Instrumentation and measurement
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This document discusses instrumentation and measurement techniques used to gather performance data from programs. It describes: - Program, binary, dynamic, processor, operating system, and network instrumentation techniques to collect data on software components, hardware usage, and network traffic. - The Paradyn performance analysis tool, which uses dynamic instrumentation to monitor metrics, store data in histograms and traces, and employs a "Why, Where, When" search model to diagnose potential performance problems in parallel applications. - How the Performance Consultant module in Paradyn automatically searches the problem space defined by the "Why, Where, When" axes to discover performance issues by evaluating hypotheses tests against collected metrics.
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This lecture introduces measurement and instrumentation. It defines measurement and instrumentation, discusses types of measurements and instruments. It reviews units of measurement, standards of measurement, and calibration. Measurement and instrumentation are used in various applications including home appliances, vehicles, and industrial processes to monitor and control parameters and improve operations.
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The transducer whose resistance varies because of the environmental effects such type of transducer is known as the resistive transducer. The change in resistance is measured by the ac or dc measuring devices. The resistive transducer is used for measuring the physical quantities like temperature, displacement, vibration etc.
The measurement of the physical quantity is quite difficult. The resistive transducer converts the physical quantities into variable resistance which is easily measured by the meters. The process of variation in resistance is widely used in the industrial applications.
The resistive transducer can work both as the primary as well as the secondary transducer. The primary transducer changes the physical quantities into a mechanical signal, and secondary transducer directly transforms it into an electrical signal.
Working Principle of Resistive Transducer
The resistive transducer element works on the principle that the resistance of the element is directly proportional to the length of the conductor and inversely proportional to the area of the conductor. equation-1
Where R – resistance in ohms.
A – cross-section area of the conductor in meter square.
L – Length of the conductor in meter square.
ρ – the resistivity of the conductor in materials in ohm meter.
The resistive transducer is designed by considering the variation of the length, area and resistivity of the metal.
Applications of Resistive Transducer
The following are the applications of the resistive transducer.
Potentiometer – The translation and rotatory potentiometer are the examples of the resistive transducers. The resistance of their conductor varies with the variation in their lengths which is used for the measurement of displacement.
Strain gauges – The resistance of their semiconductor material changes when the strain occurs on it. This property of metals is used for the measurement of the pressure, force-displacement etc.
Resistance Thermometer – The resistance of the metals changes because of changes in temperature. This property of conductor is used for measuring the temperature.
Thermistor – It works on the principle that the temperature coefficient of the thermistor material varies with the temperature. The thermistor has the negative temperature coefficient. The Negative temperature coefficient means the temperature is inversely proportional to resistance.
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This document discusses different types of transducers. It defines a transducer as a device that converts one form of energy or information to another. Mechanical transducers are simple but have limitations. Electrical transducers overcome these limitations by converting non-electrical quantities like temperature, pressure, etc. into electrical signals. Transducers can be classified as primary/secondary, active/passive, and analog/digital based on their operating principles and output signals. Key requirements for transducers include linearity, repeatability, reliability and the ability to withstand various environmental conditions. Selection of the appropriate transducer depends on the measurement needs and operating conditions.
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Types of load cell and principle
Load cells convert applied forces like tension, compression, pressure, or torque into electrical signals proportional to the force. The most common types are strain gauge, capacitive, and hydraulic load cells. A load cell works by measuring the deformation or change in an electrical property caused by an applied force. During calibration, load cells are tested incrementally using specific weights to ensure accuracy by evaluating linearity and repeatability. Annual recalibration is recommended best practice for load cell users.
Displacement measurement
LINEAR POTENTIOMETER Potentiometers are electrical devices which are a form of variable resistance.
It consists of a sliding contact which moves over the length of a resistance element. This sliding contact connects to a plunger, which links to the object whose displacement is to be measured.
Referring to the electrical circuit shown here, An input voltage Xt is applied across the whole resistance element, at points A and C. The output voltage, Xi , is measured between the sliding contact at point B and the end of the resistance element at point C. A linear relationship exists between the input voltage Xt, output voltage Xi and the distance BC.
ANGULAR POTENTIOMETER Rotary or angular potentiometers measure angular displacement .
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This course is electronics based course dealing with measurements and instrumentation designed for students in Physics Electronics, Electrical and Electronics Engineering and allied disciplines. It is a theory course based on the use of electrical and electronics instruments for measurements. The course deals with topics such as Principle of measurements, Errors, Accuracy, Units of measurements and electrical standards, , introduction to the design of electronic equipment’s for temperature, pressure, level, flow measurement, speed etc
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Sensors and transducers convert one form of energy into another. A sensor receives and responds to a signal, a transducer converts one form of energy to another, and an actuator converts an electrical signal to physical output. Transducers can be classified as active or passive depending on whether they require an external power source. Common transducers include resistance, capacitive, piezoelectric, hall effect, and photoelectric transducers. Key parameters for transducers include linearity, repeatability, resolution, and reliability.
Introduction to measurements systems
1) Measurement involves quantitatively comparing an unknown quantity to a standard unit of measurement. Measurements are important for research, development, and evaluating system performance.
2) Instruments are devices used to determine the value of a physical quantity. Instrumentation is the technology of using instruments to measure properties.
3) There are direct and indirect methods of measurement. Direct involves comparing the unknown quantity directly to a standard, while indirect uses a secondary standard and calibration.
Telemetry types, frequency,position and multiplexing in telemetry
This document discusses different types of telemetry used in instrumentation systems, including frequency, position, and multiplexing telemetry. Frequency telemetry represents measured values as an alternating current or voltage of varying frequency. Position telemetry relates the signal to the measurement to allow the receiving instrument to display displacement. Multiplexing telemetry allows transmitting multiple measurements over a single channel using either time division or frequency division methods to share the channel. This conserves resources compared to using separate wires for each measurement.
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The document discusses sensors and transducers used in mechatronics systems. It defines sensors as devices that detect physical quantities and convert them into signals, while transducers convert one form of energy to another. The document outlines various types of commonly used sensors like potentiometers, strain gauges, and capacitive sensors. It describes the working principles, specifications, advantages, and applications of these sensors. The specifications discussed include range, sensitivity, accuracy, resolution, response time, which are important for mechatronics designers to understand the capabilities and limitations of different sensors.
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This document discusses resistive sensors and their applications. It begins by defining resistive sensors as transducers that convert mechanical changes into electrical signals by changing resistance. Common resistive sensors include potentiometers, strain gauges, thermocouples, photoresistors and thermistors. The document then covers the theory of how resistance changes based on length, area, composition and temperature. It provides examples of specific resistive sensors and their typical applications, such as using light dependent resistors for light switches and strain gauges for sensors in electronic balances. In closing, it discusses how the resistance of sensors varies with changes in factors like temperature, strain or light intensity.
Load cell-transducer
Load cells are transducers that convert an applied force into an electrical signal. There are several types of load cells including resistive, capacitive, vibrating wire, piezoelectric, hydraulic, and pneumatic. Resistive load cells use strain gauges to measure deformation from applied forces. Capacitive load cells measure deformation capacitively. Vibrating wire load cells monitor loads in structural elements. Piezoelectric load cells generate voltage when force is applied to piezoelectric materials. Hydraulic load cells use fluid pressure from piston movement to measure force. Pneumatic load cells balance applied force with counteracting air pressure.
Static and dynamic characteristics of instruments
Static characteristics describe an instrument's performance when measuring quantities that remain constant or vary slowly. They include properties like linearity, sensitivity, resolution, repeatability, hysteresis, and environmental effects. Dynamic characteristics describe how the instrument responds when the measured quantity varies rapidly over time. Instruments can be modeled as a series of blocks, each with their own static and dynamic transfer functions. The overall static and dynamic responses are obtained by multiplying the individual block transfer functions. Characterizing both the static and dynamic behavior is important for understanding an instrument's performance.
Emi unit 1 ppt
The document discusses the key functional elements of measurement instruments. It describes the primary sensing element that initially converts the measured quantity into an electrical signal. It then explains how a variable conversion element may be needed to convert the output signal into a suitable form for the rest of the system. A variable manipulation element can then manipulate the signal while preserving its original nature. Finally, a data presentation element conveys the measurement information intelligibly to the user, such as through a visual display. The document also covers important performance characteristics like accuracy, precision, sensitivity and resolution that are used to evaluate instruments.
Human: You are an expert at summarizing documents. You provide concise summaries in 3 sentences or less that provide the high level and essential
Recorder
Recorders record electrical and non-electrical quantities over time to analyze processes. There are analog and digital recorders. Analog recorders include graphic recorders like X-Y and strip chart recorders that produce a pen and ink record. X-Y recorders graphically record the relationship between two variables using potentiometers to move a pen in perpendicular X and Y axes. Magnetic tape recorders record signals as magnetic patterns on tape for later playback, allowing direct high-fidelity recording of high frequencies.
Different types of recorders
This document discusses different types of recorders including analog graphic recorders like strip chart recorders and XY recorders, oscillographic recorders, magnetic tape recorders, and digital recorders. It provides details on the components, functioning, and applications of various analog and digital recorders.
Resistive transducers and Strain Gauge
The transducer whose resistance varies because of the environmental effects such type of transducer is known as the resistive transducer. The change in resistance is measured by the ac or dc measuring devices. The resistive transducer is used for measuring the physical quantities like temperature, displacement, vibration etc.
The measurement of the physical quantity is quite difficult. The resistive transducer converts the physical quantities into variable resistance which is easily measured by the meters. The process of variation in resistance is widely used in the industrial applications.
The resistive transducer can work both as the primary as well as the secondary transducer. The primary transducer changes the physical quantities into a mechanical signal, and secondary transducer directly transforms it into an electrical signal.
Working Principle of Resistive Transducer
The resistive transducer element works on the principle that the resistance of the element is directly proportional to the length of the conductor and inversely proportional to the area of the conductor. equation-1
Where R – resistance in ohms.
A – cross-section area of the conductor in meter square.
L – Length of the conductor in meter square.
ρ – the resistivity of the conductor in materials in ohm meter.
The resistive transducer is designed by considering the variation of the length, area and resistivity of the metal.
Applications of Resistive Transducer
The following are the applications of the resistive transducer.
Potentiometer – The translation and rotatory potentiometer are the examples of the resistive transducers. The resistance of their conductor varies with the variation in their lengths which is used for the measurement of displacement.
Strain gauges – The resistance of their semiconductor material changes when the strain occurs on it. This property of metals is used for the measurement of the pressure, force-displacement etc.
Resistance Thermometer – The resistance of the metals changes because of changes in temperature. This property of conductor is used for measuring the temperature.
Thermistor – It works on the principle that the temperature coefficient of the thermistor material varies with the temperature. The thermistor has the negative temperature coefficient. The Negative temperature coefficient means the temperature is inversely proportional to resistance.
Transducers ppt
This document discusses different types of transducers. It defines a transducer as a device that converts one form of energy or information to another. Mechanical transducers are simple but have limitations. Electrical transducers overcome these limitations by converting non-electrical quantities like temperature, pressure, etc. into electrical signals. Transducers can be classified as primary/secondary, active/passive, and analog/digital based on their operating principles and output signals. Key requirements for transducers include linearity, repeatability, reliability and the ability to withstand various environmental conditions. Selection of the appropriate transducer depends on the measurement needs and operating conditions.
Telemetry
Telemetry involves measuring values at a remote location and transmitting the data to another location. It involves three steps - measuring a value, converting it to a signal, transmitting the signal, and reconverting it back to the original data. Factors like accuracy, whether the data is analog or digital, error detection/correction, and bandwidth influence telemetry system design. There are two main types - landline systems which use wires/cables over short distances, and radio frequency systems which use radio links from 1km to beyond 50km. Landline systems transmit current or voltage and have simple circuitry but limited range. Radio frequency systems transmit via radio links and are used for long range applications like spacecraft. Modulation schemes include amplitude modulation for
Data transmission and telemetry
This document discusses telemetry, which is the remote measurement and transmission of data from its source. It involves converting measured values to signals, transmitting those signals over a channel, and reconverting the signals at the receiving end. There are two main types of telemetry systems: landline systems which can transmit over short distances like wires, and radio frequency systems which can transmit over longer distances using radio links. The document provides examples and diagrams of voltage and current landline telemetry systems, as well as discussing modulation techniques like amplitude, frequency, and pulse modulation used in radio frequency systems.
Types of load cell and principle
Load cells convert applied forces like tension, compression, pressure, or torque into electrical signals proportional to the force. The most common types are strain gauge, capacitive, and hydraulic load cells. A load cell works by measuring the deformation or change in an electrical property caused by an applied force. During calibration, load cells are tested incrementally using specific weights to ensure accuracy by evaluating linearity and repeatability. Annual recalibration is recommended best practice for load cell users.
Displacement measurement
LINEAR POTENTIOMETER Potentiometers are electrical devices which are a form of variable resistance.
It consists of a sliding contact which moves over the length of a resistance element. This sliding contact connects to a plunger, which links to the object whose displacement is to be measured.
Referring to the electrical circuit shown here, An input voltage Xt is applied across the whole resistance element, at points A and C. The output voltage, Xi , is measured between the sliding contact at point B and the end of the resistance element at point C. A linear relationship exists between the input voltage Xt, output voltage Xi and the distance BC.
ANGULAR POTENTIOMETER Rotary or angular potentiometers measure angular displacement .
basic of measurement and instrumentation.
This document discusses instrumentation systems and measurement fundamentals. It begins by classifying instrument systems, such as absolute versus secondary instruments, analog versus digital, and mechanical versus electrical versus electronic. It then describes the functional elements of a generalized measurement system, including the primary sensing element, variable conversion element, variable manipulation element, data processing element, data transmission system, and data presentation element. Finally, it discusses standards used for calibration and measurement, categorizing them from primary reference standards to secondary, tertiary, and working standards used in inspection and workshops.
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This document provides an overview of instrumentation and process control. It defines key terms like instrumentation, process, transducer, signal, loop, controller, and interlock. It describes common process parameters measured like pressure, level, temperature, and flow. It discusses primary measuring devices and principles for each process variable. It also covers control valves and automation systems like DCS, PLC, and SCADA.
Instrumentation
This document summarizes various instrumentation devices used for measurement and control. It discusses mechanical, electrical, and electronic instruments. It also describes different types of transducers including temperature, pressure, flow, strain, and proximity sensors. The key measurement principles and applications of instruments like RTDs, thermocouples, thermistors, bourdon tubes, load cells, and inductive proximity sensors are summarized.
Transducers & transmitters
Transducers are devices that convert energy from one form to another. They contain two main parts: a sensing element that detects a physical change, and a transduction element that converts the sensor's output into an electrical signal. Selection of a transducer depends on the physical quantity to be measured, the transducer principle best suited for the input, and the required accuracy. Transmitters take readings from primary sensors or transducers and convert them into standard signals that can be transmitted over longer distances to monitors or controllers. They work by producing a potential difference when AC current flows through a wire, causing the wire to radiate electromagnetic waves. Common types of transmitters include pressure, temperature, flow, and level transmitters. The
Measurement and Metrology
This document discusses measurement and instrumentation. It defines measurement as the act of measuring size, length, or other attributes. Measurement is used for design, process control, performance evaluation, and testing components. There are various types of measurements including linear, angular, screw thread, gear, surface finish, temperature, and pressure. Instrumentation uses instruments to sense, measure, control, and monitor physical and chemical properties. Measurement has static characteristics like error, accuracy, calibration, and dynamic characteristics like speed of response and frequency response. Errors are differences between measured and true values and can be due to manufacturing defects, environment, human error, or adjustment. Metrology is the science of measurement and includes industrial and medical applications with objectives like minimizing costs and
107 basic instrumentation
This document discusses basic instrumentation concepts and components. It defines instrumentation and process control, and describes their functions. It also covers common process measurements like temperature, pressure, flow, and level. For each it discusses units of measurement, measurement elements and principles, and examples of measurement devices. Finally, it briefly introduces how instrumentation signals are transmitted from field devices to control systems.
Metrology and Measuremenrt
The document discusses various linear and angular measuring instruments used in metrology. It describes direct measuring instruments such as vernier calipers, micrometers and slip gauges for linear measurements. It also discusses angular measuring devices like the universal bevel protractor, sine bar and autocollimator. Limit gauges including plug, ring and snap gauges are also introduced for inspection purposes. The key types and uses of these various instruments are summarized.
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This document provides an overview of electrical measurement and measuring instruments. It discusses the essential requirements of indicating instruments, which are deflecting torque, controlling torque, and damping torque. Controlling torque methods include spring control and gravity control. Damping torque is achieved through air friction or eddy current damping. Moving iron, permanent magnet moving coil, and electrodynamic instruments are described in terms of their construction and working principles. DC ammeters and voltmeters are also briefly discussed.
Measurement memory
This document provides instructions for a memory game to help students learn metric measurement conversions. The game involves 24 cards laid out face down that students take turns flipping over two at a time, trying to match measurements of the same value, such as 1000 grams equaling 1 kilogram. The player with the most matches after all cards have been picked wins.
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410402 Electronic Measurements And Instrumentation
The document contains four sets of questions for an exam on electronic measurements and instrumentation. It includes questions related to topics like digital voltmeters, signal generators, oscilloscopes, spectrum analyzers, strain gauges, and transducers. Some sample questions are on explaining significant figures and conformity, analyzing random errors, explaining the working of a true RMS voltmeter, discussing arbitrary waveform generators and their block diagrams, comparing random and video pattern generators, and explaining the applications of spectrum analyzers.
The questions cover concepts, principles, and applications of various electronic measurement instruments and devices. They require explaining concepts with diagrams, derivations, comparisons, error calculations, and summaries. The exam seems to evaluate students' understanding of instrumentation topics as
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Static characteristics in mechanical measurements & metrology
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Free amoebae
1) Amoebae are single-celled organisms that can change shape by extending and retracting pseudopods. They are found across eukaryotic life and include pathogens.
2) Well-known pathogenic amoebae that can infect humans include Naegleria fowleri which causes meningoencephalitis, Entamoeba histolytica which causes dysentery, and Acanthamoeba which can cause keratitis or granulomatous amoebic encephalitis.
3) Amoebae move using pseudopods, feed through phagocytosis or pinocytosis, and can form protective cysts. Their life cycles and pathogenesis depend
Enteric fever
Typhoid fever is a bacterial infection caused by Salmonella Typhi that spreads through contaminated food or water. It has varied symptoms over 4 stages including sustained high fever, abdominal pain, and delirium. Diagnosis involves blood or stool cultures and the Widal test. Treatment is with antibiotics like fluoroquinolones or cephalosporins. Prevention relies on sanitation, hygiene, and typhoid vaccines. Multidrug resistance is a growing problem requiring alternative treatments.
Filariasis
Filariasis is caused by thread-like parasitic roundworms that are spread by mosquitoes and black flies. The worms live in the lymphatic system and other parts of the body, and the females release microfilariae that circulate in the bloodstream. Over time, this can lead to elephantiasis with thickening of the skin. Diagnosis involves examining blood slides for microfilariae at specific times of day. Treatment includes medications that kill the microfilariae like diethylcarbamazine, ivermectin, and doxycycline. Controlling mosquitoes is also important for preventing the spread of filarial parasites.
Swine Flu
- Swine influenza, or swine flu, is caused by influenza viruses that normally infect pigs. It can sometimes be transmitted from pigs to humans.
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Ebola virus
The document provides information on Ebola virus, including:
1. Ebola virus is classified in the genus Ebolavirus and family Filoviridae. There are 5 species that cause disease in humans, with Zaire ebolavirus having the highest fatality rate of up to 90%.
2. Ebola virus disease symptoms start suddenly and include fever, muscle pain, and headaches. Later symptoms include vomiting, diarrhea, and internal/external bleeding.
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Eukar transcription
Gene expression in eukaryotes involves transcription of DNA in the nucleus, followed by RNA processing and transport of mRNA to the cytoplasm for translation. Eukaryotic genes contain both coding exons and non-coding introns. During transcription, RNA polymerase II binds promoters and transcription factors to initiate transcription. The primary transcript undergoes splicing to remove introns and join exons, producing mature mRNA for translation into protein.
Gene Expression in Eukaryotes
Gene expression in eukaryotes involves transcription of DNA in the nucleus, processing and export of mRNA, and translation of mRNA on ribosomes in the cytoplasm. Eukaryotic genes contain both coding exons and non-coding introns; the exons must be spliced together to form mRNA before translation. Three RNA polymerases transcribe different types of RNA in the nucleus, with RNA polymerase II responsible for mRNA and some small nuclear RNAs. Precise binding of transcription factors to promoter elements upstream of genes is required for transcription initiation by RNA polymerase II.
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Energy Balance
Energy balance occurs when energy intake from food matches energy expenditure by the body. Energy expenditure consists of basal metabolic rate (BMR), the energy required for basic body functions, thermic effect of activity and food, and adaptive thermogenesis. BMR accounts for 50-75% of total energy expenditure and can be estimated using formulas factoring in weight, height, age, and gender. Tracking energy intake and expenditure helps determine if a person has a surplus, deficit, or balance of calories.
Ethyl Glucuronide
Ethyl glucuronide (EtG) is a biomarker for detecting alcohol consumption between 1 day and 1 week. It is formed by conjugating ethanol with glucuronic acid in the liver. EtG can be measured in urine, blood, and hair samples and remains detectable for up to 90 hours after heavy drinking. Studies have found EtG to be a sensitive and specific marker of recent alcohol intake that helps address the need for a biomarker in the timeframe not covered by other alcohol markers. Liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry is commonly used to precisely measure EtG levels in various samples.
Electrophoresis
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Electophorosis
This document provides an overview of electrophoresis, including:
1. Electrophoresis uses the migration of charged solutes or particles in a liquid medium under the influence of an electric field. It is widely used to separate biological molecules like proteins.
2. Particles with different charge-to-mass ratios migrate at different rates depending on factors like their net charge, size, and the pH and strength of the buffer solution. Agarose gel and polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis are commonly used techniques.
3. The general procedure involves separating the particles in an electric field, staining to visualize the bands, then detecting and quantifying the separated fractions. Automated systems now allow high-throughput processing of
Cytokines in diseases
Cytokines are proteins that are involved in cell signaling and communication during immune responses and inflammation. They modulate processes like immune cell differentiation, activation of lymphocytes and phagocytes, and the development of adaptive immunity. Corticosteroids suppress immunity by blocking cytokine synthesis and release. Cytokines play roles in diseases like cancer, rheumatoid arthritis, and septic shock by regulating immune and inflammatory processes. They can be measured clinically to monitor certain conditions.
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This document discusses cortisol measurement and its importance in diagnosing conditions like Cushing's syndrome and Addison's disease. It describes the physiology of cortisol secretion and regulation by CRH and ACTH in the HPA axis. Methods for measuring cortisol in serum, urine, and saliva are also outlined, including their advantages and disadvantages. Total serum cortisol, 24-hour urinary free cortisol, and salivary free cortisol are the main tests discussed for assessing cortisol levels.
Colorimetry
Colorimetry is a common analytical technique used in clinical laboratories to estimate biochemical substances. It involves measuring the color intensity of a colored solution, which is proportional to the concentration of the colored substance. The solution is passed through a colorimeter, which measures the amount of light absorbed. Beer's law and Lambert's law describe how the absorption is related to concentration and path length. The colorimeter contains a light source, filter to select the wavelength, cuvette to hold the sample, and detector to convert light intensity to an electrical signal. Standards and blanks are used for calibration. Colorimetry is used to estimate many substances in blood, urine, and cerebrospinal fluid.
Chromatography
Chromatography is a technique used to separate and identify the components of a mixture. It works by allowing the molecules present in the mixture to distribute themselves between a stationary and a mobile medium. Molecules that spend most of their time in the mobile phase are carried along faster. Gas liquid chromatography uses an unreactive gas as the mobile phase flowing through a tube, with an involatile liquid held on particles of a solid support as the stationary phase. Thin layer chromatography uses a liquid as the mobile phase flowing past a thin layer of powder on a solid support, with substances less attracted to the solid or more soluble in the liquid moving faster up the plate.
Chromatography
Chromatography is a technique used to separate and identify components of mixtures using the principle of partition between two phases, a stationary phase and a mobile phase. There are several types including paper, thin layer, and gas-liquid chromatography. Gas-liquid chromatography involves passing a sample through a column containing a stationary liquid phase using an inert gas as the mobile phase, which separates the components into individual peaks that can be analyzed to identify substances.
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There is increasing confidence that cell therapies will soon play a role in the treatment of autoimmune disorders, but the extent of this impact remains to be seen. Early readouts on autologous CAR-Ts in lupus are encouraging, but manufacturing and cost limitations are likely to restrict access to highly refractory patients. Allogeneic CAR-Ts have the potential to broaden access to earlier lines of treatment due to their inherent cost benefits, however they will need to demonstrate comparable or improved efficacy to established modalities.
In addition to infrastructure and capacity constraints, CAR-Ts face a very different risk-benefit dynamic in autoimmune compared to oncology, highlighting the need for tolerable therapies with low adverse event risk. CAR-NK and Treg-based therapies are also being developed in certain autoimmune disorders and may demonstrate favorable safety profiles. Several novel non-cell therapies such as bispecific antibodies, nanobodies, and RNAi drugs, may also offer future alternative competitive solutions with variable value propositions.
Widespread adoption of cell therapies will not only require strong efficacy and safety data, but also adapted pricing and access strategies. At oncology-based price points, CAR-Ts are unlikely to achieve broad market access in autoimmune disorders, with eligible patient populations that are potentially orders of magnitude greater than the number of currently addressable cancer patients. Developers have made strides towards reducing cell therapy COGS while improving manufacturing efficiency, but payors will inevitably restrict access until more sustainable pricing is achieved.
Despite these headwinds, industry leaders and investors remain confident that cell therapies are poised to address significant unmet need in patients suffering from autoimmune disorders. However, the extent of this impact on the treatment landscape remains to be seen, as the industry rapidly approaches an inflection point.
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Instrumentation and measurement
- 1. INSTRUMENTATION AND MEASUREMENT M.PRASAD NAIDU Msc Medical Biochemistry, Ph.D Research scholar.
- 2. Abstract Why Instrumentation and Measurement ? Instrumentation Techniques Resources Data Analysis Case Study: Paradyn › Guiding Principles › System Overview › W3 Search Model
- 3. Why Instrumentation and Measurement ? • Gathering data to improve the next execution of the program. • Guiding scheduling decisions • Adapting to computations while in execution
- 4. Instrumentation Techniques Program Instrumentation Techniques › Manual : Programmer inserted directives › Automatic : No direct user involvement Binary Rewriting Dynamic Instrumentation Processor Instrumentation Techniques › Information includes timers, memory system performance, processor usage, etc. › Available mostly through special registers or memory mapped location. Example : Pentium Pro provides performance data through MSRs. These registers include 64 bit cycle clock and counts of memory read /write, L1 cache misses, pipeline flushes, etc. › Hardware assisted trace generation.
- 5. Operating System Instrumentation Techniques › Information includes behavior of virtual memory, file system, file cache etc. › Instrumentation in the form of APIs for applications to access these variables. Network Instrumentation Techniques › Ways of measuring Passive Example: RMON protocol defines SNMP MIB variables to report traffic statistics over hubs and switches. Active Example: Ping, NWS in grid style computing.
- 6. Data Storage Representation • Scalars – Counters – Times • Traces • Vector series
- 7. Resources • Software Abstractions – Program Components – Code in Executions – Synchronization Objects – Other Software Abstractions • Hardware Abstractions • Network Abstractions
- 8. Data Analysis • Quantitative Performance • Automating Performance Diagnosis • Perturbation Analysis
- 10. Guiding Principles and Characteristics • Scalability • Automate the search for performance problems • Provide well-defined data abstractions • Support heterogeneous environments • Support high level parallel languages • Open interfaces for visualization and new data sources • Streamlined use
- 11. System Overview • Basic Abstractions – Metric-focus grid – Time Histograms • Components of the System – Main Paradyn Process • Performance Consultant • Visualization Manager • Data Manager • User Interface Manager – Paradyn daemons – External Visualization Processes.
- 12. Histogram VisualizationTable Visualization Tabular Summary CPU 3.0 4.0 Messages 117 81 Metric Manager Instrumentation Manager Metric Manager Instrumentation Manager Visualization Manager User Interface Manager Performance Consultant Data Manager Application Application Processes Processes Visi Thread Visi Thread HIB Daemon(s) HIB
- 13. Dynamic Instrumentation Dynamic Instrumentation Interface › Metric Manager › Instrumentation Manager Points, Primitives and Predicates addCounter(fooFlg, 1) addCounter(fooFlg, 1) Foo() { …. …. } SendMsg( dest, ptr, cnt, size) { …. …. } if (fooFlg) startTimer(msgTme, ProcTime) if (fooFlg) stopTimer(msgTme)
- 14. • Instrumentation generation – Base Trampolines – Mini-Trampolines • Data Collection • Internal Uses of Dynamic Instrumentation – Resource Discovery – Collection of dynamic mapping information for HLL.
- 15. The W3 Search Model and the Performance Consultant • Why ? Where ? When ? – The “Why” Axis • Why is the application performing poorly ? – Potential performance problems are represented as hypotheses and tests. – Hypotheses represent activities universal to all parallel computations. – Hypotheses can be refined into more refined hypotheses using a search hierarchy. – Tests are Boolean functions that evaluate the validity of a hypotheses. – Tests are expressed in terms of a threshold and metrics calculated by the Instrumentation Manager.
- 16. A sample “why” axis with several hypotheses TopLevelHypotheses SyncBottleNeck HighSyncBlockingTimeFrequentSyncOperations HighSyncContentionHighSyncHoldingTime
- 17. › The “Where” Axis Where is the performance problem ? Pinpoints the problem specific to program components. Each hierarchy in “where” axis has multiple levels, with the leaf nodes being the instances of resources used by the application. SyncObject Semaphores Message SpinLock Barier
- 18. – The “When” Axis • When does the problem occur ? – Represents periods of time during which performance problems can occur. • The Performance Consultant – This module discovers performance problems by searching the space defined by W3 Search Model. – Fully automated search but also allows user to make manual refinements.
- 19. Open Visualization Interface • Paradyn provides a simple library and RPC interface to access performance data in real- time. • Visualization modules (visi’s) in Paradyn are external processes that use this library and interface. • Currently provides visi’s for time-histograms, bar charts and tables.
- 20. Examples of Use
- 21. Conclusion Computational grids are focused on high performance distributed computing. To achieve high performance, such systems need to provide tools that enable the programmer to realize the potential performance inherent in such a system.
- 22. THANK YOU
Editor's Notes
- Check for the second abstarction