing countries.
However, the content of iron in ore deposits has deteriorated and low-grade iron ore has been processed.
The fine ores resulting from the concentration process must be agglomerated for use in iron and steelmaking.
Bentonite is the most used binder due to favorable mechanical and metallurgical pellet properties, but it contains impurities especially silica and alumina.
Better quality wet, dry, preheated, and fired pellets can be produced with combined binders, such as organic and inorganic salts, when compared with bentonite-bonded pellets.
While organic binders provide sufficient wet and dry pellet strengths, inorganic salts provide the required preheated and fired pellet strengths.
The industrial development program of any country, by and large, is based on its natural resources.
Currently the majority of the world’s steel is produced through either one of the two main routes: i) the integrated Blast Furnace – Basic Oxygen Furnace (BF – BOF) route or ii) the Direct Reduced Iron - Electric Arc Furnace (DRI - EAF) route.
Depleting resources of coking coal, the world over, is posing a threat to the conventional (Blast Furnace [Bf]–Basic Oxygen Furnace [BOF]) route of iron and steelmaking.
During the last four decades, a new route of ironmaking has rapidly developed for Direct Reduction (DR) of iron ore to metallic iron by using noncoking coal/natural gas.
This product is known as Direct Reduced Iron (DRI) or Sponge Iron.
Processes that produce iron by reduction of iron ore (in solid state) below the melting point are generally classified as DR processes.
Based on the types of reductant used, DR processes can be broadly classified into two groups: (1) coal-based DR process and (2) gas-based DR process.
Details of DR processes, reoxidation, storage, transportation, and application of DRI are discussed in this presentation.
This presentation reviews the different DR processes used to produce Direct Reduced Iron (DRI), providing an analysis on the quality requirements of iron-bearing ores for use in these processes. The presentation also discusses the environmental sustainability of such processes. DR processes reduce iron ore in its solid state by the use of either natural gas or coal as reducing agents, and they have a comparative advantage of low capital costs, low emissions and production flexibility over the BF process.
Currently the majority of the world’s steel is produced through either one of the two main routes: i) the integrated Blast Furnace – Basic Oxygen Furnace (BF – BOF) route or ii) the Direct Reduced Iron - Electric Arc Furnace (DRI - EAF) route.
In the former, the blast furnace uses iron ore, scrap metal, coke and pulverized coal as raw materials to produce hot metal for conversion in the BOF. Although it is still the prevalent process, blast furnace hot metal production has declined over the years due to diminishing quality of metallurgical coke, low supply of scrap metal and environmental problems associated with the process. These factors have contributed to the development of alternative technologies of ironmaking, of which Direct Reduction (DR) processes are expected to emerge as preferred alternatives in the future.
This presentation reviews the different DR processes used to produce Direct Reduced Iron (DRI), providing an analysis on the quality requirements of iron-bearing ores for use in these processes. The presentation also discusses the environmental sustainability of such processes. DR processes reduce iron ore in its solid state by the use of either natural gas or coal as reducing agents, and they have a comparative advantage of low capital costs, low emissions and production flexibility over the BF process.
Ironmaking represents the first step in steelmaking.
The iron and steel industry is the most energy-intensive and capital-intensive manufacturing sector in the world (Strezov, 2006).
Steelmaking processes depend on different forms of iron as primary feed material. Traditionally, the main sources of iron for making steel were Blast Furnace hot metal and recycled steel in the form of scrap.
The Blast Furnace (BF) has remained the workhorse of worldwide virgin iron production (i.e., hot metal) for more than 200 years. Over the years, BFs have evolved into highly efficient chemical reactors, capable of providing stable operation with a wide range of feed materials.
However, operation of modern efficient BFs normally involves sintering and coke making and their associated environmental problems.
More than 90% of iron is currently produced via the BF process, while the rest is coming from Direct Reduction (DR) processes, Mini Blast Furnaces (MBFs), Corex, Finex, Ausmelt, etc. Additionally, the severe shortage of good-quality metallurgical coal has remained an additional constraint all over the world. In view of this, there is an increasing awareness that the BF route needs to be supplemented with alternative ironmaking processes that are more environment friendly and less dependent on metallurgical coal.
Because of the rapid depletion of easily processed iron ores, the utilization of refractory ores has attracted increasing attention .
There several billion tonnes iron deposits, and most are refractory ores, which are difficult to process by conventional methods because of the low iron grade, fine grain size and complex mineralogy.
The beneficiation of low-grade iron ores to meet the growing demand for iron and steel is an important research topic.
At present, magnetization roasting followed by magnetic separation is one of the most effective technologies for the beneficiation of refractory iron ores.
However, certain ores do not qualify to be treated in physical separation processes, and hence, alternative strategies are being looked into for upgrading their iron content.
Reduction roasting has many advantages over the physical beneficiation process, such as enhanced iron recovery and processing of complex and poorly liberated iron ores.
The objective of this presentation is to compile and amalgamate the crucial information regarding the beneficiation of low-grade iron ores using carbothermic reduction followed by magnetic separation, which is a promising technique to treat iron ores with complex mineralogy and liberation issues.
Reduction roasting studies done for different types low-grade iron ores including oolitic iron ores, banded iron ores, iron ore slimes and tailings, and industrial wastes have been discussed.
Reduction roasting followed by magnetic separation is a promising method to recover the iron values from low-grade iron ores.
The process involves the reduction of the goethite and hematite phases to magnetite, which can subsequently be recovered using a low-intensity magnetic separation unit.
The large-scale technological advancements in reduction roasting and the possibilities of the application of alternative reductants as substitutes for coal have also been highlighted.
This presentation aims at insight light on the occurrence of phosphorus in iron ores from the mines around the world.
The presentation extends to the phosphorus removal processes of this mineral to meet the specifications of the steel industry.
Phosphorus is a contaminant that can be hard to remove, especially when one does not know its mode of occurrence in the ores.
Phosphorus can be removed from iron ore by very different routes of treatment. The genesis of the reserve, the mineralogy, the cost and sustainability define the technology to be applied.
The presentations surveyed cite removal by physical processes (flotation and selective agglomeration), chemical (leaching), thermal and bioleaching processes.
Removal results of above 90% and less than 0.05% residual phosphorus are noticed, which is the maximum value required in most of the products generated in the processing of iron ore.
Chinese studies show that the direct reduction roasting of high phosphorus oolitic hematite followed by magnetic separation is reality technical solutions to improve the recovery of metallic iron and dephosphorization rate.
For ores with widespread phosphorus in the iron matrix and low release, thermal or mixed processes are closer to reality technical solutions. Due to their higher operating costs, it will be necessary to rethink the processes of sintering and pelletizing, such that these operations also become phosphorus removal steps.
With the exhaustive processing of the known reserves of hematite from Iron Ore Quadrangle (Minas Gerais-Brazil), there will be no shortage of granules in the not too distant future. THEREFORE, THERE IS AN EXPECTATION THAT THE ORE MINED WILL HAVE HIGHER LEVELS OF PHOSPHORUS.
Overview of IRON TYPES: Pig Iron, Direct Reduced Iron (DRI), Hot Briquetted Iron (HBI), Cold Briquetted Iron (CBI) and Cold Briquetted Iron and Carbon (CBIC) Specifications .
Comparison of Pig Iron and DRI
Properties; Manufacturing Process; Uses; Largest producers and markets
Iron ore mining plays a critical role in supplying the raw material necessary for steel production, supporting various industries and economic development worldwide.
From the extraction of iron ore to its processing and eventual export, each stage of the mining process requires careful planning, technological advancements, and environmental considerations.
By adopting sustainable mining practices and mitigating environmental impacts, the future of iron ore mining can be aligned with the principles of responsible resource utilization and environmental stewardship
The Egyptian steel sector is the second largest steel market in the Middle East and North Africa region in terms of production and third largest in terms of consumption.
Egypt was the third-ranked producer of Direct-Reduced Iron (DRI) in the Middle east and North Africa region after Iran and Saudi Arabia and accounted for 5.4% of the world’s total output
The Egyptian steel industry represents one of the cornerstones of Egypt’s economic growth and development, due to its linkages to almost all other industries that stimulate economic expansion, such as construction, housing, infrastructure, consumer goods and automotive. All these industries rely heavily on steel industry and so, the importance and development of the steel sector is significant for the progress of the Egyptian economy in general.
The Egyptian market has many companies that produce different steel products.
Geological consultant, working in a range of roles from project development/feasibility study programs and advanced exploration roles. Contracts in a variety of global locations including Egypt, Saudi Arab, and the Middle East. Commodities including Gold, base metal sulfide, Gossan/Supergene, heavy mineral sands, clay/kaolin, Silica Sand, and iron ore.
Exploration in Deep Weathering Profiles, Supergene, R-mode factor analysis; Multi-element association geochemistry; Assessment of Au-Zn potentiality in Gossan; Rodruin-Egypt
Mineral Processing: Crusher and Crushing; Secondary and Tertiary Crushing Circuits; Types of Crusher; Types of Crushing; Types of Jaw Crushers; Impact Crusher; Types of Cone Crushers; Ball Mill; BEST STONE MANUFACTURERS; Local Quality and High quality ; International and Country/Hand made
Classification Equipment
Introduction; Chemical composition of garnet; Structure; Classification; Physical properties; Optical properties; Occurrences; Gem variety; and Uses
Garnet group of minerals is one of the important group of minerals.
Since they are found in wide variety of colours, they are also used as gemstones.
Garnet group of minerals are also abrasives and thus have various industrial applications.
Nutraceutical market, scope and growth: Herbal drug technologyLokesh Patil
As consumer awareness of health and wellness rises, the nutraceutical market—which includes goods like functional meals, drinks, and dietary supplements that provide health advantages beyond basic nutrition—is growing significantly. As healthcare expenses rise, the population ages, and people want natural and preventative health solutions more and more, this industry is increasing quickly. Further driving market expansion are product formulation innovations and the use of cutting-edge technology for customized nutrition. With its worldwide reach, the nutraceutical industry is expected to keep growing and provide significant chances for research and investment in a number of categories, including vitamins, minerals, probiotics, and herbal supplements.
Professional air quality monitoring systems provide immediate, on-site data for analysis, compliance, and decision-making.
Monitor common gases, weather parameters, particulates.
Seminar of U.V. Spectroscopy by SAMIR PANDASAMIR PANDA
Spectroscopy is a branch of science dealing the study of interaction of electromagnetic radiation with matter.
Ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy refers to absorption spectroscopy or reflect spectroscopy in the UV-VIS spectral region.
Ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy is an analytical method that can measure the amount of light received by the analyte.
Earliest Galaxies in the JADES Origins Field: Luminosity Function and Cosmic ...Sérgio Sacani
We characterize the earliest galaxy population in the JADES Origins Field (JOF), the deepest
imaging field observed with JWST. We make use of the ancillary Hubble optical images (5 filters
spanning 0.4−0.9µm) and novel JWST images with 14 filters spanning 0.8−5µm, including 7 mediumband filters, and reaching total exposure times of up to 46 hours per filter. We combine all our data
at > 2.3µm to construct an ultradeep image, reaching as deep as ≈ 31.4 AB mag in the stack and
30.3-31.0 AB mag (5σ, r = 0.1” circular aperture) in individual filters. We measure photometric
redshifts and use robust selection criteria to identify a sample of eight galaxy candidates at redshifts
z = 11.5 − 15. These objects show compact half-light radii of R1/2 ∼ 50 − 200pc, stellar masses of
M⋆ ∼ 107−108M⊙, and star-formation rates of SFR ∼ 0.1−1 M⊙ yr−1
. Our search finds no candidates
at 15 < z < 20, placing upper limits at these redshifts. We develop a forward modeling approach to
infer the properties of the evolving luminosity function without binning in redshift or luminosity that
marginalizes over the photometric redshift uncertainty of our candidate galaxies and incorporates the
impact of non-detections. We find a z = 12 luminosity function in good agreement with prior results,
and that the luminosity function normalization and UV luminosity density decline by a factor of ∼ 2.5
from z = 12 to z = 14. We discuss the possible implications of our results in the context of theoretical
models for evolution of the dark matter halo mass function.
Slide 1: Title Slide
Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Slide 2: Introduction to Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Definition: Extrachromosomal inheritance refers to the transmission of genetic material that is not found within the nucleus.
Key Components: Involves genes located in mitochondria, chloroplasts, and plasmids.
Slide 3: Mitochondrial Inheritance
Mitochondria: Organelles responsible for energy production.
Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA): Circular DNA molecule found in mitochondria.
Inheritance Pattern: Maternally inherited, meaning it is passed from mothers to all their offspring.
Diseases: Examples include Leber’s hereditary optic neuropathy (LHON) and mitochondrial myopathy.
Slide 4: Chloroplast Inheritance
Chloroplasts: Organelles responsible for photosynthesis in plants.
Chloroplast DNA (cpDNA): Circular DNA molecule found in chloroplasts.
Inheritance Pattern: Often maternally inherited in most plants, but can vary in some species.
Examples: Variegation in plants, where leaf color patterns are determined by chloroplast DNA.
Slide 5: Plasmid Inheritance
Plasmids: Small, circular DNA molecules found in bacteria and some eukaryotes.
Features: Can carry antibiotic resistance genes and can be transferred between cells through processes like conjugation.
Significance: Important in biotechnology for gene cloning and genetic engineering.
Slide 6: Mechanisms of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Non-Mendelian Patterns: Do not follow Mendel’s laws of inheritance.
Cytoplasmic Segregation: During cell division, organelles like mitochondria and chloroplasts are randomly distributed to daughter cells.
Heteroplasmy: Presence of more than one type of organellar genome within a cell, leading to variation in expression.
Slide 7: Examples of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Four O’clock Plant (Mirabilis jalapa): Shows variegated leaves due to different cpDNA in leaf cells.
Petite Mutants in Yeast: Result from mutations in mitochondrial DNA affecting respiration.
Slide 8: Importance of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Evolution: Provides insight into the evolution of eukaryotic cells.
Medicine: Understanding mitochondrial inheritance helps in diagnosing and treating mitochondrial diseases.
Agriculture: Chloroplast inheritance can be used in plant breeding and genetic modification.
Slide 9: Recent Research and Advances
Gene Editing: Techniques like CRISPR-Cas9 are being used to edit mitochondrial and chloroplast DNA.
Therapies: Development of mitochondrial replacement therapy (MRT) for preventing mitochondrial diseases.
Slide 10: Conclusion
Summary: Extrachromosomal inheritance involves the transmission of genetic material outside the nucleus and plays a crucial role in genetics, medicine, and biotechnology.
Future Directions: Continued research and technological advancements hold promise for new treatments and applications.
Slide 11: Questions and Discussion
Invite Audience: Open the floor for any questions or further discussion on the topic.
Observation of Io’s Resurfacing via Plume Deposition Using Ground-based Adapt...Sérgio Sacani
Since volcanic activity was first discovered on Io from Voyager images in 1979, changes
on Io’s surface have been monitored from both spacecraft and ground-based telescopes.
Here, we present the highest spatial resolution images of Io ever obtained from a groundbased telescope. These images, acquired by the SHARK-VIS instrument on the Large
Binocular Telescope, show evidence of a major resurfacing event on Io’s trailing hemisphere. When compared to the most recent spacecraft images, the SHARK-VIS images
show that a plume deposit from a powerful eruption at Pillan Patera has covered part
of the long-lived Pele plume deposit. Although this type of resurfacing event may be common on Io, few have been detected due to the rarity of spacecraft visits and the previously low spatial resolution available from Earth-based telescopes. The SHARK-VIS instrument ushers in a new era of high resolution imaging of Io’s surface using adaptive
optics at visible wavelengths.
A brief information about the SCOP protein database used in bioinformatics.
The Structural Classification of Proteins (SCOP) database is a comprehensive and authoritative resource for the structural and evolutionary relationships of proteins. It provides a detailed and curated classification of protein structures, grouping them into families, superfamilies, and folds based on their structural and sequence similarities.
PRESENTATION ABOUT PRINCIPLE OF COSMATIC EVALUATION
Lecture 4: Underground Mining
1. Hassan Z. Harraz
hharraz2006@yahoo.com
2010- 2011
This material is intended for use in lectures, presentations and as
handouts to students, and is provided in Power point format so as to
allow customization for the individual needs of course instructors.
Permission of the author and publisher is required for any other usage.
Please see hharraz2006@yahoo.com for contact details.
Topic 9: Mining Methods
Part V- Underground Mining
Prof. Dr. H.Z. Harraz Presentation
Mining Methods
1
2. Underground Mining
We will explore all of the above in Part 9.
Choice of mining method
Underground Mining Methods
Soft rock Mining Methods
Blast mining
Shortwall mining
Coal Skimming (or Sink and Float) method
Hard rock Mining Methods
Stoping
1) Room and pillar
2) Bench and Fill (B & F) stoping
3) Cut and Fill (C & F) stoping
4) Stull stoping
5) Square-set stoping
6) Shrinkage stoping
7) Long-hole Open stoping
8) Vertical Crater Retreat (VCR) stoping
9) Longwall stoping
10) Caving methods
i) Sublevel caving.
ii) Block caving
Stope and Retreat vs. Stope and Fill
Ore Removal
Unit Operations of Mining
Prof. Dr. H.Z. Harraz Presentation
Mining Methods
2
3. When do we mine underground?
• The ore deposit is deep
• Ore body is steep
• Grade is high enough to exceed costs
Prof. Dr. H.Z. Harraz Presentation
Mining Methods
3
4. The mining method used will depend on the characteristics of the orebody, particularly thickness
and dip, and the competency of the surrounding rock.
Different methods can be used in different parts of a mine (e.g., as this plan from the Black Swan
nickel mine exemplifies).
This type of planning is done continuously as mining proceeds and more data are acquired on the
orebody configuration through underground drilling.
Underground Mining Methods
UNDERGROUND MINING METHODS
Soft rock Mining Methods Hard rock Mining Methods
Mining can be done by any one of
the following methods:-
1) Longwall mining.
2) Room-and-pillar mining.
3) Blast mining.
4) Shortwall mining.
5) Coal Skimming.
Mining can be done by the following methods:-
a) Short-hole and Long-hole mining methods
b) Selective and unselective mining methods
c) Supported and Unsupported underground
mining methods
Underground mining methods are usually classified in two categories of methods:
Prof. Dr. H.Z. Harraz Presentation
Mining Methods
4
5. Choice of mining method :
The choice of mining method is an extremely important decision affecting the entire
mining project;
The definition of the method permits:
establish the configuration of the mine;
choose mining equipment;
perform an economic evaluation of the project.
Examples of factors in the choice of mining method:
Form of deposit
Dimensions of deposit
Strength of the ore and host rocks Depth
Geological conditioning
Content and distribution of the ore deposit.
Prof. Dr. H.Z. Harraz Presentation
Mining Methods
5
6. Blast mining
An older practice of coal mining that uses explosives such as dynamite to break up the coal
seam, after which the coal is gathered and loaded onto shuttle cars or conveyors for
removal to a central loading area.
This process consists of a series of operations that begins with "cutting" the coal bed so it
will break easily when blasted with explosives.
This type of mining accounts for less than 5% of total underground production in the U.S.
today.
Shortwall mining
A coal mining method that accounts for less than 1% of deep coal production,
Shortwall involves the use of a continuous mining machine with moveable roof supports,
similar to longwall.
The continuous miner shears coal panels 150–200 feet wide and more than a half-mile long,
depending on other things like the strata of the Earth and the transverse waves.
Coal Skimming (or Sink and Float) method
method to separate the lighter coal from slate, by using large amounts of water to sink
slate and float coal.
No longer in general use, because of the massive amount of water needed and
environmental damage
Much faster and less labour intensive.
Soft rock Mining Methods
Prof. Dr. H.Z. Harraz Presentation
Mining Methods
6
7. a) Short-hole and Long-hole mining methods;
b) Selective and unselective mining methods; and
c) Unsupported , supported and caving underground mining methods
Hard rock underground mining methods can be classified as the following:-
Hard rock Mining Methods
Selective Mining Methods Unselective Mining Methods
1) Narrow vein
2) Long-hole Open stoping
3) Sublevel Open stoping
4) Cut and Fill (C & F) stoping
5) Bench and Fill (B & F) stoping
6) Stull stoping
7) Shrinkage stoping
8) Room and pillar
9) Square-set stoping
10) Longwall stoping
1) Caving methods
i) Sublevel caving.
ii) Block caving
2) Vertical Crater Retreat (VCR) stoping
Prof. Dr. H.Z. Harraz Presentation
Mining Methods
7
8. Unsupported Methods Supported Methods Caving Methods
Unsupported methods of mining are used to
extract mineral deposits that are roughly
tabular (plus flat or steeply dipping) and are
generally associated with strong ore and
surrounding rock. These methods are termed
unsupported because they do not use any
artificial pillars to assist in the support of the
openings. However, generous amounts of roof
bolting and localized support measures are
often used.
1) Narrow vein
2) Room and Pillar (R & P)
3) Stope and Pillar
4) Long-hole Open stoping
5) Sublevel Open stoping
This methods are often used in mines
with weak rock structure.
In “Artificially supported” mining, the
mine-workings are supported temporarily
only for as long as needed to keep the active
face open to mining.
After mining, the support (e.g. hydraulic
props or wood packs) is removed (or
becomes crushed), and the mining cavities
close up under the pressure of the
overburden material.
1)Bench and Fill (B & F) stoping
2)Cut and Fill (C & F) stoping
3)Stull stoping
4)Square-set stoping
5)Shrinkage stoping
6)Vertical Crater Retreat (VCR)
stoping
Caving mining is advantageous in
that it maximizes ore recovery (as
little ore as possible is left behind) the
method comes with significant
problems:
Surface subsidence in the case
of shallow mines.
Rock-bursts underground,
causing injury and death in deep
level mines.
The cavity closure is either
partial, for shallow mining, or
complete, for deep level
mining.
1) Longwall mining
2) Caving methods
i) Sublevel caving.
ii)Block caving
c) Supported and Unsupported underground mining methods
Prof. Dr. H.Z. Harraz Presentation
Mining Methods
8
9. Underground Mining Methods Flow Chart (modified from Brown, 2003)
Note:
They are differentiated
by the type of wall and
roof supports used, the
configuration and size of
production openings,
and the direction in
which mining
operations progress.
The major distinction
between the different
underground mining
methods is whether the
mined out areas remain
supported after mining,
or if they are allowed to
collapse.
Prof. Dr. H.Z. Harraz Presentation
Mining Methods
9
10. Table Methods for underground mining
CavingSupportedUnsupported
Underground
methods
Block
Caving
Sublevel
Caving
Longwall
Stoping
Square
Set
Stoping
Cut and Fill
Stoping
Sublevel
Stoping
Shrinkage
Stoping
Stope and
Pillar
Room and
Pillar
Factor
Weak/
Moderate
Moderate/
Strong
AnyWeak
Moderate/
Strong
Moderate/
Strong
Strong
Moderate/
Strong
Weak /
Moderate
Ore strength
Weak /
Moderate
Weak
Weak /
Moderate
WeakWeak
Fairly
Strong
Strong
Moderate/
Strong
Moderate /
Strong
Rock strength
Massive /
Thick
Tabular /
Massive
TabularAny
Tabular /
Irregular
Tabular /
Lenticular
Tabular /
Lenticular
Tabular /
Lenticular
TabularDeposit shape
Fairly
Steep
Fairly
Steep
Low / FlatAnyFairly Steep
Fairly
Steep
Fairly
Steep
Low /
Moderate
Low / FlatDeposit dip
Very Thick
Large
Thick
Thin /
Wide
Usually
Small
Thin /
Moderate
Thick /
Moderate
Thin /
Moderate.
AnyLarge / ThinDeposit size
LowModerateModerateHighFairly highModerateFairly High
Low /
Moderate
ModerateOre grade
UniformModerateUniformVariableVariableUniformUniformVariableUniformOre uniformity
ModerateModerate
Moderate /
Deep
Deep
Moderate /
Deep
Moderate
Shallow /
Moderate
Shallow /
Moderate
Shallow /
Moderate
Depth
Prof. Dr. H.Z. Harraz Presentation
Mining Methods
10
12. Overview
Stoping is the process of extracting the desired ore or other mineral from an
underground mine, leaving behind an open space known as a stope.[1]
Stoping is the removal of the orebody from the surrounding rock.
Stoping is used when the country rock is sufficiently strong not to cave into the stope,
although in most cases artificial support is also provided.
The earliest forms of stoping were conducted with hand tools or by fire-setting; later
gunpowder was introduced. From the 19th century onward, various other explosives,
power-tools, and machines came into use. As mining progresses the stope is often
backfilled with tailings, or when needed for strength, a mixture of tailings and cement. In
old mines, stopes frequently collapse at a later time, leaving craters at the surface. They
are an unexpected danger when records of underground mining have been lost with the
passage of time.
Stoping is considered "Productive work", and is contrasted with "Deadwork", the work
required merely to access the mineral deposit, such as sinking shafts and winzes,
carving adits, tunnels, and levels, and establishing ventilation and transportation.[2]
A stope can be created in a variety of ways The specific method of stoping depends
on a number of considerations, both technical and economical, based largely on the
geology of the ore body being mined. These include the incline of the deposit (whether
it is flat, tilted or vertical), the width of the deposit, the grade of the ore, the hardness
and strength of the surrounding rock, and the cost of materials for supports[3] (i.e., The
methods used may vary throughout each mine, depending on the changing
characteristics of the orebody and mine planning techniques).
Prof. Dr. H.Z. Harraz Presentation
Mining Methods
12
13. An Underground Stope
IAEA
An open stope
MPI Mines
Fig.12: A narrow vein stope at Gymbie
Eldorado Mine, Queensland-Australia.
Figure shows stoping a narrow vein mining orebodies
may be only half a meter wide
Prof. Dr. H.Z. Harraz Presentation
Mining Methods
13
14. It is common to dig shafts vertically downwards to reach the ore body and then drive
horizontal levels through it. Stoping then takes place from these levels.
When the ore body is more or less horizontal, various forms of room and pillar
stoping, cut and fill,[4] or longwall mining can take place.
In steeply-dipping ore bodies, such as lodes of tin, the stopes become long narrow
near-vertical spaces, which, if one reaches the surface is known as a Gunnis or
Coffen.[1] A common method of mining such vertical ore bodies is stull stoping.
The development of the infrastructure for the stoping methods is time-consuming,
costly, and complex.
All methods involve:
drilling a pattern of holes into the rock
charging (filling) the holes with explosive
blasting the rock
bogging (digging) it out
transporting it to the surface.
The general approach is to access the orebody at regular intervals (generally
between 15 and 40 vertical meters) and then stope between these.
Rock fill
Orebody
Access
drive
MPI Mines
Overview (Cont.)
Prof. Dr. H.Z. Harraz Presentation
Mining Methods
14
15. 1) Open-Stope Systems
Open stoping is generally divided into two basic forms based on direction: overhand and underhand
stoping, which refer to the removal of ore from above or below the level, respectively.
It is also possible to combine the two in a single operation.
1.1) Underhand stoping
Underhand stoping, also known as horizontal-cut underhand or underbreaking stoping, is the working of
an ore deposit from the top downwards.
Like shrinkage stoping, underhand stoping is most suitable for steeply dipping ore bodies.[5] Because of
the mechanical advantage it offers hand tools being struck downward (rather than upward, against
gravity), this method was dominant prior to the invention of rock blasting and powered tools.[6]
1.2) Overhand stoping
In overhand stoping, the deposit is worked from the bottom upward, the reverse of underhand stoping.
With the advent of rock blasting and power drills, it became the predominant direction of stoping.[3]
1.3) Combined stoping
In combined stoping, the deposit is simultaneously worked from the bottom upward and the top
downward, combining the techniques of overhand and underhand stoping into a single approach.
1.4) Breast stoping
Breast stoping is a method used in horizontal or near-horizontal ore bodies, where gravity is not
usable to move the ore around.[7]
Breast stoping lacks the characteristic "steps" of either underhand or overhand stoping, being mined in a
singular cut.
Room and pillar is a type of breast stoping.
Prof. Dr. H.Z. Harraz Presentation
Mining Methods
15
16. 2) Room (Bord)-and-Pillar mining (or continuous mining) method
It is the most common supported pillar method, designed and used primarily for mining flat-lying
seams, or tabular orebodies, or gently dipping bedded ore deposits of limited thickness (like coal,
oil shale, limestone, phosphate, salt, trona, potash, and bedded uranium ores,).
Room and pillar methods are well adapted to mechanization and are preferred to apply for
sedimentary deposits (such as shales, limestone, dolomite or sandstone) containing copper, lead,
coal seams, phosphate layers, and evaporate (salt and potash) layers.
Pillars are left in place in a regular pattern while the rooms are mined out.
Support of the roof is provided by natural pillars of the mineral that are left standing in a
systematic pattern.
The mining cavity is supported (kept open) by the strength of remnants (pillars) of the orebody
that are left un-mined.
Room-and-pillar mining method has a low recovery rate (a large percentage of ore remains in
place underground).
In many room and pillar mines, the pillars are taken out starting at the farthest point from the
stope access, allowing the roof to collapse and fill in the stope. This allows for greater recovery as
less ore is left behind in pillars.
It is an advantageous mining method for shallow orebodies –as a means of preventing surface
subsidence. Historic, ultra-shallow underground coal mines (<30 m) nevertheless are
characterized by surface subsidence in the areas between pillars (e.g., Witbank coal field, South
Africa).
Pillars are sometimes mined on retreat from a working area, inducing closure and caving of these
working panels, and raising the risk of surface subsidence.
Prof. Dr. H.Z. Harraz Presentation
Mining Methods
16
17. Prof. Dr. H.Z. Harraz Presentation
Mining Methods
Room and Pillar Mining
17
18. Figure from Hartman and Mutmansky, 2002.
Note the control of ventilation,
i.e., the separation of
contaminated (used) and
uncontaminated (fresh) air
using a variety of devices.
Room (Bord)-and-Pillar Layout
Figure shows Room and Pillar Mining
Prof. Dr. H.Z. Harraz Presentation
Mining Methods
18
19. Underground mining: room-and-pillar mining of thick seams –“Benching”
Different approaches allow either the top or bottom
part of the seam to be mined out first.
Note: the “hangingwall” is above
the mining cavity, and the
“footwall” is below it.
Figure shows Room and Pillar is designed for mining
flat, bedded deposits of limited thickness.
Figures from Hartman and Mutmansky, 2002.
Front benching
Vertical benching
Benching of thicker
parts of orebody
Prof. Dr. H.Z. Harraz Presentation
Mining Methods
19
20. 3) Cut and Fill (C & F) Stoping
It is one of the more popular methods used for vein deposits and has recently grown in use.
It is an expensive but selective mining method, with low ore loss and dilution.[3] (i.e., allows selective mining
and avoid mining of waste or low grade ore).
Is relatively expensive and therefore is done only in high grade mineralization (Because the method involves
moving fill material as well as a significant amount of drilling and blasting).
It is a method of shorthole mining used in steeply dipping or It is preferred for orebodies with irregular ore
zones and scattered mineralization.
It requires working at face (which is less safe than longhole stoping).
It is used:-
in mining steeply dipping orebodies in stable rock masses (primarily in steeply dipping metal
deposits),
in strata with good to moderate stability, and comparatively high grade mineralization.
either fill option may be consolidated with concrete, or left unconsolidated.
Generally uses no cement
Bottom up mining method: Remove ore in horizontal slices, starting from a bottom undercut and
advancing upward.
Moderate production rates.
Good resource usage.
Not stress friendly.
Moderate ground support
Ore is drilled, blasted and removed from stope.
The ore is mined in slices: As each horizontal or slightly inclined slice is taken, the voids (Opens) are
backfilled with a variety of fill types to support the walls (i.e., the fill can be rock waste, tailings, cemented
tailings, or other suitable materials).
{(note: The fill serves both to support the stope walls and provide a working platform for equipment
when the next slice is mined)}.
Prof. Dr. H.Z. Harraz Presentation
Mining Methods
20
21. Figure showing cut and fill mining method.
Remove ore in horizontal slices, starting
from a bottom undercut and advancing
upward.
As each horizontal slice is taken, the
voids (Opens) are filled with a variety of
fill types to support the walls. (i.e., the fill
can be rock waste, tailings, cemented
tailings, or other suitable materials).
Ore is drilled, blasted and
removed from stope
3) Cut and Fill (C & F) Stoping (Cont.)
Prof. Dr. H.Z. Harraz Presentation
Mining Methods
21
22. Because the method involves moving fill material as well as a significant amount of drilling and
blasting, it is relatively expensive and therefore is done only in high grade mineralization where
there is a need to be selective and avoid mining of waste or low grade ore.
It is practiced both in the overhand (upward) and in the underhand (downward) directions.
i) Overhand (upward) cut and fill
o is applied to ore lies underneath the working area and the roof is backfill.
o involves a work area of cemented backfill while mining ore from the roof.
ii) Underhand (Downward) cut and fill ore
o is applied to ore lies beneath the working area and the roof is cemented backfill.
o ore overlies the working area and the machines work on backfill.
Note:
Drift and Fill is similar to cut and
fill, except it is used in ore zones which
are wider than the method of drifting will
allow to be mined. In this case the first
drift is developed in the ore, and is
backfilled using consolidated fill. The
second drift is driven adjacent to the first
drift. This carries on until the ore zone is
mined out to its full width, at which time
the second cut is started atop of the first
cut.
3) Cut and Fill (C & F) Stoping (Cont.)
Prof. Dr. H.Z. Harraz Presentation
Mining Methods
22
23. 3) Stull stoping
Stull stoping is a common method of to mine vertical ore bodies or
steeply-dipping ore bodies (because the stopes become long narrow near-
vertical spaces, which, if one reaches the surface is known as a Gunnis or
Coffen[1] ).
Stull stoping is a form of stoping used in hardrock mining that uses
systematic or random timbering ("stulls") placed between the foot and
hangingwall of the vein.
Stull stoping is a supported mining method using timber or rock bolts in
tabular, pitching ore bodies.
It is one of the methods that can be applied to ore bodies that have dips
between 10o and 45o.
The method requires that the hangingwall and often the footwall be of
competent rock as the stulls provide the only artificial support.
It often utilizes artificial pillars of waste to support the roof.
This type of stope has been used up to a depth of 3,500 feet (1,077 m)
and at intervals up to 12 feet (3.7 m) wide.[8]
Prof. Dr. H.Z. Harraz Presentation
Mining Methods
23
24. Square-set stoping is a method relying on square-set timbering.
The square-set stoping method (Fig. 9) is used where the ore is weak, and the walls are not
strong enough to support themselves.
This is a highly specialized method of stoping requiring expert input.
The value of the ore must be relatively high, for square-setting is slow, expensive, and
requires highly skilled miners and supervisors.
In square-set stoping, one small block of ore is removed and replaced by a "set" or cubic
frame of timber which is immediately set into place.
The timber sets interlock and are filled with broken waste rock or sand fill, for they are not
strong enough to support the stope walls.
The waste rock or sand fill is usually added after one tier of sets, or stope cut, is made.
Square-set timbers are set into place as support and are then filled with cement.
The cement commonly uses fine tailings.
Square-set stoping also involves backfilling mine voids; however, it relies mainly on timber
sets to support the walls during mining.
This mining method is still finds occasional use in mining high-grade ores or in countries
where labour costs are low.
4) Square-set stoping
Prof. Dr. H.Z. Harraz Presentation
Mining Methods
24
25. Figure 9: shows Square-set stoping
Prof. Dr. H.Z. Harraz Presentation
Mining Methods
25
26. 5) Shrinkage Stoping
Shrinkage stoping may be termed a “classic” mining method, having been perhaps the most popular mining
method for most of the past century. It has largely been replaced by mechanized methods but is still used in many
small mines around the world.
Shrinkage stoping is a short-hole mining method which is most suitable for steeply dipping orebodies (70°- 90°).
Also, the blasted ore must not be affected by storage in the slopes (e.g., sulfide ores have a tendency to oxidize and
decompose when exposed to air).
Its most prominent feature is the use of gravity flow for ore handling: ore from stopes drops directly into rail cars
via chutes obviating manual loading, traditionally the most common and least liked job in mining.
Mining progresses upward (i.e., proceeds from the bottom upwards), with horizontal slices (similar to cut and fill
mining) of ore being blasted along the length of the stope. A portion of the broken ore is allowed to accumulate in
the stope to provide a working plat form for the miners and is there after withdrawn from the stope through
chutes.
The method is similar to cut and fill mining with the exception that after being blasted, broken ore is left in the
stope where it is used to support the surrounding rock and as a platform from which to work.
Because blasted rock takes up a greater volume than in situ rock (due to swell factor), some of the blasted ore
(~40%) must be removed to provide working space for the next ore slice.
Only enough ore is removed from the stope to allow for drilling and blasting the next slice.
Once the top of the stope is reached all the ore is removed from the stope.
The stope is emptied when all of the ore has been blasted.
The stope may be backfilled or left empty, depending on the rock conditions.[10]
Although it is very selective and allows for low dilution, since the most of the ore stays in the stope until mining is
completed there is a delayed return on capital investments.[3]
Shrinkage stoping is more suitable than sublevel stoping for stronger ore and weaker wallrock.
Prof. Dr. H.Z. Harraz Presentation
Mining Methods
26
27. 5) Shrinkage Stoping (Cont.)
A large stope in the Treadwell gold mine, Alaska,
USA 1908; an example of shrinkage stoping
Note: Sublevel stoping differs from shrinkage stoping by
providing sublevels from which vertical slices are blasted. In this
manner, the stope is mined horizontally from one end to the other.
Prof. Dr. H.Z. Harraz Presentation
Mining Methods
27
28. 6) Long-hole Stoping6.1) Introduction
Long-hole stoping as the name suggests uses holes drilled by a production drill to a
predetermined pattern as designed by a Mining Engineer.
Long-hole stoping is a highly selective and productive method of mining
Long-hole stoping can cater for varying ore thicknesses and dips (0 - 90o).
It differs from manual methods such as timbered and shrinkage as once the stope has begun
blasting phase it cannot be accessed by personnel. For this reason the blasted dirt is
designed to fall into a supported drawpoint or removed with Tele Remote Control LHD. The
biggest limitation with this method is the length of holes that can be accurately drilled by the
production drill, larger diameter holes using ITH (In the Hole Hammer) drills can be accurate
to over 100m in length while floating boom top hammer rigs are limited to ~30m.
Applied to loner (~100 m) and longer diameter blastholes
Long-hole stoping blastholes can be as deep as 100 m, (Figure 6).
Greater drilling accuracy is required.
The drive is 2.5m wide and the stope is 0.9m wide (i.e., thus requiring less drilling than
sublevel stoping).
Traditionally high production rates
Large openings with long open times
Bottom up mining method
High ground support cost
Uses some cement
Not stress friendly
Many equipment types
Fig.6: Long-hole stoping and removing
ore after blasting.
Prof. Dr. H.Z. Harraz Presentation Mining Methods 28
29. 6) Long-hole Stoping (Cont.)
6.2) Slot - Initial Void
Holes drilled underground are generally drilled perpendicular, in a radial pattern around the drive.
For the blastholes to successfully extract the ore material they must be able to fire into a void in
front.
A slot is required in every stope to provide the initial void.
The slot is often the most difficult, costly and highest risk component of mining a stope.
Depending on the shape, height and other factors, different methods to create a slot can be used
such as:
Raise bore, a circular shaft mined bottom up using mechanical rollers to achieve shaft
profile. This method works well in larger stopes however requires both access to top and
bottom of stoping block, raise bore's work most effectively between 45o and 90o.
Longhole rise, a pattern of tightly spaced blastholes and reamers (empty holes with no
charge), similar to a burn cut in a development round. Can be done as downhole and fired in
multiple lifts (15m rise in 3 lifts of 5m to minimise chance of blast failing) or as uphole in one
single firing. This method works well for shorter raises between 45o - 90o, however is prone
to freezing and remedial drilling is possibly required to extract slot to full height.
Airleg Raise, using an airleg (jackleg) machine to develop a sub vertical raise into the stoping
block. This method has the advantage of giving geological and geotechnical teams further
analysis of the stoping block prior to mining.
Boxhole Boring, similar to raise boring however less productive as broken material is
extracted from the same location as the drill, is used to bore vertically with no top level
access required.
Prof. Dr. H.Z. Harraz Presentation
Mining Methods
29
30. 7) Vertical Crater Retreat (VCR) Stoping
Vertical longholes are drilled from drives developed in the ore between two
levels.
Ore is then blasted using a charge that occupies a relatively short length of the
hole, some distance from the bottom face.
The method has a low explosive consumption.
The blast creates downward facing craters and the broken ore is drawn from
the stope at the lower level.
The stope is then backfilled.
Stage 1
Stage 2
Prof. Dr. H.Z. Harraz Presentation
Mining Methods
30
31. Vertical Long-holes are drilled from drives developed in the ore between two levels.
Ore is then blasted using a charge that occupies a relatively short length of the hole, some distance from the bottom face.
The blast creates downward facing craters and the broken ore is drawn from the stope at the lower level.
The stope is then backfilled.
The method has a low explosive consumption.
It uses a different blasting technique breaking the rock with heavy, concentrated charges placed in holes (“craters”) with very large
diameter (~165 mm) about 3 m away from a free rock surface.
Blasting breaks a cone-shaped opening in the rock mass around the hole and allows the blasted material to remain in the stope during
the production phase so that the rock fill can assist in supporting the stope walls.
The need for rock stability is less than in sublevel stoping.
VCR stoping is applicable to mineralization in steeply dipping strata.
The development for VCR mining is requiring both over-cut and under-cut excavations.
The over-cut is needed in the first stage to accommodate the rig drilling the large-diameter (~165 mm) blast holes and for access while
charging the holes and blasting.
The under-cut excavation provided the free surface necessary for VCR blasting.
It may also provide access for a LHD vehicle (operated by remote control with the operator remaining outside the stope) to recover the
blasted ore from the draw-points beneath the stope.
The usual VCR blast uses holes in a 4 m x 4 m pattern directed vertically or steeply inclined with charges carefully placed at calculated
distances to free the surface beneath.
The charges cooperate to break off a horizontal ore slice ~3 m thick.
The blasted rock falls into the stope underneath.
By controlling the rate of mucking out, the stope remains partly filled so that the rock fill assists in stabilizing the stope walls during the
production phase.
The last blast breaks the over-cut into the stope, after which the stope is mucked clean and prepared for back filling.
VCR mines often uses a system of primary and secondary stopes to the orebody.
Primary stopes are mined in the first stage, then backfilled with cemented fill.
The stope is left for the fill to consolidate.
Miners then return and recover the ore in the pillars between the primary stopes, the secondary stopes.
This system, in combination with the cemented backfill, results in close to a 100% recovery of the ore reserves.
7) Vertical Crater Retreat (VCR) Stoping (Cont.)
Prof. Dr. H.Z. Harraz Presentation
Mining Methods
31
32. 8) Longwall Stoping
Longwall stoping is applicable to bedded deposits of uniform shape, limited thickness and large horizontal extension (e.g., a coal seam, a potash
layer or the reef, the bed of quartz pebbles exploited by gold mines in South Africa).
It is a caving method particularly well adapted to relatively flat-lying, thin, planar deposits or horizontal seams, usually coal, at some depth.
It is suitable for tabular orebodies, with moderate dip (e.g., coal and stratiform hard-rock ores like diamond deposits).
It is one of the main methods for mining coal. It recovers the mineral in slices along a straight line that are repeated to recover materials over a
larger area.
Need to divide orebody to "face" or the "working face“.
The collection of cuts, cross-cuts, and pillars all together make up a "panel" and all the equipment that goes together to operate in that panel is a
"unit or Longwall units".
In this method, a face of considerable length (a long face or wall) is maintained, and as the mining progresses, the overlying strata are caved, thus
promoting the breakage of the coal itself.
Applied to longer (~100 m) and longer diameter blastholes (i.e., thus requiring less drilling than sublevel stoping).
Greater drilling accuracy is required.
Need to a longwall machine (It's designed to let the roof fall behind it, and mines out big rooms in which the roof almost immediately collapses,
leaving only a small entryway and the metal barrier that protects the longwall unit).
The space closest to the face in kept open while the hanging wall is allowed to collapse at a safe distance behind the miners and their equipment.
Preparation for longwall mining involves the network of drifts required for access to the mining area and transport of the mined product to the
shaft. Since the mineralization is in the form of a sheet that extends over a wide area, the drifts can usually be arranged in a schematic network
pattern. The haulage drifts are prepared in the seam itself. The distance between two adjacent haulage drifts determines the length of the
longwall face.
Continuous miner operations, and longwall units.
Traditionally high production rates.
Large openings with long open times.
High ground support cost .
Bottom up mining method.
Non-selective mining.
Not stress friendly.
Many equipment types.
Top Gate
Bottom Gate
Face
Longwall mining method
includes drivage of two
long roadways in coal
and joining them at the
end by a perpendicular
drivage forming a face.
Longwall General Layout
Prof. Dr. H.Z. Harraz Presentation
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34. Figure shows "Slim-size" machines including drill rigs, jumbos, and 2 m3 bucket LHDs, are available
for working in drifts as narrow as 2 m.
Prof. Dr. H.Z. Harraz Presentation
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36. Protective Screen
In hard-rock minerals mining a
“scraper” is pulled down the
length of the stope face after
drilling and blasting, to collect
the fragmented ore rock.
In coal mining, a mechanized
cutting device is run along the
length of the coal face.
Temporary support
near the working
face: often
hydraulic props.
“Permanent” support,
often timber packs, will
remain in place after
mining. With time, these
become deformed or
completely crushed –as
part of the “controlled”
closure of the panel.
Schematic of Longwall Panel
(Hangingwall Stripped Away For Illustrative Purposes)
Figure from Hartman and Mutmansky, 2002.
Prof. Dr. H.Z. Harraz Presentation
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37. Example: Longwall Mining of Coal
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:SL500_01.jpg
Longwall mining is a highly mechanized underground mining system for mining coal.
It set of longwall mining equipment consists of a coal shearer mounted on conveyor operating
underneath a series of self-advancing hydraulic roof supports.
Almost the entire process can be automated.
Longwall mining machines are typically 150-250 meters in width and 1.5 to 3 meters high.
Longwall miners extract "panels" - rectangular blocks of coal as wide as the face the
equipment is installed in, and as long as several kilometers.
A layer of coal is selected and blocked out into an area known as a panel (A typical panel
might be 3000 m long X 250 m wide).
Passageways would be excavated along the length of the panel to provide access and to place
a conveying system to transport material out of the mine.
Entry tunnels would be constructed from the passageways along the width of the panel.
Extraction is an almost continuous operation involving the use of: self-advancing hydraulic
roof supports sometimes called shields, a shearing machine, and a conveyor which runs
parallel to the face being mined.
Powerful mechanical coal cutters (Shearers) cut coal from the face, which falls onto an
armoured face conveyor for removal.
The longwall system would mine between entry tunnels.
Longwalls can advance into an area of coal, or more commonly, retreat back between
development tunnels (called "Gate roads")
As a longwall miner retreats back along a panel, the roof behind the supports is allowed to
collapse in a planned and controlled manner.
Prof. Dr. H.Z. Harraz Presentation
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38. Longwall Mining Machine
It's designed to let the roof fall behind it, and mines out
big rooms in which the roof almost immediately
collapses, leaving only a small entryway and the metal
barrier that protects the longwall unit.
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/
5/5d/Schildausbau.jpg/220px-Schildausbau.jpg
Figure shows Hydraulic chocks
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Longwall_wit
h_hydraulic_chocks%2C_conveyor_and_shearer.jpg/220px-
Longwall_with_hydraulic_chocks%2C_conveyor_and_shearer.jpg
Figure shows Hydraulic chocks, conveyor and shearer
Prof. Dr. H.Z. Harraz Presentation
Mining Methods
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39. Figure shows another continuous miner in an underground coal mine.
Fig 12a: Passageway
Figure 12b: A typical panel is 3000 m long by
250 m wide
Mechanized cutting machineon a
longwall coal-mining face.
Figure 12c: Longwall system in place.
http://wikimedia.org/wikipedia/common
s/thumb/1/19/SL500_01.jpg/
Prof. Dr. H.Z. Harraz Presentation
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40. Anatomy of a Coal Mine
Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Protection
Bureau of Deep Mine Safety
Prof. Dr. H.Z. Harraz Presentation
Mining Methods
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41. Coal Mine
And NowThen
Mechanized cutting machine on a longwall coal-mining face:
Shearer Working at Longwall Face.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:SL500_01.jpg
Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Protection
Bureau of Deep Mine Safety
Prof. Dr. H.Z. Harraz Presentation
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43. Work Face at South African Gold Mine
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44. 9) Caving Mining Methods:
Subsidence of the surface
normally occurs afterward
Figure shows Continued mining results in
subsidence of the surface, causing sink
holes to appear.
Ultimately, the ground surface on top of the
orebody subsides.
Caving (i.e., Sublevel and Block) mining methods are varied and versatile and involve caving the ore and/or
the overlying rock. Subsidence of the surface normally occurs afterward.
Caving methods are varied and involve caving the ore and/or the overlying rock.
Caving mining is advantageous in that it maximizes ore recovery (as little ore as possible is left behind) the
method comes with significant problems:
Surface subsidence in the case of shallow mines.
Rock-bursts underground, causing injury and death in deep level mines
Prof. Dr. H.Z. Harraz Presentation
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45. After math of a rockburst in a deep-level tunnel showing complete tunnel closure. The
energy released by this event is equivalent to magnitude M = 3.4 earthquake.
Rockbursts underground, causing injury and death in deep level mines.
Prof. Dr. H.Z. Harraz Presentation
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46. It is used to mine large orebodies with steep dip tabular or massive deposit and continuation at depth
(Fig.17).
The ore is extracted via sublevels which are developed in the orebody at regular vertical spacing.
Each sublevel has a systematic layout of parallel drifts, along or across the orebody.
Sublevel stoping recovers the ore from open stopes separated by access drifts each connected to a ramp.
The orebody is divided into sections about 100 m high and further divided laterally into alternating stopes
and pillars.
A main haulage drive is created in the footwall at the bottom, with cut-outs for draw-points connected to
the stopes above. The bottom is V-shaped to funnel the blasted material into the draw-points.
Short blastholes are drilled from the access drifts in a ring configuration. The ore in the stope is blasted,
collected in the draw-points, and hauled away.
Blasting on each sublevel starts at the hangingwall and mining then proceeds toward the footwall.
Blasting removes support for the hangingwall, which collapses into the drift.
As mining progresses downward, each new level is caved into the mine openings, with the ore materials
being recovered while the rock remains behind.
Loading continues until it is decided that waste dilution is too high Work then begins on a
nearby drift heading with a fresh cave.
As mining removes rock without backfilling, the hangingwall keeps caving into the void. Continued mining
results in subsidence of the surface, causing sink holes to appear. Ultimately, the ground surface on top of
the orebody subsides (Fig.18).
However, the stopes are normally backfilled with consolidated mill tailings after being mined out (This
allows for recovery of the pillars of unmined ore between the stopes, enabling a very high recovery of the
orebody).
9.1) Sublevel Caving
Prof. Dr. H.Z. Harraz Presentation
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47. Figure 7: Sublevel Caving
Sublevel Stoping
Prof. Dr. H.Z. Harraz Presentation
Mining Methods
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48. Figure shows Continued mining results in
subsidence of the surface, causing sink holes
to appear.
Ultimately, the ground surface on top of the
orebody subsides.
Figure shows sublevel caving is used to
mine large orebodies with steep dip and
continuation at depth.
Prof. Dr. H.Z. Harraz Presentation
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49. 9.2) Block Caving
Block-caving method is employed generally for steeply dipping ores, and thick sub-
horizontal seams of ore. The method has application, for example in sulfide deposits
and underground kimberlite (diamond) mining.
It is most applicable to :-
o A large-scale or bulk mining method that is highly productive, low in cost,
and used primarily on massive steeply dipping orebodies that must be
mined underground.
o Weak or moderately strong orebodies that readily break up when caved.
o Large, deep (>2 km deep), low-grade deposits with high friability (Fig.19).
It is often done to continue mining after open pit mining becomes uneconomic or
impossible. However, some mines start as block cave operations (e.g., There are
several of these in Chile. Rio Tinto is considering a deep at the Resolution deposit to
the east of Phoenix).
A grid of tunnels is driven under the orebody The rock mass is then
undercut by blasting.
Ideally the rock will break under its own weight Broken ore is then taken
from draw points.
There may be hundreds of draw points in a large block cave operation (Fig.20).
Prof. Dr. H.Z. Harraz Presentation
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50. An undercut with haulage access is driven under the orebody, with "drawbells"
excavated between the top of the haulage level and the bottom of the undercut. The
drawbells serve as a place for caving rock to fall into.
The orebody is drilled and blasted above the undercut, and the ore is removed via the
haulage access.
Due to the friability of the orebody the ore above the first blast caves and falls into the
drawbells. As ore is removed from the drawbells the orebody caves in providing a
steady stream of ore[3].
If caving stops and removal of ore from the drawbells continues, a large void may form,
resulting in the potential for a sudden and massive collapse and potentially catastrophic
windblast throughout the mine.[4]
Where caving does continue, the ground surface may collapse into a surface depression
(such as those at the Climax and Henderson molybdenum mines in Colorado. Such a
configuration is one of several to which miners apply the term "glory hole“).
Orebodies that do not cave readily are sometimes preconditioned by hydraulic
fracturing, blasting, or by a combination of both. Hydraulic fracturing has been applied
to preconditioning strong roof rock over coal longwall panels, and to inducing caving in
both coal and hard rock mines.
Essentially block caving creates an underground 'inverted open pit'. Surface subsidence
can be a problem….???.
Prof. Dr. H.Z. Harraz Presentation
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51. Figure shows application of the
Block caving to large, deep, low-
grade deposits
Figure shows hundreds of draw
points to take broken ore in a
large block cave operation
www.ivanhoe-mines.com/s/Mongolia_ImageGallery
Figure: Models of block caving (Brown, 2003).
Prof. Dr. H.Z. Harraz Presentation
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52. An undercut tunnel is driven under the orebody,
with "drawbells“ excavated above. Caving rock falls
into the drawbells. The orebody is drilled and
blasted above the undercut to initiate the “caving”
process. As ore is continuously removed from the
drawbells, the orebody continues to cave
spontaneously, providing a steady stream of ore. If
spontaneous caving stops, and removal of ore from
the drawbells continues, a large void may form,
resulting in the potential for a sudden and
massive collapse and a potentially catastrophic
windblast throughout the mine (e.g., the
Northparks Mine disaster, Australia).
Figure from Hartman and Mutmansky, 2002.
TOP OF OREBODY
Surface
OREBODY
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53. Block-cave mining: Mud-rushes –an under-reported hazard
Mud-rushes are sudden inflows of mud from ore drawpoints (or other
underground openings), in block-cave mines that are open to the surface.
Considerable violence, in the form of an airblast, is often associated with
mud-rushes. Mud-rushes are (under-reported) hazardous occurrences that
have occurred frequently in mines in South Africa, as well as in Chile and
Western Australia, and have caused fatalities (Butcher et al., 2005).
Mud is produced by the breakdown
of rock in the near-surface
muckpile in the presence of
rainwater.
Kimberlite rock on diamond mines
is particularly susceptible to
weathering by rainwater.
SCHEMATIC CUT-AWAY VIEW OF SUB-LEVEL BLOCK-CAVE MINE
Figure from Hartman and Mutmansky, 2002.
Prof. Dr. H.Z. Harraz Presentation
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54. Figure shows Effect of Mineral extraction upon displacement of country rock and
surface as well as rock displacement in mining.
The rock displacement zone include:- "a
caving zone" within which the displacement
is accompanied by the fault and destruction
of layers and the separation of lumps and
blocks from the solid;
"a cracking zone" which is an area of rock
discontinuity and cracks;
"a smooth-displacement zone" wherein rock
features plastics deformation without
discontinuities.
The earth's surface area which experienced
displacement is called a "trough".
Effect of Mineral extraction upon displacement of country rock and surface
This phenomenon is called "Displacement of rock". Displacement causes smooth
subsidence of the earth's surface without ruptures, or abrupt subsidence with
considerable movements, caving and collapses.
Workings and voids formed after extraction of mineral gets filled with time by the
caving rock so that the rock over the deposit may deformed and subside.
Prof. Dr. H.Z. Harraz Presentation
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55. Stope and Retreat vs. Stope and Fill
Retreat
Retreat is a term used to reference the final phase of an underground mining technique.
This involves excavating supporting pillars
Once a deposit has been exhausted using this method, the pillars that were left behind initially
are removed (or 'pulled‘) retreating back towards the mine's entrance.
After the pillars are removed, the roof (or back) is allowed to collapse behind the mining area.
Pillar removal must occur in a very precise order in order to reduce the risks to workers, due to
the high stresses placed on the remaining pillars by the abutment stresses of the caving ground.
Stope and Retreat Stope and Fill
Using this method, mining is
planned to extract rock from the
stopes without filling the voids; this
allows the wall rocks to cave in to
the extracted stope after all the ore
has been removed.
The stope is then sealed to prevent
access.
Where large bulk ore bodies are to be mined at
great depth, or where leaving pillars of ore is
uneconomical, the open stope is filled with
backfill, which can be a cement and rock
mixture, a cement and sand mixture or a
cement and tailings mixture.
This method is popular as the refilled stopes
provide support for the adjacent stopes,
allowing total extraction of economic resources.
Prof. Dr. H.Z. Harraz Presentation
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56. Example for Block Caving Production
Figure shows large fragments of ore are a problem because they cannot be easily transported?
Usually they have to be broken up by secondary
blasting, which costs money and time.
Prof. Dr. H.Z. Harraz Presentation
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57. In mines which use rubber tired equipment for coarse ore removal, the ore (or
"muck") is removed from the stope (referred to as "mucked out" or "bogged")
using center articulated vehicles (referred to as boggers or LHD [i.e., Load, Haul,
Dump]). These pieces of equipment may operate using diesel or electric engines
and resemble a low-profile front end loader.
In shallower mines , the ore is then dumped into a truck to be hauled to the
surface.
In deeper mines the ore is dumped down an ore pass (a vertical or near vertical
excavation) where it falls to a collection level. On the collection level, it may
receive primary crushing via jaw or cone crusher. The ore is then moved by
conveyor belts, trucks or occasionally trains to the shaft to be hoisted to the
surface in buckets or skips and emptied into bins beneath the surface headframe
for transport to the mill.
In some cases the underground primary crusher feeds an inclined
conveyor belt which delivers ore via an incline shaft direct to the
surface. The ore is fed down ore passes, with mining equipment
accessing the ore body via a decline from surface.
Ore Removal
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58. UNIT OPERATIONS OF MINING
Ore extraction and underground development is achieved by precise drilling
and blasting techniques.
Drilling a pattern of holes into the rock.
Charging (filling) the holes with explosive.
Blasting the rocks.
Bogging (digging) it out.
Ground support.
Transporting it to the surface.
During the development and exploitation stages of mining when natural materials
are extracted from the earth, remarkably similar unit operations are normally employed.
The unit operations of mining are the basic steps used to produce mineral from
the deposit, and the auxiliary operations that are used to support them. The steps
contributing directly to mineral extraction are production operations, which constitute
the production cycle of operations.
The production cycle employs unit operations that are normally grouped into rock
breakage and materials handling. Breakage generally consists of drilling and blasting and
materials handling encompasses loading or excavation and haulage (horizontal transport)
and sometimes hoisting (vertical or inclined transport).
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59. Production Cycle =
Drill + Blast + Load + Haulage
The Mining Production Cycle includes the following steps:-
Drill holes.
Blast.
Mining machinery.
Load .
Haulage.
Repeat until orebody is depleted.
Prof. Dr. H.Z. Harraz Presentation
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60. Underground Mine Development and Production
Alimak Raising
Raise Boring
Surface Diamond Drilling
Underground Diamond Drilling
Prof. Dr. H.Z. Harraz Presentation
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65. Reference
1) "A Short Technical Glossary of Cornish Mining Terms". Cornish Mining World Heritage. Retrieved 2009-05-08.
2) Brown, E. T. (2003). Block caving geomechanics. The international caving JKMRC monograph series in mining
and mineral processing, University of Queensland, vol. 3.
3) Collins, J. H. (1874). Principles of Metal Mining. New York City: G.B. Putnam's Sons. p.34.
4) de la Vergne, Jack (2003). Hard Rock Miner's Handbook. Tempe/North Bay: McIntosh Engineering. pp.2. ISBN 0-
9687006-1-6.
5) Hartman, H.L., 1987. Introductory mining engineering. A Wiley interscience publication, 633p
6) Hartman, H. L. (1992). SME Mining Engineering Handbook, Society for Mining, Metallurgy, and Exploration
Inc, p.3.
7) Hartman, H.L. and Matmansky, J.M. (2002). Introductory Mining Engineering. 2ndedn. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
584p.
8) Hoover, H. (1909). Principles of Mining. New York: McGraw-Hill. p. 94.
9) Jayanta, B. (2007). Principles of Mine Planning. 2nd edn, Wide Publishing, 505p.ISBN 81-7764-480-7.
10) Lottermoser, B. (2007). Mine Wastes: Characterization, Treatment and Environmental Impacts. 2nd edn.
Springer, Berlin Heidelberg.
11) Puhakka, T. (1997). Underground Drilling and Loading Handbook. Finland: Tamrock Corp. pp.98 –170.
12) Skimmed Coal - new sink and float process removes slate and speeds production" Popular Science, August 1938
13) SME Mining Engineering Handbook, 2011, ed. Peter Darling.
14) SME Mining Engineering Handbook, 1992, H. Hartman and other.
15) Spitz, K. and Trudinger, J. (2009). Mining and the Environment: From Ore to Metal. CRC Press, Leiden.
16) Tatiya, R.R. (2005). Surface and underground excavations: methods, techniques & equipment. A.A. Bakema,
579p.
17) Underground Mining Methods Handbook, 1982, W.A. Hustrulid.
18) Underground Mining Methods: Eng. Fundamentals and International Case Studies, 2001, W. A. Hustrulid & R.
Bullock.
19) Rock mechanics for underground mining, 1993, B.H.G. Brady & E.T. Brown.
20) Hard Rock Miner’s Handbook, 2000, J.N. de la Vergne, ISBN 0-9687006-0-8.
Prof. Dr. H.Z. Harraz Presentation
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