Memory Organization | Computer Fundamental and OrganizationSmit Luvani
Agenda :
Introduction
Memory Cell
Memory Organization
Read Only Memory
Serial Access Memory
Physical Devices Used to Construct Memories
Magnetic Optical Disk
Virtual Memory
This all topics covered in This PPT.
Memory Organization | Computer Fundamental and OrganizationSmit Luvani
Agenda :
Introduction
Memory Cell
Memory Organization
Read Only Memory
Serial Access Memory
Physical Devices Used to Construct Memories
Magnetic Optical Disk
Virtual Memory
This all topics covered in This PPT.
ROM(Read Only Memory ) is computer memory on which data has been prerecorded. Once data has been written onto a ROM chip, it cannot be removed and can only be read.
speech, hearing, noise, intelligibility, loudness, voice mechanism, threshold of ear, Fletcher Munson Curve, Counter curve of equal loudness, relation between loudness level and duration of time, calculation of loudness level
Loudspeaker- direct radiating type and horn type.pptxpriyankatabhane
loudspeaker, characteristics of loudspeaker, direct radiating type loudspeaker, permanent magnet type, cone type loudspeaker, moving coil type loudspeaker, dynamic loudspeaker, electrodynamic loudspeaker, horn loudspeaker
Environmental acoustics, speech interference level, how to calculate speech interference level, voice level, acoustics calibrator, types of acoustics calibrator, type 4228, type 4231, type 4297, type 3541 A, type 4226, type 4229
classical ray theory, growth and decay of sound in live and dead room, sound absorbing materials, their types and uses, porous material, public address system, howl round, under water acoustics, transmission losses in sea water
Fundamentals of Ultrasonic waves and applicationspriyankatabhane
ultrasonic waves, generation, properties, types, transducers, propagation in liquids, ultrasonic velocity, us absorption, relaxation in binary mixtures, normal and associated liquids. Measurement techniques: interfero method, optical method, sing around method , pulse echo technique, pulse echo overlap method. Application of us waves: cavitation effect, SONAR, us welding, us cleaning.
the topic of ultrasonic for MSc students. The topic covers : what are ultrasonic wave? the basic history about the waves. there properties, types, how to generate it, how to calculate the velocity of ultrasound in liquids, how does ultrasound interact with binary mixtures, the main applications of ultrasound.
The increased availability of biomedical data, particularly in the public domain, offers the opportunity to better understand human health and to develop effective therapeutics for a wide range of unmet medical needs. However, data scientists remain stymied by the fact that data remain hard to find and to productively reuse because data and their metadata i) are wholly inaccessible, ii) are in non-standard or incompatible representations, iii) do not conform to community standards, and iv) have unclear or highly restricted terms and conditions that preclude legitimate reuse. These limitations require a rethink on data can be made machine and AI-ready - the key motivation behind the FAIR Guiding Principles. Concurrently, while recent efforts have explored the use of deep learning to fuse disparate data into predictive models for a wide range of biomedical applications, these models often fail even when the correct answer is already known, and fail to explain individual predictions in terms that data scientists can appreciate. These limitations suggest that new methods to produce practical artificial intelligence are still needed.
In this talk, I will discuss our work in (1) building an integrative knowledge infrastructure to prepare FAIR and "AI-ready" data and services along with (2) neurosymbolic AI methods to improve the quality of predictions and to generate plausible explanations. Attention is given to standards, platforms, and methods to wrangle knowledge into simple, but effective semantic and latent representations, and to make these available into standards-compliant and discoverable interfaces that can be used in model building, validation, and explanation. Our work, and those of others in the field, creates a baseline for building trustworthy and easy to deploy AI models in biomedicine.
Bio
Dr. Michel Dumontier is the Distinguished Professor of Data Science at Maastricht University, founder and executive director of the Institute of Data Science, and co-founder of the FAIR (Findable, Accessible, Interoperable and Reusable) data principles. His research explores socio-technological approaches for responsible discovery science, which includes collaborative multi-modal knowledge graphs, privacy-preserving distributed data mining, and AI methods for drug discovery and personalized medicine. His work is supported through the Dutch National Research Agenda, the Netherlands Organisation for Scientific Research, Horizon Europe, the European Open Science Cloud, the US National Institutes of Health, and a Marie-Curie Innovative Training Network. He is the editor-in-chief for the journal Data Science and is internationally recognized for his contributions in bioinformatics, biomedical informatics, and semantic technologies including ontologies and linked data.
Earliest Galaxies in the JADES Origins Field: Luminosity Function and Cosmic ...Sérgio Sacani
We characterize the earliest galaxy population in the JADES Origins Field (JOF), the deepest
imaging field observed with JWST. We make use of the ancillary Hubble optical images (5 filters
spanning 0.4−0.9µm) and novel JWST images with 14 filters spanning 0.8−5µm, including 7 mediumband filters, and reaching total exposure times of up to 46 hours per filter. We combine all our data
at > 2.3µm to construct an ultradeep image, reaching as deep as ≈ 31.4 AB mag in the stack and
30.3-31.0 AB mag (5σ, r = 0.1” circular aperture) in individual filters. We measure photometric
redshifts and use robust selection criteria to identify a sample of eight galaxy candidates at redshifts
z = 11.5 − 15. These objects show compact half-light radii of R1/2 ∼ 50 − 200pc, stellar masses of
M⋆ ∼ 107−108M⊙, and star-formation rates of SFR ∼ 0.1−1 M⊙ yr−1
. Our search finds no candidates
at 15 < z < 20, placing upper limits at these redshifts. We develop a forward modeling approach to
infer the properties of the evolving luminosity function without binning in redshift or luminosity that
marginalizes over the photometric redshift uncertainty of our candidate galaxies and incorporates the
impact of non-detections. We find a z = 12 luminosity function in good agreement with prior results,
and that the luminosity function normalization and UV luminosity density decline by a factor of ∼ 2.5
from z = 12 to z = 14. We discuss the possible implications of our results in the context of theoretical
models for evolution of the dark matter halo mass function.
Introduction:
RNA interference (RNAi) or Post-Transcriptional Gene Silencing (PTGS) is an important biological process for modulating eukaryotic gene expression.
It is highly conserved process of posttranscriptional gene silencing by which double stranded RNA (dsRNA) causes sequence-specific degradation of mRNA sequences.
dsRNA-induced gene silencing (RNAi) is reported in a wide range of eukaryotes ranging from worms, insects, mammals and plants.
This process mediates resistance to both endogenous parasitic and exogenous pathogenic nucleic acids, and regulates the expression of protein-coding genes.
What are small ncRNAs?
micro RNA (miRNA)
short interfering RNA (siRNA)
Properties of small non-coding RNA:
Involved in silencing mRNA transcripts.
Called “small” because they are usually only about 21-24 nucleotides long.
Synthesized by first cutting up longer precursor sequences (like the 61nt one that Lee discovered).
Silence an mRNA by base pairing with some sequence on the mRNA.
Discovery of siRNA?
The first small RNA:
In 1993 Rosalind Lee (Victor Ambros lab) was studying a non- coding gene in C. elegans, lin-4, that was involved in silencing of another gene, lin-14, at the appropriate time in the
development of the worm C. elegans.
Two small transcripts of lin-4 (22nt and 61nt) were found to be complementary to a sequence in the 3' UTR of lin-14.
Because lin-4 encoded no protein, she deduced that it must be these transcripts that are causing the silencing by RNA-RNA interactions.
Types of RNAi ( non coding RNA)
MiRNA
Length (23-25 nt)
Trans acting
Binds with target MRNA in mismatch
Translation inhibition
Si RNA
Length 21 nt.
Cis acting
Bind with target Mrna in perfect complementary sequence
Piwi-RNA
Length ; 25 to 36 nt.
Expressed in Germ Cells
Regulates trnasposomes activity
MECHANISM OF RNAI:
First the double-stranded RNA teams up with a protein complex named Dicer, which cuts the long RNA into short pieces.
Then another protein complex called RISC (RNA-induced silencing complex) discards one of the two RNA strands.
The RISC-docked, single-stranded RNA then pairs with the homologous mRNA and destroys it.
THE RISC COMPLEX:
RISC is large(>500kD) RNA multi- protein Binding complex which triggers MRNA degradation in response to MRNA
Unwinding of double stranded Si RNA by ATP independent Helicase
Active component of RISC is Ago proteins( ENDONUCLEASE) which cleave target MRNA.
DICER: endonuclease (RNase Family III)
Argonaute: Central Component of the RNA-Induced Silencing Complex (RISC)
One strand of the dsRNA produced by Dicer is retained in the RISC complex in association with Argonaute
ARGONAUTE PROTEIN :
1.PAZ(PIWI/Argonaute/ Zwille)- Recognition of target MRNA
2.PIWI (p-element induced wimpy Testis)- breaks Phosphodiester bond of mRNA.)RNAse H activity.
MiRNA:
The Double-stranded RNAs are naturally produced in eukaryotic cells during development, and they have a key role in regulating gene expression .
Seminar of U.V. Spectroscopy by SAMIR PANDASAMIR PANDA
Spectroscopy is a branch of science dealing the study of interaction of electromagnetic radiation with matter.
Ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy refers to absorption spectroscopy or reflect spectroscopy in the UV-VIS spectral region.
Ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy is an analytical method that can measure the amount of light received by the analyte.
Cancer cell metabolism: special Reference to Lactate PathwayAADYARAJPANDEY1
Normal Cell Metabolism:
Cellular respiration describes the series of steps that cells use to break down sugar and other chemicals to get the energy we need to function.
Energy is stored in the bonds of glucose and when glucose is broken down, much of that energy is released.
Cell utilize energy in the form of ATP.
The first step of respiration is called glycolysis. In a series of steps, glycolysis breaks glucose into two smaller molecules - a chemical called pyruvate. A small amount of ATP is formed during this process.
Most healthy cells continue the breakdown in a second process, called the Kreb's cycle. The Kreb's cycle allows cells to “burn” the pyruvates made in glycolysis to get more ATP.
The last step in the breakdown of glucose is called oxidative phosphorylation (Ox-Phos).
It takes place in specialized cell structures called mitochondria. This process produces a large amount of ATP. Importantly, cells need oxygen to complete oxidative phosphorylation.
If a cell completes only glycolysis, only 2 molecules of ATP are made per glucose. However, if the cell completes the entire respiration process (glycolysis - Kreb's - oxidative phosphorylation), about 36 molecules of ATP are created, giving it much more energy to use.
IN CANCER CELL:
Unlike healthy cells that "burn" the entire molecule of sugar to capture a large amount of energy as ATP, cancer cells are wasteful.
Cancer cells only partially break down sugar molecules. They overuse the first step of respiration, glycolysis. They frequently do not complete the second step, oxidative phosphorylation.
This results in only 2 molecules of ATP per each glucose molecule instead of the 36 or so ATPs healthy cells gain. As a result, cancer cells need to use a lot more sugar molecules to get enough energy to survive.
Unlike healthy cells that "burn" the entire molecule of sugar to capture a large amount of energy as ATP, cancer cells are wasteful.
Cancer cells only partially break down sugar molecules. They overuse the first step of respiration, glycolysis. They frequently do not complete the second step, oxidative phosphorylation.
This results in only 2 molecules of ATP per each glucose molecule instead of the 36 or so ATPs healthy cells gain. As a result, cancer cells need to use a lot more sugar molecules to get enough energy to survive.
introduction to WARBERG PHENOMENA:
WARBURG EFFECT Usually, cancer cells are highly glycolytic (glucose addiction) and take up more glucose than do normal cells from outside.
Otto Heinrich Warburg (; 8 October 1883 – 1 August 1970) In 1931 was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology for his "discovery of the nature and mode of action of the respiratory enzyme.
WARNBURG EFFECT : cancer cells under aerobic (well-oxygenated) conditions to metabolize glucose to lactate (aerobic glycolysis) is known as the Warburg effect. Warburg made the observation that tumor slices consume glucose and secrete lactate at a higher rate than normal tissues.
Professional air quality monitoring systems provide immediate, on-site data for analysis, compliance, and decision-making.
Monitor common gases, weather parameters, particulates.
2. Read Only Memory
Dr. Priyanka Tabhane
Read Only Memory - ROM
• A ROM contains permanently or semi-permanently stored data, which
can be read from the memory but either cannot be changed at all or
cannot be changed without specialized equipment.
• A ROM stores data that are used repeatedly in system applications,
such as tables, conversions, or programmed instructions for system
initialization and operation.
• ROMs retain stored data when the power is off and are therefore non-
volatile memories.
3. Read Only Memory
Dr. Priyanka Tabhane
permanently
stored
electrically
stored by
the user
erasable
erased by
exposure to
ultraviolet
light
electrically
erasable
PROM
4. The Mask ROM
• The mask ROM is usually referred to simply as a ROM.
• It is permanently programmed during the manufacturing
process to provide widely used standard functions, such as
popular conversions, or to provide user-specified functions.
• Once the memory is programmed, it cannot be changed.
• Most IC ROMs utilize the presence or absence of a
transistor connection at a row/column junction to represent
a 1 or a 0.
Read Only Memory
Dr. Priyanka Tabhane
5. • The presence of a connection from a row line to the gate of a transistor
represents a 1 at that location because when the row line is taken
HIGH, all transistors with a gate connection to that row line turn on
and connect the HIGH (1) to the associated column lines.
• At row/column junctions where there are no gate connections, the
column lines remain LOW (0) when the row is addressed.
• The blue squares represent stored 1s, and the gray squares represent
stored 0s.
Read Only Memory
Dr. Priyanka TabhaneMOS ROM cells
6. The basic read operation is as follows -
• When a binary address code is applied to the address input lines,
the corresponding row line goes HIGH.
• This HIGH is connected to the column lines through the
transistors at each junction (cell) where a 1 is stored.
• At each cell where a 0 is stored, the column line stays LOW
because of the terminating resistor.
• The column lines form the data output.
• The eight data bits stored in the selected row appear on the output
lines.
• As you can see, the example ROM in Figure is organized into 16
addresses, each of which stores 8 data bits.
• Thus, it is a 16 * 8 (16-by-8) ROM, and its total capacity is 128 bits
or 16 bytes
Read Only Memory
Dr. Priyanka Tabhane
7. Read Only Memory
Dr. Priyanka Tabhane
A representation of a 16 * 8-bit ROM array.
8. Example
Determine the Gray code output when a 4 bit binary code is applied
to the address input lines.
Read Only Memory
Dr. Priyanka Tabhane
9. Read Only Memory
Dr. Priyanka Tabhane
Solution-
Binary to gray conversion can be done as:
10. Read Only Memory
Dr. Priyanka Tabhane
From the above conversion the Memory
array can be figured as
11. ROM Organization
• When any one of 256 binary codes (eight bits) is applied to the
address lines, four data bits appear on the outputs if the chip select
inputs are LOW (256 addresses require eight address lines)
• Although the 256 * 4 organization of this device implies that there are
256 rows and 4 columns in the memory array, this is not actually the
case, the memory cell array is actually a 32 * 32 matrix (32 rows and
32 columns)
Read Only Memory
Dr. Priyanka Tabhane
12. Read Only Memory
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A 256 * 4 ROM logic symbol.
The Ao-255 designator means
that the 8-bit address code
selects addresses 0 through
255.
14. Working of ROM
• Five of the eight address lines (A0 through A4) are decoded by the row
decoder (often called the Y decoder) to select one of the 32 rows. Three of
the eight address lines (A5 through A7) are decoded by the column
decoder (often called the X decoder) to select four of the 32 columns.
• The column decoder consists of four 1-of-8 decoders (data selectors)
• The result of this structure is that when an 8-bit address code (A0
through A7) is applied, a 4-bit data word appears on the data outputs
when the chip select lines (CS0 and CS1) are LOW to enable the
output buffers.
Read Only Memory
Dr. Priyanka Tabhane
15. ROM Access Time
• The access time, ta, of a ROM is the time from the application
of a valid address code on the input lines until the
appearance of valid output data.
• Access time can also be measured from the activation of the
chip select (CS) input to the occurrence of valid output data
when a valid address is already on the input lines.
Read Only Memory
Dr. Priyanka Tabhane
16. Programmable ROMs PROMs
• Programmable ROMs (PROMs) are basically the same as mask ROMs
once they have been programmed.
• The difference is that PROMs come from the manufacturer un-
programmed and are custom programmed in the field to meet the user’s
needs.
• A PROM uses some type of fusing process to store bits, in which a
memory link is burned open or left intact to represent a 0 or a 1.
• The fusing process is irreversible; once a PROM is programmed, it
cannot be changed.
• The fusible links are manufactured into the PROM between the source
of each cell’s transistor and its column line.
• In the programming process, a sufficient current is injected through the
fusible link to burn it open to create a stored 0, the link is left intact for a
stored 1.
• Three basic fuse technologies used in PROMs are metal links, silicon
links, and pn junctions.
Read Only Memory
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18. 1. Metal links are made of a material such as nichrome.
• Each bit in the memory array is represented by a separate
link.
• During programming, the link is either “blown” open a
sufficient amount of current through the link to cause it to
open.
2. Silicon links are formed by narrow, notched strips of
polycrystalline silicon.
• Programming of these fuses requires melting of the links by
passing a sufficient amount of current through them.
• This amount of current causes a high temperature at the
fuse location that oxidizes the silicon and forms an
insulation around the now-open link.
Read Only Memory
Dr. Priyanka Tabhane
19. 3. Shorted junction, or avalanche-induced migration,
technology consists basically of two pn junctions arranged
back-to-back.
• During programming, one of the diode junctions is
avalanched, and the resulting voltage and heat cause
aluminum ions to migrate and short the junction.
• The remaining junction is then used as a forward biased
diode to represent a data bit.
Read Only Memory
Dr. Priyanka Tabhane
20. EPROMs
• An EPROM is an erasable PROM. Unlike an ordinary
PROM, an EPROM can be reprogrammed if an existing
program in the memory array is erased first.
• An EPROM uses an NMOSFET array with an isolated-gate
structure.
• The isolated transistor gate has no electrical connections
and can store an electrical charge for indefinite periods of
time.
• The data bits in this type of array are represented by the
presence or absence of a stored gate charge.
• Erasure of a data bit is a process that removes the gate
charge.
Read Only Memory
Dr. Priyanka Tabhane
21. • A typical EPROM is represented in Figure by a logic
diagram.
• Its operation is representative of that of other typical
EPROMs of various sizes.
• As the logic symbol shows, this device has 2048
addresses (211 = 2048), each with eight bits.
• Notice that the eight outputs are tri-state (§).
• To read from the memory, the output enable input (OE)
must be LOW and the power down/program (CE/PGM)
input LOW.
• To program or write to the device, a high dc voltage is
applied to VPP and OE is HIGH.
Read Only Memory
Dr. Priyanka Tabhane
22. • The eight data bits to be programmed into a given
address are applied to the outputs (O0 through O7), and
the address is selected on inputs A0 through A10.
• Next, a HIGH level pulse is applied to the CE/PGM
input. These signals are normally produced by an
EPROM programmer.
• Two basic types of erasable PROMs are, the electrically
erasable PROM (EEPROM)and the ultraviolet erasable
PROM (UV EPROM).
• The UV EPROM is much less used than the EEPROM.
Read Only Memory
Dr. Priyanka Tabhane
24. EEPROMs
• An electrically erasable PROM can be both erased and
programmed with electrical pulses.
• Since it can be both electrically written into and electrically
erased, the EEPROM can be rapidly programmed and
erased in-circuit for reprogramming.
• Two types of EEPROMs are the floating-gate MOS and the
metal nitride-oxide silicon (MNOS).
• The application of a voltage on the control gate in the
floating-gate structure permits the storage and removal of
charge from the floating gate.
Read Only Memory
Dr. Priyanka Tabhane
25. UV EPROMs
• You can recognize the UV EPROM device by the UV
transparent window on the package.
• The isolated gate in the FET of an ultraviolet EPROM is
“floating” within an oxide insulating material.
• The programming process causes electrons to be removed
from the floating gate.
• Erasure is done by exposure of the memory array chip to
high-intensity ultraviolet radiation through the UV
window on top of the package.
• The positive charge stored on the gate is neutralized after
several minutes to an hour of exposure time.
Read Only Memory
Dr. Priyanka Tabhane
26. Assignment
1. What is the bit storage capacity of a ROM with a 512 * 8
organization?
2. List the types of read-only memories.
3. How many address bits are required for a 2048-bit
memory organized as a 256 * 8 memory?
4. How do PROMs differ from ROMs?
5. What represents a data bit in an EPROM?
6. What is the normal mode of operation for a PROM?
Read Only Memory
Dr. Priyanka Tabhane