The document discusses the use of an instrumentation amplifier in heart monitoring applications. An instrumentation amplifier is used as the initial stage to amplify the small voltage signals from the heart. It provides high gain while rejecting common mode noise. The amplified signal is then processed using a microcontroller to calculate heart rate, which is displayed on an LCD screen. Power is supplied from batteries using voltage regulators to provide the necessary voltages to different stages of the circuit.
The document discusses the instrumentation amplifier (IA). It begins by introducing the IA, noting its high input impedance, precisely adjustable gain using a single resistor, and high common mode rejection. It then describes the two stages of an IA: the first offers high input impedance and sets the gain, while the second is a differential amplifier with feedback and grounding that offers very high input impedance. Applications discussed include using a thermistor in a bridge circuit with an IA to indicate temperature.
Class AB amplifiers combine aspects of Class A and Class B amplifiers. They are biased so both transistors conduct for small signals like Class A for lower distortion, and for large signals only one transistor conducts at a time like Class B for higher efficiency. The circuit uses a voltage divider and diodes to bias the transistors into slight conduction even without an input signal. This overcomes crossover distortion. The output operates with the Q-point slightly above cutoff and ac cutoff at the supply voltage for Class AB operation between Class A and Class B.
This document discusses key characteristics and concepts related to radio receivers. It covers sensitivity, selectivity, fidelity, noise figure, image frequency rejection, double spotting, tracking and alignment. Sensitivity refers to a receiver's ability to amplify weak signals and is determined by factors like noise power, receiver noise figure, and amplifier gain. Selectivity is a receiver's ability to differentiate the desired signal from unwanted signals, and depends on tuned circuit quality factor. Fidelity measures how accurately a receiver can reproduce the original signal. Noise figure is the ratio of input signal-to-noise ratio to output signal-to-noise ratio. Image frequency rejection and tracking/alignment are also summarized.
The document describes the key components and operation of a super heterodyne receiver. It has five main sections: RF section, mixer/converter section, IF section, audio detector section, and audio amplifier section. The RF section captures the signal and RF amplifier boosts it. The mixer downconverts the RF signal to an intermediate frequency. The IF section filters and amplifies the IF signal before the audio detector extracts the audio signal, which is then amplified in the audio section. Benefits of this receiver design include simplicity, good fidelity, selectivity, and adaptability.
Radio receivers pick up desired signals, reject unwanted signals, and demodulate carrier signals to recover original modulating signals. They intercept incoming modulated signals, select desired signals while rejecting others, amplify the selected RF signal, detect the modulated signal, amplify the modulating frequency signal. Receivers can be classified based on the application (AM, FM, communication, television, radar) or design (tuned radio frequency (TRF), super-heterodyne). The super-heterodyne receiver overcomes limitations of TRF receivers by downconverting RF signals to a lower intermediate frequency, allowing for better stability, selectivity and consistent bandwidth over frequency ranges.
The document discusses Class D audio amplifiers. It explains that a Class D amplifier is a switching amplifier that uses pulse-width modulation. It has high efficiency because the output transistors are either fully on or fully off, minimizing power dissipation. A key component is the PWM modulator and switching circuit that generates the pulses, along with an output low-pass filter to remove switching harmonics from the audio signal.
The document discusses the instrumentation amplifier (IA). It begins by introducing the IA, noting its high input impedance, precisely adjustable gain using a single resistor, and high common mode rejection. It then describes the two stages of an IA: the first offers high input impedance and sets the gain, while the second is a differential amplifier with feedback and grounding that offers very high input impedance. Applications discussed include using a thermistor in a bridge circuit with an IA to indicate temperature.
Class AB amplifiers combine aspects of Class A and Class B amplifiers. They are biased so both transistors conduct for small signals like Class A for lower distortion, and for large signals only one transistor conducts at a time like Class B for higher efficiency. The circuit uses a voltage divider and diodes to bias the transistors into slight conduction even without an input signal. This overcomes crossover distortion. The output operates with the Q-point slightly above cutoff and ac cutoff at the supply voltage for Class AB operation between Class A and Class B.
This document discusses key characteristics and concepts related to radio receivers. It covers sensitivity, selectivity, fidelity, noise figure, image frequency rejection, double spotting, tracking and alignment. Sensitivity refers to a receiver's ability to amplify weak signals and is determined by factors like noise power, receiver noise figure, and amplifier gain. Selectivity is a receiver's ability to differentiate the desired signal from unwanted signals, and depends on tuned circuit quality factor. Fidelity measures how accurately a receiver can reproduce the original signal. Noise figure is the ratio of input signal-to-noise ratio to output signal-to-noise ratio. Image frequency rejection and tracking/alignment are also summarized.
The document describes the key components and operation of a super heterodyne receiver. It has five main sections: RF section, mixer/converter section, IF section, audio detector section, and audio amplifier section. The RF section captures the signal and RF amplifier boosts it. The mixer downconverts the RF signal to an intermediate frequency. The IF section filters and amplifies the IF signal before the audio detector extracts the audio signal, which is then amplified in the audio section. Benefits of this receiver design include simplicity, good fidelity, selectivity, and adaptability.
Radio receivers pick up desired signals, reject unwanted signals, and demodulate carrier signals to recover original modulating signals. They intercept incoming modulated signals, select desired signals while rejecting others, amplify the selected RF signal, detect the modulated signal, amplify the modulating frequency signal. Receivers can be classified based on the application (AM, FM, communication, television, radar) or design (tuned radio frequency (TRF), super-heterodyne). The super-heterodyne receiver overcomes limitations of TRF receivers by downconverting RF signals to a lower intermediate frequency, allowing for better stability, selectivity and consistent bandwidth over frequency ranges.
The document discusses Class D audio amplifiers. It explains that a Class D amplifier is a switching amplifier that uses pulse-width modulation. It has high efficiency because the output transistors are either fully on or fully off, minimizing power dissipation. A key component is the PWM modulator and switching circuit that generates the pulses, along with an output low-pass filter to remove switching harmonics from the audio signal.
This document discusses amplifiers and operational amplifiers. It begins by defining amplifiers as electronic devices that increase the power of a signal by taking energy from a power supply. Amplifiers are then classified as either small signal or large signal amplifiers, depending on the power or voltage gain. Operational amplifiers are introduced as analog building blocks that can perform mathematical operations like integration and differentiation through external feedback components. Key parameters of amplifiers like gain are defined. Operational amplifiers consist of two high impedance inputs and one output, and can have voltage, current, transconductance, or transresistance gain classifications.
Comparator circuits compare two input voltages and produce a logic output signal that is high or low depending on which input is larger. Real comparators do not have an abrupt transition and have very high voltage gain in the transition region. Comparators are often used as interfaces between analog and digital circuits by converting analog signals to logic levels. Open-collector outputs are useful for this by producing either 0V or the supply voltage at their outputs. Schmitt triggers, which are comparators with positive feedback, are commonly used as they introduce hysteresis which helps eliminate unwanted output transitions from noise.
This document discusses feedback amplifiers and provides details on:
1. Feedback amplifiers can be positive or negative, with negative feedback reducing gain and improving performance. Negative feedback subtracts part of the output from the input.
2. The basic structure of a single-loop feedback amplifier feeds part of the output back to the input. This reduces gain but improves stability, bandwidth, noise, and distortion compared to a basic amplifier.
3. Amplifiers are classified based on their input and output signals as voltage, current, transconductance, or transresistance amplifiers depending on whether the input is voltage or current and the output relationship.
The document discusses a Phase Locked Loop (PLL). It describes PLL as a circuit that synchronizes an output signal generated by an oscillator to match the frequency and phase of a reference input signal. The key functional blocks of a PLL are a phase detector, low pass filter, and voltage controlled oscillator (VCO). The phase detector compares the input and feedback frequencies and provides an error signal. The low pass filter removes noise and the VCO generates the output frequency controlled by the error signal voltage. A PLL goes through free running, capture, and phase locked stages of operation. Applications of PLL include frequency modulation/demodulation and signal synchronization.
Design and implementation of analog multipliers with IC'sheyaci
This document discusses the design and implementation of analog multipliers and integrated circuits. It describes how analog multipliers are used for frequency conversion in radio frequency systems. It then explains the basic principles of analog multipliers and mixers, how they multiply input signals and translate frequencies. The document outlines different mixer definitions and equations. It also discusses important parameters for analog multipliers like conversion gain and noise figure. Furthermore, it presents the Gilbert cell mixer and its mathematics, and how operational transconductance amplifiers can be used to realize a multiplier. Finally, it provides examples of applications for multiplier ICs like voltage multiplication, division, squaring and frequency doubling, demonstrating these using the AD633 analog multiplier chip.
This document discusses pre-emphasis and de-emphasis in analog communication systems. Pre-emphasis is used at the transmitter to boost higher modulating frequencies, reducing noise effects. It involves passing the audio through a high-pass filter. De-emphasis is used at the receiver to remove the boosting, involving a low-pass filter. Both use time constants of 50 microseconds according to standards. Pre-emphasis increases modulation index for higher frequencies while de-emphasis removes this at the receiver.
A PLL or phase-locked loop is a control system that generates an output signal whose phase is related to the phase of an input signal. It consists of three basic elements: a phase detector that compares the phase of two signals and generates an error signal, a loop filter that filters the error signal, and a voltage-controlled oscillator whose frequency is controlled by the filtered error signal. PLLs are commonly used in applications such as frequency synthesis, signal demodulation, and motor speed control.
The document discusses the components and operation of a super heterodyne receiver. It consists of 5 main stages: 1) an RF tuner section that selects the desired frequency, 2) a mixer that combines the received RF signal with a local oscillator signal to produce an intermediate frequency (IF) signal, 3) an IF filter that eliminates unwanted frequencies and noise, 4) a demodulator that retrieves the original audio signal, and 5) an audio amplifier that strengthens the audio signal for output. The super heterodyne receiver overcomes drawbacks of ordinary receivers by translating all signals to a fixed IF for improved selectivity and sensitivity.
This document presents an overview of operational amplifiers (op-amps). It begins with an introduction to op-amps, followed by their circuit symbol, pin diagram, important terms and equations. It describes the ideal properties of an op-amp, as well as non-ideal behaviors. Applications discussed include analog to digital converters, current sources, and zero crossing detectors. Advantages are listed as versatility and uses in various circuits. Disadvantages include limitations in power and load resistance.
This document discusses various VLSI testing techniques. It begins by explaining the need for testing circuits when they are first developed and manufactured to check that they meet specifications. The main testing approach is to apply test inputs and compare the outputs to expected patterns. It then describes different testing techniques for combinational and sequential circuits, including fault modeling, path sensitizing, scan path testing, built-in self-test (BIST), boundary scan testing, and signature analysis. Specific circuit examples are provided to illustrate scan path testing, BIST using linear feedback shift registers (LFSRs) and compressor circuits, and boundary scan testing.
This document presents on different types of clipper circuits. It discusses unbiased positive and negative clipper circuits, as well as biased positive and negative clipper circuits. It provides circuit diagrams to illustrate each type and describes how they work to clip portions of input signals. The document also outlines using Pspice to observe input and output signals of clipper circuits and references sources for more information.
An operational amplifier (op-amp) can function as a voltage comparator due to its high gain and balanced difference input. When the non-inverting input is at a higher voltage than the inverting input, the op-amp outputs the most positive voltage, and when the non-inverting input drops below the inverting input, it outputs the most negative voltage. However, using an op-amp as a comparator has disadvantages compared to a dedicated comparator, such as slower propagation delays, lack of internal hysteresis, increased current without feedback, and compatibility issues with digital logic.
This document provides an overview of phase locked loops (PLL) including:
1. The basic components of a PLL including a phase detector, low pass filter, and voltage controlled oscillator that work together in a closed loop to lock the output frequency and phase to the input signal.
2. Examples of PLL applications such as frequency multiplication, FM demodulation, and motor speed control.
3. A more detailed description of the 565 PLL IC including its pin configuration and characteristics such as operating frequency range and drift with temperature/voltage.
The document discusses buffer amplifiers and operational amplifiers. It defines a buffer as a device that provides an output that is identical to its input. An operational amplifier configured as a voltage follower acts as a buffer amplifier, with a gain of exactly 1. This allows the buffer to provide electrical isolation while maintaining the signal voltage level. Real op-amps can achieve gains very close to 1, making them suitable for use as buffer amplifiers. Applications of buffer amplifiers include driving resistive loads and use in sensor and data acquisition systems.
The document discusses different types of microwave phase shifters. It describes that a phase shifter is a two-port device that provides a fixed or variable phase shift of an RF signal with minimal attenuation. It then focuses on ferrite phase shifters, which use ferrite materials to provide a variable phase shift by changing the bias field of the ferrite. The document also discusses distributed phase shifters, active vs. passive phase shifters, analog vs. digital phase shifters, and fixed vs. variable phase shifters.
Bridge Rectifier Circuit with Working Operation and Their Typeselprocus
A bridge rectifier is an arrangement of four or more diodes in a bridge circuit configuration which provides the same output polarity for either input polarity. It is used for converting an alternating current (AC) input into a direct current (DC) output.
This document discusses negative feedback in amplifiers. It defines feedback as part of the output signal being returned to the input. Negative feedback occurs when the feedback signal is out of phase with the input signal. There are four types of feedback classified by the sampling and mixing networks: voltage series, current series, current shunt, and voltage shunt. Negative feedback provides advantages like stabilized gain and operating point but results in reduced gain. It has applications in electronic amplifiers, regulated power supplies, and wideband amplifiers.
Presentation on Op-amp by Sourabh kumarSourabh Kumar
Visit Andro Root ( http:\\www.androroot.com ) for Tech. news and Smartphones.
Presentation on Op-amp(Operational Amplifier) by Sourabh kumar. B.tech Presentation,
An infrared remote control is used to control the speed of an induction motor in 8 steps. A microcontroller reads coded data from the remote control and activates output pins to change the firing time of thyristors, which drives the fan motor. The microcontroller receives signals from IR sensors connected to the remote and controls the system. A regulated power supply provides power and a transformer steps down the voltage.
A complete description of including circuit diagram, gain equation, features of Instrumentational amplifier , its working principle, applications, practical circuits, Proteus simulation and conclusion.
Uet, Peshawar Pakistan
Batch-06
This document discusses amplifiers and operational amplifiers. It begins by defining amplifiers as electronic devices that increase the power of a signal by taking energy from a power supply. Amplifiers are then classified as either small signal or large signal amplifiers, depending on the power or voltage gain. Operational amplifiers are introduced as analog building blocks that can perform mathematical operations like integration and differentiation through external feedback components. Key parameters of amplifiers like gain are defined. Operational amplifiers consist of two high impedance inputs and one output, and can have voltage, current, transconductance, or transresistance gain classifications.
Comparator circuits compare two input voltages and produce a logic output signal that is high or low depending on which input is larger. Real comparators do not have an abrupt transition and have very high voltage gain in the transition region. Comparators are often used as interfaces between analog and digital circuits by converting analog signals to logic levels. Open-collector outputs are useful for this by producing either 0V or the supply voltage at their outputs. Schmitt triggers, which are comparators with positive feedback, are commonly used as they introduce hysteresis which helps eliminate unwanted output transitions from noise.
This document discusses feedback amplifiers and provides details on:
1. Feedback amplifiers can be positive or negative, with negative feedback reducing gain and improving performance. Negative feedback subtracts part of the output from the input.
2. The basic structure of a single-loop feedback amplifier feeds part of the output back to the input. This reduces gain but improves stability, bandwidth, noise, and distortion compared to a basic amplifier.
3. Amplifiers are classified based on their input and output signals as voltage, current, transconductance, or transresistance amplifiers depending on whether the input is voltage or current and the output relationship.
The document discusses a Phase Locked Loop (PLL). It describes PLL as a circuit that synchronizes an output signal generated by an oscillator to match the frequency and phase of a reference input signal. The key functional blocks of a PLL are a phase detector, low pass filter, and voltage controlled oscillator (VCO). The phase detector compares the input and feedback frequencies and provides an error signal. The low pass filter removes noise and the VCO generates the output frequency controlled by the error signal voltage. A PLL goes through free running, capture, and phase locked stages of operation. Applications of PLL include frequency modulation/demodulation and signal synchronization.
Design and implementation of analog multipliers with IC'sheyaci
This document discusses the design and implementation of analog multipliers and integrated circuits. It describes how analog multipliers are used for frequency conversion in radio frequency systems. It then explains the basic principles of analog multipliers and mixers, how they multiply input signals and translate frequencies. The document outlines different mixer definitions and equations. It also discusses important parameters for analog multipliers like conversion gain and noise figure. Furthermore, it presents the Gilbert cell mixer and its mathematics, and how operational transconductance amplifiers can be used to realize a multiplier. Finally, it provides examples of applications for multiplier ICs like voltage multiplication, division, squaring and frequency doubling, demonstrating these using the AD633 analog multiplier chip.
This document discusses pre-emphasis and de-emphasis in analog communication systems. Pre-emphasis is used at the transmitter to boost higher modulating frequencies, reducing noise effects. It involves passing the audio through a high-pass filter. De-emphasis is used at the receiver to remove the boosting, involving a low-pass filter. Both use time constants of 50 microseconds according to standards. Pre-emphasis increases modulation index for higher frequencies while de-emphasis removes this at the receiver.
A PLL or phase-locked loop is a control system that generates an output signal whose phase is related to the phase of an input signal. It consists of three basic elements: a phase detector that compares the phase of two signals and generates an error signal, a loop filter that filters the error signal, and a voltage-controlled oscillator whose frequency is controlled by the filtered error signal. PLLs are commonly used in applications such as frequency synthesis, signal demodulation, and motor speed control.
The document discusses the components and operation of a super heterodyne receiver. It consists of 5 main stages: 1) an RF tuner section that selects the desired frequency, 2) a mixer that combines the received RF signal with a local oscillator signal to produce an intermediate frequency (IF) signal, 3) an IF filter that eliminates unwanted frequencies and noise, 4) a demodulator that retrieves the original audio signal, and 5) an audio amplifier that strengthens the audio signal for output. The super heterodyne receiver overcomes drawbacks of ordinary receivers by translating all signals to a fixed IF for improved selectivity and sensitivity.
This document presents an overview of operational amplifiers (op-amps). It begins with an introduction to op-amps, followed by their circuit symbol, pin diagram, important terms and equations. It describes the ideal properties of an op-amp, as well as non-ideal behaviors. Applications discussed include analog to digital converters, current sources, and zero crossing detectors. Advantages are listed as versatility and uses in various circuits. Disadvantages include limitations in power and load resistance.
This document discusses various VLSI testing techniques. It begins by explaining the need for testing circuits when they are first developed and manufactured to check that they meet specifications. The main testing approach is to apply test inputs and compare the outputs to expected patterns. It then describes different testing techniques for combinational and sequential circuits, including fault modeling, path sensitizing, scan path testing, built-in self-test (BIST), boundary scan testing, and signature analysis. Specific circuit examples are provided to illustrate scan path testing, BIST using linear feedback shift registers (LFSRs) and compressor circuits, and boundary scan testing.
This document presents on different types of clipper circuits. It discusses unbiased positive and negative clipper circuits, as well as biased positive and negative clipper circuits. It provides circuit diagrams to illustrate each type and describes how they work to clip portions of input signals. The document also outlines using Pspice to observe input and output signals of clipper circuits and references sources for more information.
An operational amplifier (op-amp) can function as a voltage comparator due to its high gain and balanced difference input. When the non-inverting input is at a higher voltage than the inverting input, the op-amp outputs the most positive voltage, and when the non-inverting input drops below the inverting input, it outputs the most negative voltage. However, using an op-amp as a comparator has disadvantages compared to a dedicated comparator, such as slower propagation delays, lack of internal hysteresis, increased current without feedback, and compatibility issues with digital logic.
This document provides an overview of phase locked loops (PLL) including:
1. The basic components of a PLL including a phase detector, low pass filter, and voltage controlled oscillator that work together in a closed loop to lock the output frequency and phase to the input signal.
2. Examples of PLL applications such as frequency multiplication, FM demodulation, and motor speed control.
3. A more detailed description of the 565 PLL IC including its pin configuration and characteristics such as operating frequency range and drift with temperature/voltage.
The document discusses buffer amplifiers and operational amplifiers. It defines a buffer as a device that provides an output that is identical to its input. An operational amplifier configured as a voltage follower acts as a buffer amplifier, with a gain of exactly 1. This allows the buffer to provide electrical isolation while maintaining the signal voltage level. Real op-amps can achieve gains very close to 1, making them suitable for use as buffer amplifiers. Applications of buffer amplifiers include driving resistive loads and use in sensor and data acquisition systems.
The document discusses different types of microwave phase shifters. It describes that a phase shifter is a two-port device that provides a fixed or variable phase shift of an RF signal with minimal attenuation. It then focuses on ferrite phase shifters, which use ferrite materials to provide a variable phase shift by changing the bias field of the ferrite. The document also discusses distributed phase shifters, active vs. passive phase shifters, analog vs. digital phase shifters, and fixed vs. variable phase shifters.
Bridge Rectifier Circuit with Working Operation and Their Typeselprocus
A bridge rectifier is an arrangement of four or more diodes in a bridge circuit configuration which provides the same output polarity for either input polarity. It is used for converting an alternating current (AC) input into a direct current (DC) output.
This document discusses negative feedback in amplifiers. It defines feedback as part of the output signal being returned to the input. Negative feedback occurs when the feedback signal is out of phase with the input signal. There are four types of feedback classified by the sampling and mixing networks: voltage series, current series, current shunt, and voltage shunt. Negative feedback provides advantages like stabilized gain and operating point but results in reduced gain. It has applications in electronic amplifiers, regulated power supplies, and wideband amplifiers.
Presentation on Op-amp by Sourabh kumarSourabh Kumar
Visit Andro Root ( http:\\www.androroot.com ) for Tech. news and Smartphones.
Presentation on Op-amp(Operational Amplifier) by Sourabh kumar. B.tech Presentation,
An infrared remote control is used to control the speed of an induction motor in 8 steps. A microcontroller reads coded data from the remote control and activates output pins to change the firing time of thyristors, which drives the fan motor. The microcontroller receives signals from IR sensors connected to the remote and controls the system. A regulated power supply provides power and a transformer steps down the voltage.
A complete description of including circuit diagram, gain equation, features of Instrumentational amplifier , its working principle, applications, practical circuits, Proteus simulation and conclusion.
Uet, Peshawar Pakistan
Batch-06
A Plasma Tweeter is an audio device which uses a pair of electrodes as a source of sound. It has a clear reproduction and Omni directional radiation pattern. A plasma tweeter has a better frequency response than a conventional speaker and does not involve any moving part (diaphragm) and thus has less reverberation and no wear and tear. Plasma tweeters invented earlier were very expensive. This paper presents a plasma audio system which is making the regular audio system more efficient because of the use of the latest plasma tweeter. Here the objective is to create a low cost and more efficient version of the most speakers invented till now with the complete audio system.
The document discusses signal conditioning circuits used in biomedical recorders. It covers topics like:
- The requirements of biomedical amplifiers including high gain, avoiding distortion, and good frequency response.
- Types of amplifiers used like differential, AC coupled, and carrier amplifiers.
- What bio-amplifiers are and their purpose in amplifying low amplitude bio signals.
- The functional requirements of preamplifiers like boosting signal strength without degrading signal-to-noise ratio.
This document summarizes a system for classifying cardiac arrhythmias using an ultra-low-power microcontroller. Key points:
- It implements a complete beat-to-beat arrhythmia classification system on a custom microcontroller, including an analog front-end to acquire ECG signals and a digital back-end to execute an SVM classification algorithm.
- The system achieves 13.1 μW power consumption from a 1.8V supply. It was prototyped on a 28nm FD-SOI chip measuring 3.1mm2.
- The digital back-end uses feature selection and separate SVM classifiers to distinguish between normal heartbeats, supraventricular ectopic beats,
DSP Applications in medical field:Hearing aid, ECG, Blood pressure monitor.
Noise filtering,Fast fourier transform and Bandpass & FIR filter on matlab.
The document describes an experiment measuring parameters of operational amplifiers (op-amps), including offset voltage, bias and offset current, common-mode rejection ratio (CMRR), and slew rate. The experiment uses simulations in Multisim and theoretical formulas to calculate op-amp parameter values, which are then recorded and compared to datasheet specifications. Key findings are that measured input offset voltage, gain, bias current, input resistance, and CMRR are close to expected values, while slew rate is lower than specified. The document concludes by verifying op-amp parameters through various circuit configurations.
1) The document discusses operational amplifiers (Op-Amps), including their history, characteristics, and various configurations.
2) Op-Amps have very high gain, high input impedance, and low output impedance. They are often used in amplifier, filter, and instrumentation circuits.
3) There are two main Op-Amp configurations - open loop and closed loop. Open loop has stability issues while closed loop with negative feedback is more commonly used and has advantages like stabilized gain and reduced distortion.
4) Common closed loop Op-Amp circuits include the inverting amplifier, non-inverting amplifier, voltage follower, integrator, and differential amplifier. These are built using negative feedback techniques.
Evaluating ECG Capturing Using Sound-Card of PC/Laptopijics
The purpose of the Evaluating ECG capturing using sound-card of PC/Laptop is provided portable and low
cost ECG monitoring system using laptop and mobile phones. There is no need to interface microcontroller
or any other device to transmit ECG data. This research is based on hardware design,
implementation, signal capturing and Evaluation of an ECG processing and analyzing system which attend
the physicians in heart disease diagnosis. Some important modification is given in design part to avoid all
definitive ECG instrument problems faced in previous designs. Moreover, attenuate power frequency noise
and noise that produces from patient's body have required additional developments. The hardware design
has basically three units: transduction and conditioning Unit, interfacing unit and data processing unit.
The most focusing factor is the ECG signal/data transmits in laptop/PC via microphone pin. The live
simulation is possible using SOUNDSCOPE software in PC/Laptop. The software program that is written
in MATLAB and LAB-View performs data acquisition (record, stored, filtration) and several tasks such as
QRS detection, calculate heart rate.
The document is an assignment on operational amplifiers for an electronics course. It provides information on operational amplifiers including:
1) Operational amplifiers are basic building blocks of analog electronic circuits used for signal conditioning, filtering, and mathematical operations.
2) An ideal operational amplifier is a three-terminal device with two high-impedance inputs and one output that can source or sink voltage or current.
3) Operational amplifiers have very high open-loop gain, near-zero input offset voltage, and near-zero output impedance. Feedback is used to control the closed-loop gain.
4) Common operational amplifier circuits include inverting and non-inverting amplifiers,
Electrical signal processing and transmissionBishal Rimal
The document discusses operational amplifiers and electrical signal processing. It begins by defining an operational amplifier as a differential amplifier that amplifies the difference between voltages at its two input terminals. It then discusses key characteristics of op-amps like input resistance, output resistance, and bandwidth. The document also covers op-amp configurations like inverting amplifiers, non-inverting amplifiers, and instrumentation amplifiers. It discusses applications of op-amps in signal amplification, integration, differentiation and noise reduction. Finally, it provides an overview of optical communication systems and how data is transmitted using optical fibers.
This document discusses the characteristics and applications of operational amplifiers (op-amps). It begins with a block diagram showing the typical components of an op-amp, including the differential amplifier stage, intermediate stage, level shifting stage, and output stage. It then covers ideal and practical characteristics of op-amps such as high input impedance, low output impedance, high voltage gain, and finite bandwidth. Common op-amp configurations like the inverting and non-inverting amplifiers are explained. The document provides detailed descriptions and circuit diagrams to illustrate op-amp characteristics and applications.
An operational amplifier (op-amp) is an electronic voltage amplifier that produces an output voltage much larger than the difference between its input voltages. Op-amps are widely used as they can be configured to perform many functions through external components with little dependence on temperature or manufacturing variations. An ideal op-amp has infinite gain, infinite input impedance, zero output impedance, and zero offset voltage. It works to make the difference between its input voltages zero according to the op-amp golden rule.
A low-level AM transmitter performs amplitude modulation early in the transmitter circuit, near the oscillator and buffer amplifier stages, where power levels are low. A high-level AM transmitter performs amplitude modulation in the final power amplifier stage, where higher power levels allow for greater transmission efficiency but limit the modulation to AM. Both approaches have advantages - low-level transmitters can produce different modulation types but are less efficient, while high-level transmitters are more efficient but restricted to AM modulation. The document discusses the components, signal paths, and operation of both low-level and high-level AM transmitter circuits.
Analog & Digital Integrated Circuits - Material (Short Answers) Mathankumar S
This document contains two-mark questions and answers related to analog and digital integrated circuits. It includes definitions and explanations of terms like virtual short, differential amplifier, slew rate, characteristics of an ideal op-amp, common mode rejection ratio, average and peak detector, linear and non-linear applications of op-amps, precision diode, hysteresis, filters, power supply rejection ratio, and more. It also provides circuit diagrams for integrator, Schmitt trigger, astable multivibrator, full wave rectifier, and instrumentation amplifier.
Common emitter amplifier by YEASIN NEWAJYeasinNewaj
This slide has been created for students who are studying electrical engineering and who want to gain knowledge of basic electronics. The topic is COMMON EMITTER AMPLIFIER OF BJT
IJERA (International journal of Engineering Research and Applications) is International online, ... peer reviewed journal. For more detail or submit your article, please visit www.ijera.com
An ECG-on-Chip for Wearable Cardiac Monitoring Devices ecgpapers
This paper describes a highly integrated, low power chip solution for ECG signal processing in wearable
devices. The chip contains an instrumentation amplifier with programmable gain, a band-pass filter, a 12-bit
SAR ADC, a novel QRS detector, 8K on-chip SRAM, and relevant control circuitry and CPU interfaces. The
analog front end circuits accurately senses and digitizes the raw ECG signal, which is then filtered to extract the
QRS. The sampling frequency used is 256 Hz. ECG samples are buffered locally on an asynchronous FIFO and
is read out using a faster clock, as and when it is required by the host CPU via an SPI interface. The chip was
designed and implemented in 0.35ȝm standard CMOS process. The analog core operates at 1V while the digital
circuits and SRAM operate at 3.3V. The chip total core area is 5.74 mm 2 and consumes 9.6ȝW. Small size and
low power consumption make this design suitable for usage in wearable heart monitoring devices.
A report on ultrasonic distance measurementitfakash
The document describes an ultrasonic distance meter circuit. It consists of a microcontroller that encodes and transmits ultrasonic pulses via a transmitter. When the pulses reflect off an object, a receiver detects the echo and the microcontroller calculates the distance based on the time elapsed. It displays the measured distance on an LCD screen. The circuit uses various components like a voltage regulator, microcontroller, LCD, buzzer, and ultrasonic transducers to transmit pulses, receive echoes, and determine distances to objects.
Similar to Instrumentation amplifier in heart beat monetering. (20)
This document describes the design and development of a 6 degree of freedom robotic arm that can be controlled via an Android application using Bluetooth. The robotic arm is designed to mimic the movement of a human arm and consists of a shoulder, elbow, wrist and gripper joints powered by servo motors. An Android app was developed using MIT App Inventor to send control signals via Bluetooth to an Arduino Uno microcontroller which drives the servo motors. The robotic arm was able to pick up different shaped objects by controlling the gripper. Future applications discussed include using robots for healthcare, industrial and military purposes.
This document describes a smart lighting system using Internet of Things (IoT) that can conserve energy. It uses an Arduino, light dependent resistor (LDR), infrared sensor, LED, and ESP8266 module. The LDR detects light levels and the infrared sensor detects motion. The ESP8266 connects to WiFi and the Arduino controls the LED lights based on inputs from the LDR and infrared sensor to only turn on the lights when needed, saving energy compared to traditional always-on street lights. This smart lighting system allows for automatic switching of street lights based on available daylight and presence of people.
Location mapping using python (jupyter nootbook)Shrikant Chandan
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IEEE Slovenia GRSS
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IEEE Slovenia CIS
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3-6 June 2024, Niš, Serbia
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Fuel Cells: Introduction- importance and classification of fuel cells - description, principle, components, applications of fuel cells: H2-O2 fuel cell, alkaline fuel cell, molten carbonate fuel cell and direct methanol fuel cells.
2. WHAT IS AMPLIFIER?
It is an electronic device that increases the power of
a signal. It does this by taking energy from a power
supply and controlling the output to match the input
signal shape but with a larger amplitude.
3. WHAT IS OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER?
An operational amplifier is a DC-coupled high-
gain electronic voltage amplifier with a differential
input and, usually, a single-ended output. In this
configuration, an op-amp produces an output
potential that is typically hundreds of thousands of
times larger than the potential difference between
its input terminals.
4. APPLICATIONS OF OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER.
Audio amplifiers
Speakers and microphone circuits in cell phones,
computers, mpg players, boom boxes, etc.
Instrumentation amplifiers
Biomedical systems including heart monitors and
oxygen sensors.
Power amplifiers
Analog computers
Combination of integrators, differentiators, summing
amplifiers, and multipliers.
5. AUDIO AMPLIFIERS.
An audio power amplifier is an electronic
amplifier that amplifies low-power
audio signals (signals composed primarily of
frequencies between20 - 20 000 Hz, the human
range of hearing) to a level suitable for
driving loudspeakers and is the final stage in a
typical audio playback chain.
6. INSTRUMENTATION AMPLIFIER.
An instrumentation amplifier is a type
of differential amplifier that has been outfitted with
input buffer amplifiers, which eliminate the need for
input impedance matching and thus make the
amplifier particularly suitable for use in
measurement and test equipment.
Additional characteristics include very
low DC offset, low drift, low noise, very high open-
loop gain, very high common-mode rejection ratio,
and very high input impedances.
7. CONTINUED..
Instrumentation amplifiers are used where
great accuracy and stability of the circuit both short
and long-term are required.
the instrumentation amplifier is usually shown
schematically identical to a standard operational
amplifier (op-amp), the electronic instrumentation
amp is almost always internally composed of 3 op-
amps.
These are arranged so that there is one op-amp to
buffer each input (+,−), and one to produce the
desired output with adequate impedance matching
for the function.
8. CONTINUED…
The most commonly used instrumentation amplifier
circuit is shown in the figure. The gain of the circuit
is
10. INTRODUCTION
The heart is one of the most vital organs within the
human body.
It acts as a pump that circulates oxygen and
nutrient carrying blood around the body in order to
keep it functioning.
The circulated blood also removes waste products
generated from the body to the kidneys.
When the body is exerted the rate at which the
heart beats will vary proportional to the amount of
effort being exerted.
By detecting the voltage created by the beating of
the heart, its rate can be easily observed and used
for a number of health purposes .
11. ECG
An electrocardiogram is a graphical trace of the
voltage produced by the heart. A sample trace of a
typical ECG output for a single beat is shown
below. There are 5 identifiable features in an ECG
trace which corresponds to different polarisation
stages that makes up a heart beat. These
deflections are denoted by the letters P, Q, R, S and
T.
12. ECG
By detecting the R peaks and measuring the time
between them the heart rate can be calculated and
then displayed.
A persons heart rate before, during and after
exercise is the main indicator of their fitness.
Measuring this manually requires a person to stop
the activity they are doing in order to count the
number of heart beats over a period of time.
Measuring the heart rate using an electrical circuit
can be done much quicker and more accurately .
13. DESIRED SIGNAL
The heart pulse received on the skin by electrodes
is a result of travelling electrical activity from the
heart.
At the skin, this signal has a relative potential in the
range of about ~2mV.
This pulse as depicted in Figure 1 has a pulse
length of about 20ms and therefore has a very low
bandwidth of 50Hz.
14. NOISE
Noise from the environment will easily swamp the tiny
pulse signal from the heart.
The leads connecting the electrode to the amplifier will
act like an antenna which will inadvertently receive
unwanted radiated signals. Such signals are for example
the 50Hz from power lines and emf’s from fluorescent
lights will add a tiny sinusoidal wave which is generally
quite difficult to filter away.
Muscles other than the heart also produce voltage
potentials and these can also be detected although the
large relative size and regularity of the heart muscles
help to differentiate it from the rest.
15. ENHANCEMENTS.
A high gain amplifier with a high Common Mode
Rejection Ratio (CMRR) will be used to receive the
desired signal. Also having a frequency response of at
least 50Hz to detect the heart pulse.
A low pass filter will be implemented to remove the
noise. Because most of the noise types discussed are of
high frequency while the desired signal is relatively low a
single pole filter will suffice.
The final circuit will be implemented in a Printed Circuit
Board (PCB) to reduce the number of “radiating and
transmitting” sources on the device (loose wires and
exposed long component legs).
17. AMPLIFICATION STAGE.
An instrumentation amplifier is usually the very first stage
in an instrumentation system.
This is because of the very small voltages usually
received from the probes need to be amplified
significantly to be proceeding stages.
An instrumentation amplifier (IA) is a difference amplifier
where the difference between the two input terminals is
amplified and the common signals between the inputs are
rejected (Common Mode Rejection (CMR)).
The latter function is the device characteristic, termed the
Common Rejection Ratio (CMRR). As depicted in it
typically consists of three op-amps.
18.
19. CONTINUED…
The IA circuit can be decomposed into two parts. XOP1
and XOP 2 are in a buffered amplifier configurations and
XOP 3 is a basic differential amplifier.
The buffered amplifiers while providing first stage
amplification to the inputs also isolates the resistor
resistance from being affected by the biasing (high
potential or at noise floor) at the input terminals. The
differential amplifier XOP 3 compensates for the bias by
only considering the difference between the input
terminals and generally has a differential gain of 1.
20. CONTINUED…
For a bio-signals amplifier once of the important
characteristics of the Op-amps to be used are its CMRR
and Gain.
CMRR is generally affected by the matching of the
resistance values throughout the circuit. Therefore the
use of resistors with accuracies of 0.1% is highly
desirable.
The overall gain of the IA circuit is
Vo/Vs = (1+2 R1/R2)R5/R4.
21. PROCESSING AND DISPLAY.
An 8-bit microcontroller was chosen to process the output
signal produced by the amplification stage.
The Microchip PIC16F877A was selected due to its
additional output and processing power, and also its
onboard 10-bit analogue to digital converter and in-circuit
debugging features.
Using this highly integrated microcontroller allowed for a
simpler design and trouble shooting debugging process.
Due to the use of a microcontroller to calculate the beats
per minute (BPM), it was decided that a liquid crystal
display (LCD) module would be the most flexible way of
displaying this numerical output.
22. It was originally planned that several seven segment
displays could be used, but again it was deemed
worthwhile to integrate the display unit together and limit
the number of components required.
In addition, the information which the LCD could convey
was greater.
Regarding the actual BPM calculation (assuming that it
was possible to translate each R part (the blip/spike
peak) into singular events occurring in a timely fashion of
course)
23. it was originally going to be done by measuring the total
number of spikes within a certain amount of time and
then multiplying this count by a factor (as it is done
when using a clock and your hand).
With the use of the microcontroller however more
precise measurements were able to be made resulting
in an output of greater accuracy and speed.
24. POWER.
To power the circuit, the system will be divided into
two sections. The system will be powered via a 9V
battery with the required the 5V in section two
obtained via a LM7805 5V voltage regulator. The
sections are designed such that both sections can
be powered via a single 9V battery or through two
9V dedicated battery for each section.
For the amplifier stage, the op-amps require dual
polarity rails to operate. To generate a negative
voltage from a single 9V battery a virtual ground
has to be created.
25. the resistors in the op-amp forms a voltage divider
so that half the applied voltage VCC forms at the
output
However, it is important to note that a virtual ground
has only limited output current therefore the op-amp
should be used in the inverting configuration.
This is because in this it requires no ground current.
27. IMPLEMENTATION.
Amplification Stage
To test the gain of the amplification circuit, a sinusoidal signal
was attenuated to around the expected value to be amplified.
The attenuation was achieved via the function generator and
even further through a voltage divider circuit.
Display and Processing
The following two images are port names taken from the
datasheets of the microcontroller and LCD used. The table
details the corresponding pin connections between these two
elements. The order in which these were connected was
chosen to preserve the bit order of the microprocessor.
28.
29. DATA ACQUISITION.
In order to acquire the ECG signal care was required not
to overwhelm it with noise during the initial stages.
long lengths of cable required to reach the person having
their heart rate measured are quite long and are easily
susceptible to added noise.
This is minimized by using shielded core audio cable to
carry this signal.
The amount of the signal detected is maximized by using
electrodes with a larger surface area.
This is further increased by lowering the resistance of the
junction between the skin and the electrode by using a
conductive lubricant such as hand lotion or shampoo.
30. PCB IMPLEMENTATION.
Using the Eagle PCB software provided the
schematic of the amplifier and filter stages was
replicated from the original PSpice implementation.
This was then
converted into a PCB layout. A separate schematic
and layout was also created to simplify connections
to the microcontroller.
34. CONCLUSION.
This implementation of a heart monitor involves low
cost amplifier and filter components coupled with a
sophisticated microcontroller and LCD screen.
Because the device is most useful if it is portable it
was designed with use of one or two 9V batteries.