this is a presentation i made to give some introduction to the backward learning algorithm hope it would be use full.Many places were referred to get information here
This document discusses different types of errors that can occur during data transmission and various error detection and correction techniques. It describes single-bit errors where one bit is changed and burst errors where multiple consecutive bits are changed. It then explains techniques like two-dimensional parity, checksums, and cyclic redundancy checks which add redundant bits to detect errors by checking for discrepancies between transmitted and received data. The document provides examples of how internet checksums and cyclic redundancy checks work to detect errors.
A local area network (LAN) uses a shared transmission medium and broadcast architecture. Medium access control (MAC) protocols coordinate access to the shared medium to avoid collisions. The ALOHA protocol was an early random access protocol that allowed collisions but recovered through retransmissions. Slotted ALOHA reduced collisions by constraining transmissions to time slots. Carrier sense multiple access with collision detection (CSMA/CD) further reduced collisions by having nodes listen to check if the medium is idle before transmitting.
Quality of service aims to provide different levels of priority to different applications, users, or data flows. It is achieved through techniques like scheduling, traffic shaping, resource reservation, and admission control. Scheduling methods include FIFO queuing, priority queuing, and weighted fair queuing. Traffic shaping uses leaky bucket and token bucket algorithms. Resource reservation reserves buffer space, bandwidth, and other resources beforehand. Admission control restricts packet admission based on specifications. Models for QoS include the Integrated Services Model, which requires resource reservation in advance using RSVP, and the Differentiated Services Model, which differentiates traffic into classes.
The document discusses different methods of switching in computer networks, including circuit switching, packet switching, and message switching. It provides details on circuit-switched networks, packet-switched networks, and virtual circuit networks. For circuit switching, it describes the setup, data transfer, and teardown phases required to establish and terminate connections. For packet switching, it compares datagram and virtual circuit approaches.
This document provides an overview of the data link layer. It discusses several key topics:
1. The data link layer is the second layer of the OSI model and receives data from the physical layer and sends it to the network layer. It makes the physical layer appear error-free.
2. The data link layer is responsible for moving frames from one node to the next. It provides error control, addressing, framing, and flow control.
3. Error control techniques include error detection using parity checks, cyclic redundancy checks, and checksums. Error correction uses retransmission or forward error correction.
This document discusses different types of errors that can occur during data transmission and various error detection and correction techniques. It describes single-bit errors where one bit is changed and burst errors where multiple consecutive bits are changed. It then explains techniques like two-dimensional parity, checksums, and cyclic redundancy checks which add redundant bits to detect errors by checking for discrepancies between transmitted and received data. The document provides examples of how internet checksums and cyclic redundancy checks work to detect errors.
A local area network (LAN) uses a shared transmission medium and broadcast architecture. Medium access control (MAC) protocols coordinate access to the shared medium to avoid collisions. The ALOHA protocol was an early random access protocol that allowed collisions but recovered through retransmissions. Slotted ALOHA reduced collisions by constraining transmissions to time slots. Carrier sense multiple access with collision detection (CSMA/CD) further reduced collisions by having nodes listen to check if the medium is idle before transmitting.
Quality of service aims to provide different levels of priority to different applications, users, or data flows. It is achieved through techniques like scheduling, traffic shaping, resource reservation, and admission control. Scheduling methods include FIFO queuing, priority queuing, and weighted fair queuing. Traffic shaping uses leaky bucket and token bucket algorithms. Resource reservation reserves buffer space, bandwidth, and other resources beforehand. Admission control restricts packet admission based on specifications. Models for QoS include the Integrated Services Model, which requires resource reservation in advance using RSVP, and the Differentiated Services Model, which differentiates traffic into classes.
The document discusses different methods of switching in computer networks, including circuit switching, packet switching, and message switching. It provides details on circuit-switched networks, packet-switched networks, and virtual circuit networks. For circuit switching, it describes the setup, data transfer, and teardown phases required to establish and terminate connections. For packet switching, it compares datagram and virtual circuit approaches.
This document provides an overview of the data link layer. It discusses several key topics:
1. The data link layer is the second layer of the OSI model and receives data from the physical layer and sends it to the network layer. It makes the physical layer appear error-free.
2. The data link layer is responsible for moving frames from one node to the next. It provides error control, addressing, framing, and flow control.
3. Error control techniques include error detection using parity checks, cyclic redundancy checks, and checksums. Error correction uses retransmission or forward error correction.
Interconnection Network
in this presentation there are some explain to Interconnection Network , and espically in computer architecture and parallel processing.
Chapter 1-Microprocessors, Microcomputers, and Assembly Languagecmkandemir
This document provides an introduction to microprocessors and assembly language programming. It discusses the basic components and organization of a microprocessor-based system including the microprocessor, memory, and input/output. It also covers number systems including decimal, binary, and hexadecimal. The document provides examples of simple programs and discusses the instruction set and machine language of microprocessors. The overall purpose is to introduce foundational concepts about microprocessor architecture and assembly language programming.
This document discusses different networking devices and concepts for connecting devices in a local area network (LAN). It describes bridges, switches, routers, hubs, and repeaters. Bridges segment networks at layer 2, switches create virtual circuits to maximize bandwidth, and routers route traffic between layer 3 networks. The document also covers half and full duplex transmissions, collision domains, broadcast domains, and how devices such as hubs, switches, and routers handle sending and receiving Ethernet frames. It discusses using VLANs to create separate broadcast domains within a switch and needing routers to pass traffic between VLANs.
The document discusses the data link layer of the OSI model. It has two sublayers: the Media Access Control (MAC) sublayer and the Logical Link Control (LLC) sublayer. The data link layer is responsible for error-free transmission over the physical layer through functions like framing, error control using techniques like parity checking and cyclic redundancy checks, flow control using methods like stop-and-wait and sliding windows, and physical addressing using protocols like Ethernet, HDLC, Frame Relay, and devices like bridges and switches.
This document discusses different types of computer network switching, including circuit switching, packet switching, and virtual circuit switching. Circuit switching establishes a dedicated connection between nodes for the duration of a call. Packet switching divides messages into packets that are routed independently through a network on a first-come, first-served basis without dedicated connections. Virtual circuit switching combines aspects of circuit switching and packet switching by establishing paths for packets through a three-phase process of setup, data transfer using local addressing, and teardown.
The data link layer, or layer 2, is the second layer of the seven-layer OSI model of computer networking. This layer is the protocol layer that transfers data between adjacent network nodes in a wide area network (WAN) or between nodes on the same local area network (LAN) segment.
This document discusses various techniques for error detection and correction in digital communications. It begins by describing common types of errors like single-bit and burst errors. It then explains error detection methods like parity checks and cyclic redundancy checks (CRCs). CRCs use cyclic codes and polynomial division to detect errors. Block codes like Hamming codes can detect and correct errors by ensuring a minimum Hamming distance between codewords. Checksums are also discussed as a simpler error detection technique than CRCs. The document provides examples to illustrate how these different error control methods work.
The document discusses the differences between packets and frames, and provides details on the transport layer. It explains that the transport layer is responsible for process-to-process delivery and uses port numbers for addressing. Connection-oriented protocols like TCP use three-way handshaking for connection establishment and termination, and implement flow and error control using mechanisms like sliding windows. Connectionless protocols like UDP are simpler but unreliable, treating each packet independently.
Layer 2 switching uses devices' MAC addresses on a LAN to segment a network into multiple collision domains. Switches and bridges are used to break up one large collision domain into smaller ones. Switches have more ports than bridges and can inspect incoming traffic to make forwarding decisions based on destination MAC addresses, placing each port on its own collision domain.
The document describes the seven layers of the OSI model: Physical, Data Link, Network, Transport, Session, Presentation, and Application. Each layer has a specific function, such as the Physical layer being responsible for transmission of bits across a network and the Transport layer ensuring reliable delivery of data between endpoints. The OSI model provides a standardized framework for network communication.
The network layer is responsible for delivering packets from source to destination. It must know the topology of the subnet and choose appropriate paths. When sources and destinations are in different networks, the network layer must deal with these differences. The network layer uses logical addressing that is independent of the underlying physical network. Routing ensures packets are delivered through routers and switches from source to destination across interconnected networks.
The document discusses power control in 3G networks. It describes the need for power control to address the near-far effect in cellular systems and reduce interference. There are two main types of power control: inner loop power control, which operates fast to compensate for fading and distance, and outer loop power control, which operates slower to maintain signal quality. Inner loop power control can be open-loop, where the transmitting device adjusts its power, or closed-loop, where the receiving device provides feedback to adjust transmission power.
The document introduces the data-link layer, which provides node-to-node communication between devices connected by a link. It describes the services of framing, flow control, error control and congestion control. Links can be either point-to-point between two devices or broadcast where a link is shared. The data-link layer has two sublayers: the data-link control layer and the media access control layer. It also discusses three types of link-layer addresses - unicast, multicast and broadcast - and introduces the Address Resolution Protocol used to map IP addresses to MAC addresses.
This document provides a summary of key concepts related to routing and routing protocols. It discusses routing and how routers forward packets from source to destination using routing tables. Common routing algorithms and protocols like RIP, OSPF, BGP, DVMRP and PIM are explained at a high level. Network concepts like metrics, areas, autonomous systems, and multicast addressing are also covered briefly. The document is intended to provide an overview of routing fundamentals and protocols for a computer networks course.
switching techniques in data communication and networkingHarshita Yadav
This document discusses different types of network switching: circuit switching, packet switching, and message switching. It describes circuit switching as establishing a dedicated electrical path for communication between two ports. Packet switching breaks communication down into small packets that are routed through the network based on destination addresses. There are two approaches for packet switching - datagram and virtual circuit. Datagram packets can take different paths to the destination while virtual circuit establishes a pre-planned route. Message switching does not establish a dedicated path, and each message is treated independently with the destination address added. The document was submitted by several students to their professor.
Hub, switch, router, bridge & and repeaterMaksudujjaman
This document provides descriptions of various networking devices including hubs, switches, routers, bridges, and repeaters. It explains that hubs connect multiple devices but do not filter data or determine the best path for data packets. Switches maintain a list of network addresses and transmit data packets to the correct port, allowing for faster transmission speeds than hubs. Routers route data packets based on IP addresses and connect local and wide area networks. Bridges divide large networks into smaller segments and connect different network types/architectures. Repeaters regenerate weak signals to extend transmission distances but do not amplify signals.
decide on matters related to placement, in consultation with the Academic Dean.
Applicants are responsible for submitting applications for admission, and should be aware
of the following:
1. All admitted students must attend a new student orientation session prior to the
beginning of the semester. Information about orientation dates will be announced by
the Registrar’s Office after admission has been determined.
2. Academic credentials become the property of the University College and cannot
be returned, copied or forwarded.
3. Applicants are encouraged to apply at least three to four weeks prior to first
semester of attendance. This will allow adequate time for the student to request any
academic credentials needed to complete the application file, and participate in new
student orientation and registration.
Application Procedure
Receipt
of the
following
credentials
in the
Office
of Registrar
constitutes a complete application for admission
i.
Application Form - The application form may be obtained from the
Registrar’s Office or from the University College’s website where online
submission is also possible. The completed and signed application form should be
returned to the Office of the Registrar. The appropriate application fee in
i am student Cash/Checks should be made payable to
ii. College/University Transcripts - who have attended a college or university, must
request that an official transcript be sent directly from each institution to the ii. Students shall present the completed forms in triplicate to their academic advisor
and get his/her signature.
iii. Students must produce the cash receipt indicating the amount of money they have paid
for registration and first semester courses fee.
iv.
Students shall then take the forms to the registration desk and get the registrar’s
seal on the forms filled in triplicate; and submit one of the forms to the Office of the
Registrar, one to his/her department and should keep one with him/her.
v.
The registration would be incomplete if a student misses any one of the above
stages in the registration process.
vi.
The registration process is only considered complete when the seal of the registrar is
stamped on the registration slip.
Registration of All Other (Non Freshman) Students
i. The Office of the Registrar shall issue grade reports for the semester and submit them
to the respective departments at least a day before the registration.
ii. A student shall collect his/her grade report from his/her respective department
by presenting a valid ID.
iii. A student shall complete the registration slip in triplicate consisting of the courses that
he/she will take in that particular semester.
iv.
Then, he/she shall pay for the courses listed in the registration slip and present the
cash receipt along with the forms to his/her academic advisor and get his signature.
v.
Finally, he/she shall take the forms to the Office of the Registrar to get the seal. The
registration process shall be
Network devices such as repeaters, hubs, bridges, switches, routers, and gateways are used to connect, expand, and manage network traffic. They operate at different layers of the OSI model from the physical layer to the network layer. Repeaters and hubs operate at the physical layer and broadcast traffic to all ports. Bridges segment networks at the data link layer by filtering traffic based on MAC addresses. Switches further improve segmentation by opening virtual circuits between connected devices. Routers connect multiple networks and use IP addresses to choose the best path at the network layer.
Interconnection Network
in this presentation there are some explain to Interconnection Network , and espically in computer architecture and parallel processing.
Chapter 1-Microprocessors, Microcomputers, and Assembly Languagecmkandemir
This document provides an introduction to microprocessors and assembly language programming. It discusses the basic components and organization of a microprocessor-based system including the microprocessor, memory, and input/output. It also covers number systems including decimal, binary, and hexadecimal. The document provides examples of simple programs and discusses the instruction set and machine language of microprocessors. The overall purpose is to introduce foundational concepts about microprocessor architecture and assembly language programming.
This document discusses different networking devices and concepts for connecting devices in a local area network (LAN). It describes bridges, switches, routers, hubs, and repeaters. Bridges segment networks at layer 2, switches create virtual circuits to maximize bandwidth, and routers route traffic between layer 3 networks. The document also covers half and full duplex transmissions, collision domains, broadcast domains, and how devices such as hubs, switches, and routers handle sending and receiving Ethernet frames. It discusses using VLANs to create separate broadcast domains within a switch and needing routers to pass traffic between VLANs.
The document discusses the data link layer of the OSI model. It has two sublayers: the Media Access Control (MAC) sublayer and the Logical Link Control (LLC) sublayer. The data link layer is responsible for error-free transmission over the physical layer through functions like framing, error control using techniques like parity checking and cyclic redundancy checks, flow control using methods like stop-and-wait and sliding windows, and physical addressing using protocols like Ethernet, HDLC, Frame Relay, and devices like bridges and switches.
This document discusses different types of computer network switching, including circuit switching, packet switching, and virtual circuit switching. Circuit switching establishes a dedicated connection between nodes for the duration of a call. Packet switching divides messages into packets that are routed independently through a network on a first-come, first-served basis without dedicated connections. Virtual circuit switching combines aspects of circuit switching and packet switching by establishing paths for packets through a three-phase process of setup, data transfer using local addressing, and teardown.
The data link layer, or layer 2, is the second layer of the seven-layer OSI model of computer networking. This layer is the protocol layer that transfers data between adjacent network nodes in a wide area network (WAN) or between nodes on the same local area network (LAN) segment.
This document discusses various techniques for error detection and correction in digital communications. It begins by describing common types of errors like single-bit and burst errors. It then explains error detection methods like parity checks and cyclic redundancy checks (CRCs). CRCs use cyclic codes and polynomial division to detect errors. Block codes like Hamming codes can detect and correct errors by ensuring a minimum Hamming distance between codewords. Checksums are also discussed as a simpler error detection technique than CRCs. The document provides examples to illustrate how these different error control methods work.
The document discusses the differences between packets and frames, and provides details on the transport layer. It explains that the transport layer is responsible for process-to-process delivery and uses port numbers for addressing. Connection-oriented protocols like TCP use three-way handshaking for connection establishment and termination, and implement flow and error control using mechanisms like sliding windows. Connectionless protocols like UDP are simpler but unreliable, treating each packet independently.
Layer 2 switching uses devices' MAC addresses on a LAN to segment a network into multiple collision domains. Switches and bridges are used to break up one large collision domain into smaller ones. Switches have more ports than bridges and can inspect incoming traffic to make forwarding decisions based on destination MAC addresses, placing each port on its own collision domain.
The document describes the seven layers of the OSI model: Physical, Data Link, Network, Transport, Session, Presentation, and Application. Each layer has a specific function, such as the Physical layer being responsible for transmission of bits across a network and the Transport layer ensuring reliable delivery of data between endpoints. The OSI model provides a standardized framework for network communication.
The network layer is responsible for delivering packets from source to destination. It must know the topology of the subnet and choose appropriate paths. When sources and destinations are in different networks, the network layer must deal with these differences. The network layer uses logical addressing that is independent of the underlying physical network. Routing ensures packets are delivered through routers and switches from source to destination across interconnected networks.
The document discusses power control in 3G networks. It describes the need for power control to address the near-far effect in cellular systems and reduce interference. There are two main types of power control: inner loop power control, which operates fast to compensate for fading and distance, and outer loop power control, which operates slower to maintain signal quality. Inner loop power control can be open-loop, where the transmitting device adjusts its power, or closed-loop, where the receiving device provides feedback to adjust transmission power.
The document introduces the data-link layer, which provides node-to-node communication between devices connected by a link. It describes the services of framing, flow control, error control and congestion control. Links can be either point-to-point between two devices or broadcast where a link is shared. The data-link layer has two sublayers: the data-link control layer and the media access control layer. It also discusses three types of link-layer addresses - unicast, multicast and broadcast - and introduces the Address Resolution Protocol used to map IP addresses to MAC addresses.
This document provides a summary of key concepts related to routing and routing protocols. It discusses routing and how routers forward packets from source to destination using routing tables. Common routing algorithms and protocols like RIP, OSPF, BGP, DVMRP and PIM are explained at a high level. Network concepts like metrics, areas, autonomous systems, and multicast addressing are also covered briefly. The document is intended to provide an overview of routing fundamentals and protocols for a computer networks course.
switching techniques in data communication and networkingHarshita Yadav
This document discusses different types of network switching: circuit switching, packet switching, and message switching. It describes circuit switching as establishing a dedicated electrical path for communication between two ports. Packet switching breaks communication down into small packets that are routed through the network based on destination addresses. There are two approaches for packet switching - datagram and virtual circuit. Datagram packets can take different paths to the destination while virtual circuit establishes a pre-planned route. Message switching does not establish a dedicated path, and each message is treated independently with the destination address added. The document was submitted by several students to their professor.
Hub, switch, router, bridge & and repeaterMaksudujjaman
This document provides descriptions of various networking devices including hubs, switches, routers, bridges, and repeaters. It explains that hubs connect multiple devices but do not filter data or determine the best path for data packets. Switches maintain a list of network addresses and transmit data packets to the correct port, allowing for faster transmission speeds than hubs. Routers route data packets based on IP addresses and connect local and wide area networks. Bridges divide large networks into smaller segments and connect different network types/architectures. Repeaters regenerate weak signals to extend transmission distances but do not amplify signals.
decide on matters related to placement, in consultation with the Academic Dean.
Applicants are responsible for submitting applications for admission, and should be aware
of the following:
1. All admitted students must attend a new student orientation session prior to the
beginning of the semester. Information about orientation dates will be announced by
the Registrar’s Office after admission has been determined.
2. Academic credentials become the property of the University College and cannot
be returned, copied or forwarded.
3. Applicants are encouraged to apply at least three to four weeks prior to first
semester of attendance. This will allow adequate time for the student to request any
academic credentials needed to complete the application file, and participate in new
student orientation and registration.
Application Procedure
Receipt
of the
following
credentials
in the
Office
of Registrar
constitutes a complete application for admission
i.
Application Form - The application form may be obtained from the
Registrar’s Office or from the University College’s website where online
submission is also possible. The completed and signed application form should be
returned to the Office of the Registrar. The appropriate application fee in
i am student Cash/Checks should be made payable to
ii. College/University Transcripts - who have attended a college or university, must
request that an official transcript be sent directly from each institution to the ii. Students shall present the completed forms in triplicate to their academic advisor
and get his/her signature.
iii. Students must produce the cash receipt indicating the amount of money they have paid
for registration and first semester courses fee.
iv.
Students shall then take the forms to the registration desk and get the registrar’s
seal on the forms filled in triplicate; and submit one of the forms to the Office of the
Registrar, one to his/her department and should keep one with him/her.
v.
The registration would be incomplete if a student misses any one of the above
stages in the registration process.
vi.
The registration process is only considered complete when the seal of the registrar is
stamped on the registration slip.
Registration of All Other (Non Freshman) Students
i. The Office of the Registrar shall issue grade reports for the semester and submit them
to the respective departments at least a day before the registration.
ii. A student shall collect his/her grade report from his/her respective department
by presenting a valid ID.
iii. A student shall complete the registration slip in triplicate consisting of the courses that
he/she will take in that particular semester.
iv.
Then, he/she shall pay for the courses listed in the registration slip and present the
cash receipt along with the forms to his/her academic advisor and get his signature.
v.
Finally, he/she shall take the forms to the Office of the Registrar to get the seal. The
registration process shall be
Network devices such as repeaters, hubs, bridges, switches, routers, and gateways are used to connect, expand, and manage network traffic. They operate at different layers of the OSI model from the physical layer to the network layer. Repeaters and hubs operate at the physical layer and broadcast traffic to all ports. Bridges segment networks at the data link layer by filtering traffic based on MAC addresses. Switches further improve segmentation by opening virtual circuits between connected devices. Routers connect multiple networks and use IP addresses to choose the best path at the network layer.
This document provides an overview of network devices and protocols including repeaters, bridges, routers, gateways, TCP/IP, and applications like DNS, SMTP, HTTP. It describes the functions of repeaters, hubs, bridges, switches, routers, and gateways. Repeaters extend network length while hubs connect multiple devices. Bridges and switches filter traffic between segments/ports. Routers route packets between networks and gateways translate between different protocols. It also summarizes the layers of the TCP/IP protocol suite including network interface, internet, transport, and application layers, and describes protocols like IPv4, IPv6, TCP, UDP, and applications like DNS, SMTP, HTTP.
The document discusses various networking components:
1. Repeaters extend network cable length and reconstruct signals but do not understand packets.
2. Hubs and bridges operate on the data link layer, with bridges filtering packets between network segments.
3. Switches actively forward frames to ports like bridges but without collisions, using buffering or cut-through switching.
Routers use packet headers to choose optimal paths between networks and can link different types of networks, operating on the network layer. Gateways connect between different network types from the transport layer up.
Network devices serve several key functions:
1. Separating and connecting networks or expanding network capacity through devices like repeaters, hubs, bridges, routers, and switches.
2. Enabling remote access through modems and other technologies.
3. Key devices include repeaters which regenerate signals, bridges which understand node addresses, switches which divide networks into logical channels, and routers which interconnect networks and determine optimal routes. Remote access devices like modems modulate digital signals for transmission over telephone lines to connect distant computers.
1. Bridges separate collision domains and allow communication between different network segments by learning MAC addresses and only forwarding frames to their destination segment.
2. Switches operate similarly to bridges but only support a single frame type like Ethernet, and can provide faster switching through methods like store-and-forward.
3. Bridges and switches extend network reach and reduce congestion compared to repeaters, but precautions must be taken to prevent loops using spanning tree protocols.
This document provides an overview of local area networks (LANs) including common applications, architectures, topologies, transmission media, and protocols. Some key points:
1) LANs are used for personal computer networks, connecting large backend systems, high-speed office networks, storage area networks, and interconnecting multiple local networks.
2) Common topologies include bus, ring, star, and tree. Choices consider reliability, expandability, performance and the physical layout/medium.
3) Important protocols are Ethernet at the data link layer and IEEE 802 standards for physical and MAC sublayers which define frame formats and media access control.
This document provides an overview of local area networks (LANs) including common applications, architectures, topologies, transmission media, and protocols. Some key points:
1) LANs are used for personal computer networks, connecting large backend systems, high-speed office networks, storage area networks, and interconnecting multiple local networks.
2) Common topologies include bus, ring, star, and tree. Choices consider reliability, expandability, performance and the physical layout/medium.
3) Ethernet originally used coaxial cable but now focuses on twisted pair cabling. Fiber optic cables provide high speeds but are more expensive to install.
4) The protocol architecture includes the physical, data link
This document summarizes key points from Chapter 15 of William Stallings' book "Data and Computer Communications", 7th Edition. It discusses the applications and architectures of local area networks (LANs). The main applications covered are personal computer LANs, back-end networks, storage area networks, and high-speed office networks. Common LAN topologies like bus, ring, star and their characteristics are explained. Issues around transmission media, protocols, and network devices like bridges, hubs and switches are also summarized at a high level.
Packet Switching Technique in Computer NetworkNiharikaDubey17
This document discusses different packet switching paradigms including virtual circuit switching, datagram switching, and source routing. It describes how bridges and extended local area networks (LANs) connect multiple LANs using a spanning tree algorithm to prevent loops. Finally, it covers limitations of bridges and how virtual LANs (VLANs) increase scalability and security by separating broadcast domains.
This document discusses different types of networking devices used to connect local area networks (LANs). It describes hubs, repeaters, bridges, routers, and gateways. Hubs and repeaters operate at the physical layer, bridges operate at the physical and data link layers, and routers and gateways operate at the network layer and above to connect multiple networks and perform protocol conversion. The document provides details on the functions and characteristics of each type of device.
Network devices like repeaters, hubs, bridges, switches, wireless access points, and routers were discussed.
Repeaters and hubs operate at the physical layer and broadcast signals to all ports. Bridges and switches operate at the data link layer and can filter traffic between specific ports based on MAC addresses. Wireless access points allow devices to connect to a network without wires. Network interface cards install into devices to connect them to a network. Routers operate at the network layer and can connect multiple networks and select the best path for traffic between networks.
This document discusses different types of internetworking devices used to connect local area networks (LANs). It describes hubs, bridges, switches and routers in increasing order of complexity. Hubs simply repeat and broadcast data to all ports, while bridges learn and filter traffic between connected LANs. Switches operate similarly to bridges but provide dedicated connections for each workstation. Routers connect distinct networks like a LAN to the Internet, and make routing decisions based on IP addresses. The document outlines reasons for interconnecting LANs and the functions of various internetworking devices.
This document discusses various networking devices and topologies. It describes physical topologies like bus, star, ring, and mesh. It also discusses logical topologies like broadcast and token passing. The document explains how devices like repeaters, hubs, bridges, and switches operate at different layers and work to extend networks and reduce collisions. Routers are also introduced as layer 3 devices that can connect different networks.
This document discusses local area networks (LANs) and their applications, architectures, and technologies. It covers:
1) Common LAN applications like personal computer networks, back-end networks, storage area networks, and high-speed office networks.
2) Key aspects of LAN architecture including topology (e.g. bus, star, ring), transmission medium, IEEE 802 standards, and the functions of bridges and switches.
3) Protocol architectures with descriptions of the physical, logical link control, and media access control layers, as well as common frame formats.
This document provides an overview of local area networks (LANs) and discusses various LAN topics including common topologies (bus, ring, star), frame transmission methods, the roles of hubs and switches, and how bridges and routers can be used to interconnect multiple LANs. It describes the three main layers (physical, media access control, logical link control) of the IEEE 802 LAN protocol architecture and compares it to the OSI model. Key concepts covered include shared medium access, the functions of bridges and switches, and how layer 2 switches improved upon earlier hub technologies to increase network capacity and performance.
The document discusses various topics related to data link layer and media access control including:
1. Link layer addressing and the three types of addresses - unicast, multicast, and broadcast.
2. Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) which is used to map IP addresses to MAC addresses.
3. Error detection and correction mechanisms at the data link layer including parity checks, cyclic redundancy checks, and checksums.
4. Common data link layer protocols for flow control and error handling such as HDLC, PPP, Ethernet, and IEEE 802.11.
Networking and Internetworking Devices21viveksingh
This document provides information on various networking and internetworking devices. It discusses hubs, which connect multiple networking cables together but do not amplify or filter signals. It covers bridges, which operate at the physical and data link layers to filter traffic between network segments. Routers are described as connecting LANs and WANs by routing packets based on logical addresses using routing tables. Gateways link different network types and protocols by translating between formats. Finally, switches and brouters are introduced, with switches offering intelligence beyond hubs to reduce congestion, and brouters combining routing and bridging capabilities.
This document discusses different types of connecting devices used to connect local area networks (LANs) or segments of LANs. It describes five categories of connecting devices based on the layer of the Internet model in which they operate: 1) passive hubs and repeaters that operate below or at the physical layer, 2) bridges that operate at the physical and data link layers, 3) routers that operate at the physical, data link, and network layers, and 4) gateways that can operate at all five layers. Specific devices like hubs, bridges, and routers are explained in terms of their functions, capabilities, and how they differ from each other.
Similar to Introduction to backwards learning algorithm (20)
The presentation I used in the two sessions I did on introduction to UI/UX Engineering for undergraduate students in the Vavuniya Campus of the University of Jaffna and the Trincomalee Campus, Eastern University.
Let’s Discuss from our aspect (developers/PMs in Software Development Industry) why we use online chat tools.
such as to make our development process much faster
and Hell yeah! for better communication
The primary reasons for using parallel computing:
Save time - wall clock time
Solve larger problems
Provide concurrency (do multiple things at the same time)
PayPal Inc. is the biggest online company in the world that providing a transfer and online payment services via email between Consumer to Consumer and Peer to Peer.
The experimental methods used by biotechnologists to determine the structures of proteins demand sophisticated equipment and time.
A host of computational methods are developed to predict the location of secondary structure elements in proteins for complementing or creating insights into experimental results.
Chou-Fasman algorithm is an empirical algorithm developed for the prediction of protein secondary structure
The document discusses Rapid Application Development (RAD) which uses iterative and incremental development. Some key points:
- RAD uses hybrid teams of developers and users to build working prototypes in short iterations with feedback from customers.
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Webinar Recording: https://www.panagenda.com/webinars/hcl-notes-and-domino-license-cost-reduction-in-the-world-of-dlau/
The introduction of DLAU and the CCB & CCX licensing model caused quite a stir in the HCL community. As a Notes and Domino customer, you may have faced challenges with unexpected user counts and license costs. You probably have questions on how this new licensing approach works and how to benefit from it. Most importantly, you likely have budget constraints and want to save money where possible. Don’t worry, we can help with all of this!
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- Understanding the DLAU tool and how to best utilize it
- Tips for common problem areas, like team mailboxes, functional/test users, etc
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- Wie funktionieren CCB- und CCX-Lizenzen wirklich?
- Verstehen des DLAU-Tools und wie man es am besten nutzt
- Tipps für häufige Problembereiche, wie z. B. Team-Postfächer, Funktions-/Testbenutzer usw.
- Praxisbeispiele und Best Practices zum sofortigen Umsetzen
2. 2
Contents
• Before we learn Algorithm
• Data Link Layer
• Interconnection Devices
• LAN
• Limits of LAN
• Interconnecting LANs
• Bridge
• What is bridge
• Backward learning Algorithm
3. 3
Data Link Layer
• In the seven-layer OSI model of computer
networking, the data link layer is layer 2.
In TCP/IP reference model, it corresponds
to, or is part of the link layer.
• The data link layer is the protocol layer
that transfers data between adjacent
network nodes in a wide area network or
between nodes on the same local area
network segment.
4. 4
Interconnection Devices
Interconnection devices are used to inter connect networks
at the different layers of the network architecture. The
devices can operate at:
– the physical layer such as optical repeaters, hubs, digital
cross connects, etc.
– the data link layer such as LAN switches/bridges, frame relay
switches, etc.,
– the network layer such as a router or a gateway
– the transport layer for TCP segment switching
– the application layer for overlay networks such as content
delivery networks
6. 6
Limits of a LAN
• One shared LAN can limit us in terms of:
– Distance
– Number of nodes
– Performance
• How do we scale to a larger, faster
network?
– We must be able to interconnect LANs
7. 7
LAN Interconnection
• Extend range of LAN.
• Support more users.
• Security and robustness.
• Heterogeneity.
Hub
Switch
8. 8
Interconnecting Different LANs
• Conversion between different frame
formats.
– E.g., different frame lengths.
• Speed mismatch.
– Buffering.
• Security.
– Different security services provided by
different DLLs/MACs.
10. 10
Bridges
• Connect LANs.
• Operate at the DLL.
– Route based on DLL addresses.
• Distinction between bridges, switches, and
routers gets fuzzier as technology
advances.
11. 11
Repeaters and Bridges
• Repeaters:
– Extend scope of LANs.
– Serve as amplifiers.
– No storage/routing capabilities.
• Bridges:
– Also extend scope of LANs.
– Routing/storage capabilities.
12. 12
Bridges and Extended LANs
• “Transparently” interconnect LANs
– Receive frames from each LAN and forward to the
other
– Each LAN is its own domain; a bridge is not a
repeater
– Could have many ports or join to a remote LAN
bridge
14. 14
More on Bridges
• Have multiple interfaces, 1 per LAN.
• Use destination address to forward unicast
frames; if destination is on the same LAN,
drops frame; otherwise forwards it.
• Forward all broadcast frames.
• Have storage and routing capability.
15. 15
More on Bridges
• No additional encapsulation.
• But they may have to do header conversion if
interconnecting different LANs (e.g., 802.3 to
802.4 frame).
• May interconnect more than 2 LANs.
• LANs may be interconnected by more than 1
bridge.
17. 17
Routing
• Routing is the process of forwarding of a packet
in a network so that it reaches its intended
destination. The main goals of routing are:
• Correctness
• Simplicity
• Robustness
• Stability
• Fairness
• Optimality
18. 18
Routing with Bridges
• Bridge decides to relay frame based on
destination MAC address.
• If only 2 LANs, decision is simple.
• If more complex topologies, routing is needed,
i.e., frame may traverse more than 1 bridge.
20. 20
Routing with Bridges (Cont’d)
• Listens to all frames on LAN A and accepts those
addressed to stations on LAN B.
• Retransmits frames onto B.
• Does the same for B-to-A traffic.
21. 21
Transparent Bridges
• Plug them in and they work!
• How do they work?
– Promiscuous mode operation.
– Upon receiving frame, decide whether to
forward it or not.
– Routing table mapping destination addresses
to outgoing interface.
22. 22
• The concept of backwards learning is very simple:
• Learn about an (source) address from the direction from
which it came, then place that address in a table and use it
for (destination) forwarding.
• Bridges operate in promiscuous mode, they listen to all
traffic that is broadcast on every link connected to its
active ports.
• By examining the source MAC address of every packet
traversing the link associated with a particular port on the
bridge, the bridge learns what addresses are reachable via
that particular port.
• These addresses are stored in a forwarding database or
table
Backward Learning Algorithm
23. 23
Every LAN switch/Bridge maintains a forwarding database or
table. This table contains the following fields:
• MAC address
• Outgoing Port number
• Timer – indicating age of entry
The table can be interpreted as follows:
A machine with MAC address lies in direction of
outgoing port number. The entry is timer time units old.
Backward Learning Algorithm
24. 24
Backward Learning Algorithm
• To increase overall performance:
– Shouldn’t forward AB or CD, should forward
AC and DB
• How does the bridge know?
– Learn who is where by observing source
addresses
– Forward using destination address; age for
robustness
25. 25
Backward Learning Algorithm
• used by transparent bridges.
• When a bridge starts, its routing table is
empty.
– So, it floods: every incoming frame is forwarded in
all outgoing interfaces, except the one the frame
was received.
– In promiscuous mode, bridge sees all frames.
– They look at the frame’s source and “remember”
which LAN it came from.
– Entries are time stamped and expire after a
certain interval.
• Allows for topology changes.
26. 26
Backward Learning (Cont’d)
• If source LAN = destination LAN, discard
frame.
• If source LAN <>destination LAN, forward
frame.
– If destination LAN unknown, flood frame.
28. 28
• As the bridges are connected in a loop free tree
topology,
• the flooding will terminate at the leaves of the tree.
• we illustrate the operation of the backwards learning
algorithm by stepping through an example of a frame
transmission
• through a single LAN switch with an initially empty
forwarding table.
35. 35
Bridge 1 Bridge 2
MAC Address Port MAC Address Port
A 1 A 1
C 2 C 1
E 2 E 2
36. 36
In this method the routing tables at each node gets modified by
information from the incoming packets.
One way to implement backward learning is to include the identity of
the source node in each packet, together with a hop counter that is
incremented on each hop. When a node receives a packet in a
particular line, it notes down the number of hops it has taken to reach
it from the source node. If the previous value of hop count stored in
the node is better than the current one then nothing is done but if the
current value is better then the value is updated for future use.
The problem with this is that when the best route goes down then it
cannot recall the second best route to a particular node. Hence all the
nodes have to forget the stored informations periodically and start all
over again.
Further more….
Routers route based on layer 3 addresses
Three cases:
Some times people may have there own LAN and they may wanted to be connected
There may be geographically spreaded so need cable ex Ethernet only 200m
When we need to breake a LAN into parts
LAN switches are multi port (more than 4 port) bridges. LAN switches are touted by manufacturers as high throughput multi interface devices that can interconnect ports at a variety of speeds, e.g., 10M, 100M, 1G and 10Gpbs. They are also able to operate the
links in full duplex mode if directly connected to a network device1. To increase their speed of operation, LAN switches, like hubs, use cut through switching. Once the destination address has been processed the packet is forwarded to the appropriate output port where transmission can be commenced if the link is idle.
Correctness: The routing should be done properly and correctly so that the packets may reach their proper destination.
Simplicity: The routing should be done in a simple manner so that the overhead is as low as possible. With increasing complexity of the routing algorithms the overhead also increases.
Robustness: Once a major network becomes operative, it may be expected to run continuously for years without any failures. The algorithms designed for routing should be robust enough to handle hardware and software failures and should be able to cope with changes in the topology and traffic without requiring all jobs in all hosts to be aborted and the network rebooted every time some router goes down.
Stability: The routing algorithms should be stable under all possible circumstances.
Fairness: Every node connected to the network should get a fair chance of transmitting their packets. This is generally done on a first come first serve basis.
Optimality: The routing algorithms should be optimal in terms of throughput and minimizing mean packet delays. Here there is a trade-off and one has to choose depending on his suitability.
The MAC address refers to the destination address in the MAC frame.
The outgoing port number refers to the port that needs to be used to transmit the frame for that particular MAC address.
The timer is used to control the age of the entries. When a timer expires, the entry is deleted from the table. Every MAC address hit refreshes the timer of that MAC address entry.
If a bridge sees a frame with a destination address that matches one of the entries in its forwarding table,
it will copy the packet into its buffer and forward the packet to the necessary port. If the outgoing port
is the same as the incoming port, it discards the frame. If the bridge sees a frame for which it has no entry in its forwarding table,
it will make multiple copies of the frame and broadcast it on every outgoing port (excluding the port
If we now take an example of two bridges and observe the process by which a the forwarding table is filled, we will understand the backwards learning algorithm and how it is used by the bridges in promiscuous mode.
we show a sample network with two bridges. Host A initially sends a frame to host F. This is followed by a frame from host C to host A and then a third frame from host E to host C.
Bridge 1 will receive the frame on port 1. With its forwarding table empty, Bridge 1 will flood the frame on outging port 2. Bridge 2 receives the frame on port 1, it too does not find an entry in its table and proceeds to flood the frame on outgoing port 2. Destination
F finally receives the frame. During this flooding process, both Bridges 1 and 2 learnt that MAC address A is associated with port 1 on their respective bridges. The second frame from host C to host A will cause no flooding as both bridges have an entry for MAC address A. Bridge 2 will ignore the frame as its association for MAC address A is with port 1 on which it received the frame. But before discarding the frame it will make an entry in its forwarding table for MAC address C. Bridge 1 will receive the frame on port 2 and forward the frame to port 1 based upon the entry for MAC address A in its
forwarding table. It too will make a new entry in the forwarding table for MAC address C. The third frame from host E to host C will not cause flooding either as both bridges have now an entry for MAC address C. Bridge 2 will forward the frame from port 2 to port 1 and at the same time enter MAC address E in the forwarding table. Bridge 1 will ignore
the frame as the outgoing port is the same as the received port. It too will make a new entry in the forwarding table for MAC address E. Below we show the resulting forwarding tables (ignoring the timer field).
Why can’t we build a large network using bridges?
Little control over forwarding paths
Size of bridge forwarding tables grows with number of hosts
Broadcast traffic flows freely over whole extended LAN
Spanning tree algorithm limits reconfiguration speed
Poor solution for connecting LANs with different MAC protocols
The bridges must reside in a loop free topology because they use flooding to find a destination. In Figure 7 below we show an example of a typical meshed bridged network. Meshed networks are popular for they can tolerate a certain number of link and device failures without creating a disconnected segment.