1. Trait theory was one of the earliest approaches to leadership and proposed that effective leaders possess certain innate qualities and traits. 2. Later theories shifted to examining leadership as behaviors and styles. Theories looked at types of leadership behaviors and how the situation influences which styles are most effective. 3. Contemporary leadership theories include functional theory, which focuses on specific leader behaviors that contribute to group effectiveness, and transformational leadership theory, which motivates followers to achieve higher performance levels.

1. LEADERSHIP
DM 212 Human Resource Development & Management
Rosary Gracia P. Perez
Discussant

2. Trait theory tries to describe the
types of behavior and personality
tendencies associated with
effective leadership. This is
probably the first academic theory
of leadership. Thomas Carlyle can
be considered one of the pioneers
of the trait theory, using such
approach to identify the talents,
skills and physical characteristics
of men who arose to power.
Theories of Leadership
Trait Theory

3. Proponents of the trait approach usually list leadership
qualities, assuming certain traits or characteristics will tend
to lead to effective leadership. Shelley Kirkpatrick and Edwin
A. Locke exemplify the trait theory. They argue that "key
leader traits include: drive (a broad term which includes
achievement, motivation, ambition, energy, tenacity, and
initiative), leadership motivation (the desire to lead but not
to seek power as an end in itself), honesty, integrity, self-
confidence (which is associated with emotional stability),
cognitive ability, and knowledge of the business. According
to their research, "there is less clear evidence for traits such
as charisma, creativity and flexibility"

4. Criticism to Trait Theory
Although trait theory has an intuitive appeal,
difficulties may arise in proving its tenets, and
opponents frequently challenge this approach. The
"strongest" version of trait theory sees these
“leadership characteristics” as innate, and
accordingly labels some people as "born leaders"
due to their psychological makeup. On this reading
of the theory, leadership development involves
identifying and measuring leadership qualities,
screening potential leaders from non-leaders, then
training those with potential

5. Behavioral and Style Theories
In response to the criticism of the trait approach,
theorists began to research leadership as a set of
behaviors, evaluating the behavior of 'successful'
leaders, determining a behavior taxonomy and
identifying broad leadership styles. David
McClelland, for example, saw leadership skills, not
so much as a set of traits, but as a pattern of
motives. He claimed that successful leaders will
tend to have a high need for power, a low need for
affiliation, and a high level of what he called
activity inhibition (one might call it self-control).

6. The Managerial Grid
Robert R. Blake and Jane S.
Mouton developed the Managerial
Grid which highlights five major
leadership styles reflecting the
various degrees of concern for
people and production

8. Fiedler Theory
The Fiedler contingency model bases the
leader’s effectiveness on what Fred Fiedler
called situational contingency. This results
from the interaction of leadership style and
situational favorableness (later called
"situational control"). The theory defined two
types of leader: those who tend to
accomplish the task by developing good-
relationships with the group (relationship-
oriented), and those who have as their prime
concern carrying out the task itself (task-
oriented)

9. According to Fiedler, there is no ideal leader.
Both task-oriented and relationship-oriented
leaders can be effective if their leadership
orientation fits the situation. When there is a
good leader-member relation, a highly
structured task, and high leader position
power, the situation is considered a
"favorable situation". Fiedler found that task-
oriented leaders are more effective in
extremely favorable or unfavorable
situations, whereas relationship-oriented
leaders perform best in situations with
intermediate favorability.

10. Functional theory
Functional leadership theory is a particularly useful
theory for addressing specific leader behaviors expected
to contribute to organizational or unit effectiveness. This
theory argues that the leader’s main job is to see that
whatever is necessary to group needs is taken care of;
thus, a leader can be said to have done their job well
when they have contributed to group effectiveness and
cohesion While functional leadership theory has most
often been applied to team leadership. These functions
include: (1) environmental monitoring, (2) organizing
subordinate activities, (3) teaching and coaching
subordinates, (4) motivating others, and (5) intervening
actively in the group’s work.

11. Transactional and
Transformational theories
In his explorations of the concept of transformational
leadership, Bernard Mobs has contrasted two types of
leadership behavior :The transactional leader is given
power to perform certain tasks and reward or punish
for the team’s performance. It gives the opportunity to
the manager to lead the group and the group agrees to
follow his lead to accomplish a predetermined goal in
exchange for something else. Power is given to the
leader to evaluate, correct and train subordinates
when productivity is not up to the desired level and
reward effectiveness when expected outcome is
reached.

12. The transformational leader
motivates its team to be effective and efficient.
Communication is the base for goal achievement
focusing the group on the final desired outcome
or goal attainment. This leader is highly visible
and uses chain of command to get the job done.
Transformational leaders focus on the big
picture, needing to be surrounded by people
who take care of the details. The leader is always
looking for ideas that move the organization to
reach the company’s vision.

13. McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y
Douglas McGregor maintains that
the leadership styles that managers
use are based on their assumptions
about people. A manager does not
believe in the ability of his
subordinates to perform on their
own would use Theory X.

14. The assumptions under Theory X are.
1. The average human being has an inherent
dislike of work and will avoid it if possible.
2. Because of dislike of work, most people must
coerced, controlled, directed, and
threatened with punishment to get them to
perform effectively.
3. The average person lacks ambition, avoids
responsibility, and seek security and
economic rewards above all else.
4. Most people lack creative ability and are
resistant to change.
5. Since, most people are self-centered; they
are not concerned with other goals of the
organization.

15. When Theory Y is used by
managers, the managerial
roles in an organization
include the development of
employees to their full
potentials. Subordinates are
treated as mature and
responsible individuals.

16. The assumptions under Theory Y are:
1. The expenditure of physical and mental effort in
work is as natural as play or rest.
2. People will exercise self-direction and self-control in
the service of objectives to which they are
committed.
3. Commitment to objectives is a function of the
rewards associated with achievement.
4. The average person learns, under proper condition,
not only to accept but to seek responsibility.
5. The capacity to exercise a relatively high degree of
imagination, ingenuity and creativity in solution of
organizational problems is widely, not narrowly,
distributed in the population.

17. Robert Tannenbaum and
Warren H. Schmidt were among the first
theorist to describe the various factors
through to influence a manager’s choice of
leadership style. While they personally
favored the employee-centered style, they
suggested that a manager consider three
sets of “forces” before choosing a
leadership style: forces in the manager,
forces in employee (whom they call
subordinates), and forces in the situation.

18. How a manager leads will
undoubtedly be primarily influenced by
his or her background, knowledge,
values, and experience (forces in the
manager). For example, a manager
who believes that the needs of the
individual must come second to the
needs of the organization is likely to
take a very directive role in employees’
activities.

19. The characteristics of subordinates must also be
considered before managers can choose an appropriate
leadership style. According to Tannenbaum and Schmidt, a
manager can allow greater participation and freedom when
employees crave independence and freedom of action, want to
have decision-making responsibility, identify with the
organization’s goals, are knowledgeable and experienced
enough to deal with a problem efficiently, and have
experiences that lead them to expect participative
management. Where these conditions are absent, managers
might need initially to adopt a more authoritarian style. They
can, however, modify their leadership behavior as employees
gain in self-confidence, skill and organizational commitment.

21. Leadership Organizations
An organization that is established as an
instrument or means for achieving defined objective has been
referred to as a formal organization. Its design specifies how
goals are subdivided and reflected in subdivisions of the
organization. Divisions, departments, sections, positions, jobs,
and tasks make up this work structure. Thus, the formal
organization is expected to behave impersonally in regard to
relationships with clients or with its members. The higher his
position in the hierarchy, the greater his presumed expertise in
adjudicating problems that may arise in the course of the work
carried out at lower levels of the organization. It is this
bureaucratic structure that forms the basis for the
appointment of heads or chiefs of administrative subdivisions
in the organization and endows them with the authority
attached to their position.

22. In contrast to the appointed head or chief of an
administrative unit, a leader emerges within the
context of the informal organization that underlies the
formal structure. The informal organization expresses
the personal objectives and goals of the individual
membership. Their objectives and goals may or may
not coincide with those of the formal organization. The
informal organization represents an extension of the
social structures that generally characterize human life
— the spontaneous emergence of groups and
organizations as ends in themselves.

23. A leader is anyone who influences a group toward obtaining
a particular result. It is not dependant on title or formal
authority. An individual who is appointed to a managerial
position has the right to command and enforce obedience by
virtue of the authority of his position. However, he must
possess adequate personal attributes to match his authority,
because authority is only potentially available to him. In the
absence of sufficient personal competence, a manager may
be confronted by an emergent leader who can challenge his
role in the organization and reduce it to that of a figurehead.
However, only authority of position has the backing of
formal sanctions. It follows that whoever wields personal
influence and power can legitimize this only by gaining a
formal position in the hierarchy, with commensurate
authority. Leadership can be defined as one's ability to get
others to willingly follow. Every organization needs leaders
at every level.

24. References
Andres, Tomas D. Enhancing Organization Performance and
Productivity Management Tools And Techniques, New Day Publisher,
Manila Philippine 2001.
Abasolo, Pacita A. Personal Management: The Efficient
Management of Employees, GIC Enterprises, Manila Philippines 1991.
Maxwell, John C. The 21 Indispensable Qualities of a Leader,
Maxwell Motivation, Inc. U.S.A 1999.
Padilla,Renaldo A. Civic Welfare Training Volume II, Rex
bookstores, Manila Philippines 2005.
Stone, James A.F, Management, Pearson Education Asia Pte,
Ltd. New Jersey, U.S.A. 2001.