The document summarizes the internal structure of the Earth based on evidence from meteorites, seismic observations, and geophysics. It describes the Earth as having several concentric shells - an outer crust, a thick mantle layer making up most of the Earth's volume, and an inner solid iron-nickel core. The crust varies between oceanic and continental crust, while the mantle is composed primarily of peridotite and becomes increasingly dense and solid towards the core.
The document summarizes the composition and structure of the Earth's interior. It is composed of three main layers - the crust, mantle, and core. The crust is the outermost layer and exists in two types, oceanic and continental. The mantle is the thick middle layer, while the core is mostly iron and makes up a third of the Earth's mass. The layers are similar to an egg, with the crust as the shell, mantle as the egg white, and core as the yolk. The Earth also has 5 physical layers from the lithosphere to the inner core. Tectonic plates comprise the crust, which breaks into about 19 pieces that move atop the asthenosphere.
This document discusses key terms and concepts related to the structure and composition of the Earth. It describes the three main layers - crust, mantle, and core. The crust is the outer solid rock layer, beneath which is the thick mantle layer. Various rock types are formed through igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic processes. Seismic waves are generated by earthquakes and used to study the Earth's interior. The rock cycle involves the change of one rock type into another under different conditions.
This document discusses the layers of the Earth and types of rocks. It begins by describing the three main layers - crust, mantle, and core. The crust is the outermost layer and thinnest, varying from 35km on continents to 5km below oceans. The mantle extends to 2900km below and is molten. The core is solid iron-nickel and has the highest temperatures and pressures.
It then explains the three main rock types - igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic. Igneous rocks form from cooling magma, either below ground (intrusive) or above (extrusive). Sedimentary rocks form from compressed sediments. Metamorphic rocks were once igneous
The document summarizes the structure and composition of the Earth's interior. It describes the Earth as having four main layers from outermost to innermost - the crust, mantle, outer core, and inner core. The crust is the top solid rocky layer that makes up the continents and ocean floors. Below is the mantle, which constitutes 84% of the Earth's volume and is predominantly solid but behaves like a viscous liquid. Within the mantle is the Earth's liquid outer core followed by the inner solid core made of iron and nickel.
The document discusses the interior structure of the Earth and different types of rocks. It describes the four major layers as:
1) Crust - The outermost solid rock layer, thinnest on ocean floors at 5-35 km thick.
2) Mantle - Below the crust, made mostly of silicate rock rich in magnesium and iron, extends to 2,900 km deep.
3) Outer core - A liquid layer of molten nickel and iron below the mantle.
4) Inner core - The innermost solid layer made of nickel and iron with very high temperatures and pressures.
This document provides an overview of the layers inside the Earth. It discusses the crust, mantle, and core. The crust is the outermost layer and is divided into continental and oceanic crust. The mantle lies below the crust and is divided into upper and lower mantle. The core is at the center and has a solid inner core surrounded by a liquid outer core. The document also defines different rock types, including igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic rocks. It describes how rocks change between these types through geological processes in the rock cycle.
It is a PowerPoint Presentation based on Chapter-2, NCERT S.St (geography), Class 7. It describes the interior of the earth, rocks, types of rocks, igneous rocks, metamorphic rocks, sedimentary rocks, uses of rocks, rock cycle, and minerals.
G 7 geo ch-2 inside our earth full chapter week-2Preeti Pachauri
The document provides information about rocks and the interior of the Earth. It discusses three key topics:
1) The interior of the Earth is composed of layers, including the crust, mantle, and core. The crust is the thinnest layer and is made up of two types - continental and oceanic.
2) There are three main types of rocks - igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic. Igneous rocks form from cooling magma, sedimentary rocks form from compressed sediments, and metamorphic rocks form from changes to other rock types.
3) Rocks undergo the rock cycle as they are broken down, transformed by heat and pressure, and form new types of rocks
The document summarizes the composition and structure of the Earth's interior. It is composed of three main layers - the crust, mantle, and core. The crust is the outermost layer and exists in two types, oceanic and continental. The mantle is the thick middle layer, while the core is mostly iron and makes up a third of the Earth's mass. The layers are similar to an egg, with the crust as the shell, mantle as the egg white, and core as the yolk. The Earth also has 5 physical layers from the lithosphere to the inner core. Tectonic plates comprise the crust, which breaks into about 19 pieces that move atop the asthenosphere.
This document discusses key terms and concepts related to the structure and composition of the Earth. It describes the three main layers - crust, mantle, and core. The crust is the outer solid rock layer, beneath which is the thick mantle layer. Various rock types are formed through igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic processes. Seismic waves are generated by earthquakes and used to study the Earth's interior. The rock cycle involves the change of one rock type into another under different conditions.
This document discusses the layers of the Earth and types of rocks. It begins by describing the three main layers - crust, mantle, and core. The crust is the outermost layer and thinnest, varying from 35km on continents to 5km below oceans. The mantle extends to 2900km below and is molten. The core is solid iron-nickel and has the highest temperatures and pressures.
It then explains the three main rock types - igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic. Igneous rocks form from cooling magma, either below ground (intrusive) or above (extrusive). Sedimentary rocks form from compressed sediments. Metamorphic rocks were once igneous
The document summarizes the structure and composition of the Earth's interior. It describes the Earth as having four main layers from outermost to innermost - the crust, mantle, outer core, and inner core. The crust is the top solid rocky layer that makes up the continents and ocean floors. Below is the mantle, which constitutes 84% of the Earth's volume and is predominantly solid but behaves like a viscous liquid. Within the mantle is the Earth's liquid outer core followed by the inner solid core made of iron and nickel.
The document discusses the interior structure of the Earth and different types of rocks. It describes the four major layers as:
1) Crust - The outermost solid rock layer, thinnest on ocean floors at 5-35 km thick.
2) Mantle - Below the crust, made mostly of silicate rock rich in magnesium and iron, extends to 2,900 km deep.
3) Outer core - A liquid layer of molten nickel and iron below the mantle.
4) Inner core - The innermost solid layer made of nickel and iron with very high temperatures and pressures.
This document provides an overview of the layers inside the Earth. It discusses the crust, mantle, and core. The crust is the outermost layer and is divided into continental and oceanic crust. The mantle lies below the crust and is divided into upper and lower mantle. The core is at the center and has a solid inner core surrounded by a liquid outer core. The document also defines different rock types, including igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic rocks. It describes how rocks change between these types through geological processes in the rock cycle.
It is a PowerPoint Presentation based on Chapter-2, NCERT S.St (geography), Class 7. It describes the interior of the earth, rocks, types of rocks, igneous rocks, metamorphic rocks, sedimentary rocks, uses of rocks, rock cycle, and minerals.
G 7 geo ch-2 inside our earth full chapter week-2Preeti Pachauri
The document provides information about rocks and the interior of the Earth. It discusses three key topics:
1) The interior of the Earth is composed of layers, including the crust, mantle, and core. The crust is the thinnest layer and is made up of two types - continental and oceanic.
2) There are three main types of rocks - igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic. Igneous rocks form from cooling magma, sedimentary rocks form from compressed sediments, and metamorphic rocks form from changes to other rock types.
3) Rocks undergo the rock cycle as they are broken down, transformed by heat and pressure, and form new types of rocks
The document discusses the layers inside the Earth. It describes the crust as the outer solid rock layer, the mantle as the thick layer below the crust, and the core as the innermost layer. It defines seismic waves, tectonic activities, and different types of rocks like igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic rocks. It also discusses the rock cycle and provides terms, MCQs, facts, word origins, and an activity related to minerals commonly used to make everyday objects.
The document discusses the interior structure of the Earth. It is composed of several concentric layers, with the crust being the outermost layer. Below the crust is the mantle, which extends to a depth of 2,900 km. The innermost layer is the core, with a radius of around 3,500 km. The Earth's crust is made up of various rock types, including igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic rocks. Rocks undergo changes in a cyclic process called the rock cycle, where they can transform from one type to another over time through processes like cooling of magma, weathering and erosion, deposition, and changes in pressure and temperature.
The document describes the layers that make up the Earth's interior. It states that the Earth has concentric layers, with the crust being the outermost layer. Below the crust is the mantle, which extends almost 3000 km deep. The innermost layer is the core, which is mostly made of iron and nickel. It also describes the different types of rocks found in the crust - igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic rocks - and explains how the rock cycle transforms rocks between these types through heating, cooling, and erosion over time.
Internal Structure of The Earth
Physical Layering
Determining the Earth's Internal Structure
C. The Earth's Internal Layered Structure and Composition
D. VELOCITY AND DENSITY VARIATION WITHIN THE EARTH
The immense amount of heat energy released from gravitational energy and from the decay of radioactive elements melted the entire planet, and it is still cooling off today. Denser materials like iron (Fe) sank into the core of the Earth, while lighter silicates (Si), other oxygen (O) compounds, and water rose near the surface.
The earth is divided into four main layers: the inner core, outer core, mantle, and crust. The core is composed mostly of iron (Fe) and is so hot that the outer core is molten, with about 10% sulphur (S). The inner core is under such extreme pressure that it remains solid. Most of the Earth's mass is in the mantle, which is composed of iron (Fe), magnesium (Mg), aluminum (Al), silicon (Si), and oxygen (O) silicate compounds. At over 1000 degrees C, the mantle is solid but can deform slowly in a plastic manner. The crust is much thinner than any of the other layers, and is composed of the least dense potassium (K), calcium (Ca) and sodium (Na) aluminum-silicate minerals. Being relatively cold, the crust is rocky and brittle, so it can fracture in earthquakes.
The Earth is made up of concentric layers, with the crust being the outermost layer. Below the crust lies the mantle, which extends almost 3000 km deep. The innermost layer is the core, with a radius of 3500 km. The crust varies in thickness depending on whether it is over continental masses or ocean floors. Continental crust consists of silica and alumina, called sial, while oceanic crust contains silica and magnesium, called sima. The Earth's crust contains various types of rocks that form through igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic processes and undergo continuous changes through the rock cycle.
The document describes the different layers that make up the Earth, including the crust, mantle, outer core, and inner core. It provides details on the composition and characteristics of each layer, such as the crust being the outermost solid layer and the inner core being made of solid iron and nickel. It also discusses the lithosphere, which includes the crust and upper mantle, and the types of rocks that make up the different layers, such as basalt in the crust and iron and nickel in the outer core.
Geologists use two main types of evidence to study Earth's interior: direct evidence from rock samples and indirect evidence from seismic waves. Rock samples provide clues about conditions deep inside Earth, but can only be obtained from certain depths. Seismic waves from earthquakes reveal more about Earth's deep structure by studying how their speeds and paths change as they pass through different layers of the crust, mantle, and core. The layers vary in size, composition, temperature, and pressure, resembling a cracked hardboiled egg.
The document provides information about Earth's four main systems - the atmosphere, hydrosphere, biosphere, and geosphere. It then focuses on explaining the different types of rocks: igneous rocks form from cooled lava or magma, either underground (intrusive) or above ground (extrusive); sedimentary rocks form through the deposition and cementation of sediments; and metamorphic rocks form from existing rocks undergoing changes due to heat and pressure in Earth's crust. Weathering, erosion, deposition, compaction, and cementation are identified as processes that can transform one rock type into another in the rock cycle.
The document discusses the layers that make up the interior of the Earth. It is divided into four main layers from outermost to innermost: the crust, mantle, outer core, and inner core. The crust is the topmost layer and thinnest, varying between 5-35km thick. Below is the mantle, which extends to a depth of 2,900km and makes up 84% of the Earth's volume. At the center is the core, mainly composed of nickel and iron, with the inner core having extremely high temperatures and pressures. The layers differ in their mineral composition and thickness, with the Earth as a whole made up of constantly changing rocks and minerals in its interior.
The lithosphere is Earth's outer layer consisting of soil and rock. It ranges from 64-96 km thick and is broken into tectonic plates. The lithosphere includes two types - oceanic lithosphere associated with oceanic crust in ocean basins, and continental lithosphere associated with continental crust. Beneath the lithosphere lies the mantle, which is divided into the asthenosphere and mesosphere, and below that is the core consisting of an inner solid section and outer molten section.
The document describes the structure of the Earth in three layers - crust, mantle, and core. The crust consists of two rock layers and divides at the Mohorovicic discontinuity into the mantle below. The mantle surrounds the core and divides at the Gutenberg discontinuity. The core is divided into a solid inner core and liquid outer core. It also defines minerals, rocks, metals and fossil fuels as natural resources and describes their formation processes.
The document describes the layers that make up the Earth's interior. It discusses the core, mantle, crust, and lithosphere. The core is divided into a solid inner core and liquid outer core. The mantle is below the core and comprises most of the Earth's volume. It is divided into upper and lower mantle. The crust sits atop the mantle and exists in oceanic and continental forms. The lithosphere includes the crust and upper mantle. The document also provides background on the formation of the Earth and different types of rocks.
The exact knowledge about the interior on the earth still remains an enigma.
Knowledge of the structure, composition, and the process going on within it would currently help scientists answer questions regarding crustal motion, earth quakes, the volcanic eruptions and the origins of the continents and of the earth itself. As the earth gradually solidified, heavier elements slowly sank towards the centre and lighter elements slowly moved upwards to the surface concentrating in the earth’s crust.
Earth’s interior is arranged roughly in concentric layers, each one distinct either in chemical composition or temperature with heat radiating outward from the centre by conduction and then by physical convection in the more plastic levels nearer the surface.
This document provides information about the structure and composition of the Earth. It describes the four main spheres (biosphere, atmosphere, hydrosphere, geosphere). It details the layers of the Earth's interior including the crust, mantle, and core. It explains how the lithosphere is composed of tectonic plates that move and interact at plate boundaries. It also discusses the three main types of rocks: igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary rocks and how they are formed by volcanic, pressure-related, and sediment-based processes respectively.
what are the layers of the Earth?
what are at least 3 characteristics of each Earth layer?
Even though scientists cannot travel into the various layers of the earth how do they infer what the structure of the Earth is? Provide 3 examples or more
The document discusses the structure and composition of the Earth. It is divided into three main layers:
1. The crust is the outermost solid layer and varies in thickness between continental and oceanic crust.
2. Below the crust lies the mantle, which makes up over 80% of the Earth's volume and is semi-solid.
3. The innermost layer is the core, divided into a solid inner core and liquid outer core composed of iron and nickel. Seismic waves and volcanic materials provide evidence about the Earth's inaccessible interior.
The document discusses the composition and layers of the Earth. It is made up of a crust, mantle, and core. The crust is the thinnest layer and is made up of sial and sima. The mantle lies beneath and forms 84% of the Earth's volume. The innermost layer is the core, composed mainly of nickel and iron. Rocks form the crust and are classified as igneous, sedimentary, or metamorphic depending on how they are formed from molten rock or compressed sediments. Fossils can also be found in sedimentary rocks.
1. Introduction to Marine Science 1.1 Structure of the Earth 1.2 Plate tectonicsantoprabu2
Chapter 1: The Marine Environment,
Learning outcomes
Candidates should be able to:
(a) describe the structure of the Earth as core, mantle and crust
(b) outline plate tectonic theory
The document discusses latitudes and longitudes on a globe. It describes how the globe is tilted on its axis with the North and South poles. It discusses the equator line and parallels of latitude that run parallel to it. Important parallels mentioned include the Tropic of Cancer, Tropic of Capricorn, Arctic Circle, and Antarctic Circle. It also discusses longitude lines and the Prime Meridian that passes through Greenwich, England. Time zones are based on longitude, with places east of the Prime Meridian being ahead in time and places west being behind.
Geologists have learned about Earth's interior through examining rock samples and studying seismic waves. Temperature and pressure both increase with depth inside Earth. The crust and mantle are divided into layers with different physical properties. Convection currents in the mantle are driven by heat from the core and cause the tectonic plates to slowly move over time. The theory of plate tectonics explains how new crust forms at mid-ocean ridges and old crust is recycled into the mantle at subduction zones, causing the plates to drift apart or collide together over hundreds of millions of years.
The document discusses the layers inside the Earth. It describes the crust as the outer solid rock layer, the mantle as the thick layer below the crust, and the core as the innermost layer. It defines seismic waves, tectonic activities, and different types of rocks like igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic rocks. It also discusses the rock cycle and provides terms, MCQs, facts, word origins, and an activity related to minerals commonly used to make everyday objects.
The document discusses the interior structure of the Earth. It is composed of several concentric layers, with the crust being the outermost layer. Below the crust is the mantle, which extends to a depth of 2,900 km. The innermost layer is the core, with a radius of around 3,500 km. The Earth's crust is made up of various rock types, including igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic rocks. Rocks undergo changes in a cyclic process called the rock cycle, where they can transform from one type to another over time through processes like cooling of magma, weathering and erosion, deposition, and changes in pressure and temperature.
The document describes the layers that make up the Earth's interior. It states that the Earth has concentric layers, with the crust being the outermost layer. Below the crust is the mantle, which extends almost 3000 km deep. The innermost layer is the core, which is mostly made of iron and nickel. It also describes the different types of rocks found in the crust - igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic rocks - and explains how the rock cycle transforms rocks between these types through heating, cooling, and erosion over time.
Internal Structure of The Earth
Physical Layering
Determining the Earth's Internal Structure
C. The Earth's Internal Layered Structure and Composition
D. VELOCITY AND DENSITY VARIATION WITHIN THE EARTH
The immense amount of heat energy released from gravitational energy and from the decay of radioactive elements melted the entire planet, and it is still cooling off today. Denser materials like iron (Fe) sank into the core of the Earth, while lighter silicates (Si), other oxygen (O) compounds, and water rose near the surface.
The earth is divided into four main layers: the inner core, outer core, mantle, and crust. The core is composed mostly of iron (Fe) and is so hot that the outer core is molten, with about 10% sulphur (S). The inner core is under such extreme pressure that it remains solid. Most of the Earth's mass is in the mantle, which is composed of iron (Fe), magnesium (Mg), aluminum (Al), silicon (Si), and oxygen (O) silicate compounds. At over 1000 degrees C, the mantle is solid but can deform slowly in a plastic manner. The crust is much thinner than any of the other layers, and is composed of the least dense potassium (K), calcium (Ca) and sodium (Na) aluminum-silicate minerals. Being relatively cold, the crust is rocky and brittle, so it can fracture in earthquakes.
The Earth is made up of concentric layers, with the crust being the outermost layer. Below the crust lies the mantle, which extends almost 3000 km deep. The innermost layer is the core, with a radius of 3500 km. The crust varies in thickness depending on whether it is over continental masses or ocean floors. Continental crust consists of silica and alumina, called sial, while oceanic crust contains silica and magnesium, called sima. The Earth's crust contains various types of rocks that form through igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic processes and undergo continuous changes through the rock cycle.
The document describes the different layers that make up the Earth, including the crust, mantle, outer core, and inner core. It provides details on the composition and characteristics of each layer, such as the crust being the outermost solid layer and the inner core being made of solid iron and nickel. It also discusses the lithosphere, which includes the crust and upper mantle, and the types of rocks that make up the different layers, such as basalt in the crust and iron and nickel in the outer core.
Geologists use two main types of evidence to study Earth's interior: direct evidence from rock samples and indirect evidence from seismic waves. Rock samples provide clues about conditions deep inside Earth, but can only be obtained from certain depths. Seismic waves from earthquakes reveal more about Earth's deep structure by studying how their speeds and paths change as they pass through different layers of the crust, mantle, and core. The layers vary in size, composition, temperature, and pressure, resembling a cracked hardboiled egg.
The document provides information about Earth's four main systems - the atmosphere, hydrosphere, biosphere, and geosphere. It then focuses on explaining the different types of rocks: igneous rocks form from cooled lava or magma, either underground (intrusive) or above ground (extrusive); sedimentary rocks form through the deposition and cementation of sediments; and metamorphic rocks form from existing rocks undergoing changes due to heat and pressure in Earth's crust. Weathering, erosion, deposition, compaction, and cementation are identified as processes that can transform one rock type into another in the rock cycle.
The document discusses the layers that make up the interior of the Earth. It is divided into four main layers from outermost to innermost: the crust, mantle, outer core, and inner core. The crust is the topmost layer and thinnest, varying between 5-35km thick. Below is the mantle, which extends to a depth of 2,900km and makes up 84% of the Earth's volume. At the center is the core, mainly composed of nickel and iron, with the inner core having extremely high temperatures and pressures. The layers differ in their mineral composition and thickness, with the Earth as a whole made up of constantly changing rocks and minerals in its interior.
The lithosphere is Earth's outer layer consisting of soil and rock. It ranges from 64-96 km thick and is broken into tectonic plates. The lithosphere includes two types - oceanic lithosphere associated with oceanic crust in ocean basins, and continental lithosphere associated with continental crust. Beneath the lithosphere lies the mantle, which is divided into the asthenosphere and mesosphere, and below that is the core consisting of an inner solid section and outer molten section.
The document describes the structure of the Earth in three layers - crust, mantle, and core. The crust consists of two rock layers and divides at the Mohorovicic discontinuity into the mantle below. The mantle surrounds the core and divides at the Gutenberg discontinuity. The core is divided into a solid inner core and liquid outer core. It also defines minerals, rocks, metals and fossil fuels as natural resources and describes their formation processes.
The document describes the layers that make up the Earth's interior. It discusses the core, mantle, crust, and lithosphere. The core is divided into a solid inner core and liquid outer core. The mantle is below the core and comprises most of the Earth's volume. It is divided into upper and lower mantle. The crust sits atop the mantle and exists in oceanic and continental forms. The lithosphere includes the crust and upper mantle. The document also provides background on the formation of the Earth and different types of rocks.
The exact knowledge about the interior on the earth still remains an enigma.
Knowledge of the structure, composition, and the process going on within it would currently help scientists answer questions regarding crustal motion, earth quakes, the volcanic eruptions and the origins of the continents and of the earth itself. As the earth gradually solidified, heavier elements slowly sank towards the centre and lighter elements slowly moved upwards to the surface concentrating in the earth’s crust.
Earth’s interior is arranged roughly in concentric layers, each one distinct either in chemical composition or temperature with heat radiating outward from the centre by conduction and then by physical convection in the more plastic levels nearer the surface.
This document provides information about the structure and composition of the Earth. It describes the four main spheres (biosphere, atmosphere, hydrosphere, geosphere). It details the layers of the Earth's interior including the crust, mantle, and core. It explains how the lithosphere is composed of tectonic plates that move and interact at plate boundaries. It also discusses the three main types of rocks: igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary rocks and how they are formed by volcanic, pressure-related, and sediment-based processes respectively.
what are the layers of the Earth?
what are at least 3 characteristics of each Earth layer?
Even though scientists cannot travel into the various layers of the earth how do they infer what the structure of the Earth is? Provide 3 examples or more
The document discusses the structure and composition of the Earth. It is divided into three main layers:
1. The crust is the outermost solid layer and varies in thickness between continental and oceanic crust.
2. Below the crust lies the mantle, which makes up over 80% of the Earth's volume and is semi-solid.
3. The innermost layer is the core, divided into a solid inner core and liquid outer core composed of iron and nickel. Seismic waves and volcanic materials provide evidence about the Earth's inaccessible interior.
The document discusses the composition and layers of the Earth. It is made up of a crust, mantle, and core. The crust is the thinnest layer and is made up of sial and sima. The mantle lies beneath and forms 84% of the Earth's volume. The innermost layer is the core, composed mainly of nickel and iron. Rocks form the crust and are classified as igneous, sedimentary, or metamorphic depending on how they are formed from molten rock or compressed sediments. Fossils can also be found in sedimentary rocks.
1. Introduction to Marine Science 1.1 Structure of the Earth 1.2 Plate tectonicsantoprabu2
Chapter 1: The Marine Environment,
Learning outcomes
Candidates should be able to:
(a) describe the structure of the Earth as core, mantle and crust
(b) outline plate tectonic theory
The document discusses latitudes and longitudes on a globe. It describes how the globe is tilted on its axis with the North and South poles. It discusses the equator line and parallels of latitude that run parallel to it. Important parallels mentioned include the Tropic of Cancer, Tropic of Capricorn, Arctic Circle, and Antarctic Circle. It also discusses longitude lines and the Prime Meridian that passes through Greenwich, England. Time zones are based on longitude, with places east of the Prime Meridian being ahead in time and places west being behind.
Geologists have learned about Earth's interior through examining rock samples and studying seismic waves. Temperature and pressure both increase with depth inside Earth. The crust and mantle are divided into layers with different physical properties. Convection currents in the mantle are driven by heat from the core and cause the tectonic plates to slowly move over time. The theory of plate tectonics explains how new crust forms at mid-ocean ridges and old crust is recycled into the mantle at subduction zones, causing the plates to drift apart or collide together over hundreds of millions of years.
This document discusses climate, vegetation, and wildlife in India. It describes the different seasons in India - winter, summer, rainy, and autumn - and explains how factors like location and altitude affect a region's climate. It also outlines the major types of natural vegetation found in India, including tropical evergreen forests, tropical deciduous forests, thorny bushes, mountain vegetation, and mangrove forests. Finally, it notes that tigers are India's national animal and peacocks are the national bird, and discusses government conservation efforts like Project Tiger and Project Elephant.
The Earth is composed of four main layers from outermost to innermost: the crust, mantle, outer core, and inner core. The crust is the thinnest layer and is made up of either lighter continental crust or denser oceanic crust. Below the crust lies the thick mantle, which makes up most of the Earth's mass. At the center are the core layers - the liquid outer core surrounding a solid inner core made mostly of iron. Scientists study seismic waves from earthquakes to learn about the composition and structure of the deeper interior layers not directly observable.
There are three basic types of meteorites: stony, iron, and stony-iron. Stony meteorites are the most common type, making up 90% of meteorite falls. The value of a meteorite depends on its chemical composition and abundance - rare meteorites from Mars or the Moon can be worth $2,500-$3,000 per gram. Meteorite hunters search known strewn fields using metal detectors and magnets to locate scattered fragments, sometimes following eyewitness accounts of meteorite falls.
The document discusses the major domains of Earth - the lithosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere, and biosphere. It provides details about each domain:
1) The lithosphere is the solid portion of Earth and includes rocks and soil. It is divided into continents and ocean basins.
2) The hydrosphere includes all water on Earth in its solid, liquid, and gas forms, covering over 70% of the planet. The four major oceans are identified.
3) The atmosphere surrounds Earth and is composed mainly of nitrogen and oxygen. It is divided into layers by temperature and composition.
4) The biosphere is the narrow zone where life exists, encompassing interactions between the lithosphere
This document discusses climate and wildlife in India. It begins by defining climate and explaining how climate shapes lives in India as an agricultural country. It then discusses several factors that determine India's climate, including latitude, altitude, proximity to mountains and seas. It notes that while India generally has a tropical monsoon climate, there is regional diversity. The document also describes vegetation types across India and the abundant wildlife found in Indian forests, which is protected in sanctuaries and national parks.
Planets Of Learning- Gilly Salmon PresentationGilly Salmon
This document outlines Professor Gilly Salmon's presentation on possible future scenarios for learning called "The Planets of Future Learning". It describes four potential scenarios - Contentia, Instantia, Nomadia, and Caffelattia. Each scenario focuses on a different aspect of how learning may evolve, driven by technologies like MOOCs, mobile learning, social media, analytics and more. The presentation then dives deeper into each planet, providing examples and implications to consider for learning in the future.
There are three main types of meteorites: iron, stone, and stony-iron. A meteorite is a meteor that survives entry into the Earth's atmosphere and lands on the ground. Before entering the atmosphere, it is called a meteoroid, and as it burns up in the atmosphere it is a meteor. The largest meteorite found in America is the Willamette stone, discovered in Oregon. Certain museums, such as the Rice Museum in Hillsboro, have meteorite displays.
The Earth is divided into three main layers - the crust, mantle, and core - based on their composition.
The crust is the outermost layer and exists as either oceanic or continental crust. Below the crust lies the mantle, which is thick and composed of heavier minerals. The core is at the center and consists of a solid inner core surrounded by a liquid outer core.
Here are the key differences between moist and dry deciduous forests:
- Moist deciduous forests receive higher rainfall between 100-200 cm, while dry deciduous forests receive lower rainfall between 75-100 cm.
- Moist deciduous forests are found in rainier areas like the Northeastern states, along the Himalayan foothills, Jharkhand, West Orissa, Chhattisgarh and the eastern slopes of the Western Ghats.
- Dry deciduous forests are found in less rainy parts of the peninsular plateau, plains of Bihar and Uttar Pradesh, and have more open stretches between trees.
The document contains a series of 36 emails sent on November 17, 2016 to the same email address, sonawane11jan@rediffmail.com. The emails do not contain any other text besides the date and recipient. In the 20th email, the text "Mahogany Tree" appears without any other context.
The document summarizes the internal structure and composition of the Earth. It describes how seismic waves provide evidence about the Earth's layers, including a solid crust and mantle, liquid outer core, and solid inner core. The mantle convection of tectonic plates helps explain observations of seafloor spreading, mountain and trench formation, and patterns of earthquakes at plate boundaries.
Origin and interiors of the earth LECTURE OF CIVIL ENGINEERING DRAWINGSafiullah Khan
This document provides an overview of engineering geology and the interior structure of Earth. It discusses:
- Engineering geology as the application of geology to civil engineering projects.
- The interior structure of Earth, including the crust, mantle (with upper, lower, and outer layers), liquid outer core, and solid inner core.
- Theories for the origin of Earth, including the nebular hypothesis of Kant and Laplace where Earth formed from a contracting gas cloud/nebula around the sun.
This document summarizes the internal structure of Earth based on seismic wave studies. It describes the crust, mantle, outer core, and inner core. The crust is thinner under oceans than continents and consists of less dense granite and more dense basalt. There is a sharp boundary between the crust and mantle. The mantle is divided into upper and lower sections. The outer core is liquid while the inner core is solid. Plate tectonics involves rigid lithospheric plates floating on the mantle that move and interact at boundaries.
Seismic waves from earthquakes and explosions allow scientists to map the interior of Earth. Layers are identified by how fast p-waves and s-waves travel through materials with different densities and states. The crust is thin and varies in thickness and composition between continents and oceans. The mantle below is hot and convects slowly. The outer core is liquid and the inner core is solid, and their rotation generates Earth's magnetic field.
Seismic waves from earthquakes and explosions allow scientists to map the interior of Earth. Waves travel at different speeds through materials of different densities and temperatures, and are reflected, refracted, or attenuated at boundaries. This has revealed that Earth has a solid crust and mantle, as well as a liquid outer core and solid inner core. The mantle convects slowly, driving plate tectonics at the surface over millions of years.
Seismic waves from earthquakes and explosions allow scientists to map the interior of Earth. Layers are identified by how fast p-waves and s-waves travel through materials with different densities and states. The crust is thin and varies in thickness, with oceanic crust thinner than continental crust. Below the crust lies the mantle, which is hot and convects slowly. The outer core is liquid and the inner core is solid, and their rotation generates Earth's magnetic field.
The document discusses the thickness and structure of the continental lithosphere. It states that the continental lithosphere is about 150km thick, comprised of crust and upper mantle. Continental shields can have roots, called "keels", that extend hundreds of kilometers into the mantle. The thickest parts of the continents are mountain ranges, due to compression forces during mountain building events.
Earth's internal heat comes from three main sources:
1) The accretion of dust and gas particles during the Earth's formation released gravitational potential energy and caused internal heating.
2) Radioactive decay of elements in the Earth's core and mantle, such as uranium and potassium, continues to generate heat.
3) Frictional heating from convection currents in the mantle also contributes to the Earth's internal heat. Seismic waves have allowed scientists to indirectly learn about the Earth's layered structure despite only drilling about 7 miles deep.
Review#6 earthquakes & other crustal activityLexume1
The document discusses the structure and composition of the Earth's crust, including continental and oceanic crust. It also covers crustal dynamics like faulting, folding, and earthquakes. Additionally, it summarizes plate tectonics theory, including evidence from matching rock formations and fossils on separated continents, and mechanisms of plate movement like seafloor spreading and subduction zones. Finally, it notes how plate tectonics explains phenomena like earthquakes, volcanoes, and mountain building.
Page 22 2.1 IntroductIonStudying the Earth’s interior .docxalfred4lewis58146
Page | 22
2.1 IntroductIon
Studying the Earth’s interior poses a significant challenge due to the lack of
direct access. Many processes observed at the Earth’s surface are driven by the
heat generated within the Earth, however, making an understanding of the interior
essential. Volcanism, earthquakes, and many of the Earth’s surface features are a
result of processes happening within the Earth.
Much of what we know regarding the Earth’s interior is through indirect means,
such as using seismic data to determine Earth’s internal structure. Scientists dis-
covered in the early 1900’s that seismic waves generated by earthquakes could
be used to help distinguish the properties of the Earth’s internal layers. The veloc-
ity of these waves (called primary and secondary waves, or P and S waves) changes
based on the density of the materials they travel through. As a result, seismic waves
do not travel through the Earth in straight lines, but rather get reflected and re-
fracted, which indicates that the Earth is not homogeneous throughout.
The Earth’s interior consists of an inner and outer core, the mantle, and the
crust. Located in the center of the Earth is the inner core, which is very dense
and under incredible pressure, and is thought to be composed of an iron and nick-
el alloy. It is solid, and surrounded by a region of liquid iron and nickel called the
outer core. The outer core is thought to be responsible for the generation of the
Earth’s magnetic field. A very large portion of the Earth’s volume is in the man-
tle, which surrounds the core. This layer is less dense than the core, and consists
of a solid that can behave in a plastic (deformable) manner. The thin outer layer
of the Earth is the crust. The two types, continental and oceanic crust, vary from
each other in thickness, composition, and density.
2.1.1 Learning outcomes
After completing this chapter, you should be able to:
• Determine the different layers of the Earth and the distinguishing
properties of each layer
2earth’s InteriorRanda Harris and Bradley Deline
Page | 23
Introductory GeoloGy earth’s InterIor
• Understand how seismic waves behave within the different layers of the
Earth
• Understand how seismic tomography has been used to gain a better
understanding of the Earth’s interior
• Understand the Earth’s magnetic field and how it changes over time
• Learn how to use the program Google Earth for geological applications
2.1.2 Key terms
2.2 InterIor oF the eArth
The study of seismic waves and how they travel through the Earth has been
very useful in helping to determine the changes in density and composition within
the Earth and in locating the boundaries be-
tween the inner core, outer core, mantle, and
crust. Seismic waves are energy waves
generated during earthquakes; two types
known as P and S waves propagate through
the Earth as wave fronts from their place of
origin. P-waves are compressional waves
that move back and f.
Geology is the study of the solid Earth, including the rocks and processes that change them. The Earth has layered structure based on both chemical composition and physical properties. The layers from outer to inner are: crust, mantle, outer core, and inner core. The crust and upper mantle make up rigid tectonic plates that move and interact at plate boundaries, resulting in phenomena like earthquakes, volcanoes, and mountain building.
This document provides information about Earth's interior structure and composition. It is divided into three main layers: a thin crust, a thick mantle comprising most of Earth's volume, and an inner core. Each layer has distinct properties revealed through seismic wave analysis and drilling. The crust and upper mantle form the rigid lithosphere, underlain by a plastic asthenosphere and then a solid mesosphere before reaching the liquid outer core surrounding the inner solid core. Major seismic discontinuities at the crust-mantle boundary and core-mantle boundary were discovered in the early 20th century and provide evidence for Earth's layered internal structure.
The document provides information about the Earth's core including:
- The core is the innermost layer of the Earth and is separated into a liquid outer core and solid inner core.
- The outer core is approximately 2,900 km below the Earth's surface, 2,250 km thick, and made of iron and nickel that is molten due to temperatures over 4,000°C.
- The solid inner core has a radius of 1,300 km and temperatures above 5,000°C that cause iron and nickel to remain solid due to extreme pressure.
- Convection currents in the outer core generated by Earth's rotation produce the planet's magnetic field, which protects the Earth from harmful
Is ground solid enough to stand on. Authors: Virginia Evans, Ksenia Baranova/...slg1703
The document discusses the composition and structure of Earth's spheres - the lithosphere, atmosphere, hydrosphere, and biosphere. It describes the lithosphere as the solid outer part consisting of the crust and upper mantle. It then discusses the composition of the atmosphere and its layers, as well as the composition and role of the hydrosphere in maintaining life and climate on Earth. It concludes by noting the importance of international cooperation to address pollution threatening the hydrosphere.
This document summarizes igneous petrology and the structure and composition of the Earth's interior. It discusses how the Earth is composed of layers including the crust, mantle, outer core, and inner core. The crust is divided into oceanic and continental crust. The mantle makes up most of the Earth's volume and is composed of ultramafic rock. Heat transfer mechanisms like conduction, convection, and advection are described. The geothermal gradient and how temperature increases with depth is also summarized. Plate tectonics and mantle convection are driving the dynamic cooling of the Earth.
This document provides an overview of engineering geology and seismology. It discusses the following key points:
- Engineering geology applies geological principles to civil engineering projects to ensure proper site selection, planning, construction, and maintenance.
- The Earth's interior consists of layers including the crust, mantle, outer core, and inner core. The mantle and outer core are hot and molten while the crust and inner core are solid.
- Geology helps civil engineering by providing construction materials, stable foundations, and identifying geological hazards to mitigate problems. Understanding the Earth's structure is important for engineering projects.
The Earth is composed of four main layers - crust, mantle, outer core, and inner core. Seismic waves generated by earthquakes and explosions travel through the Earth and reveal information about its internal structure and composition. The speed and behavior of both P-waves and S-waves changes when passing between layers with different densities and physical properties, allowing scientists to determine details about each layer such as their composition, thickness, temperature, and density, which all generally increase with depth into the Earth.
This document summarizes a chapter about planetary geology. It discusses:
- The interiors of terrestrial planets and how seismic waves reveal Earth's layered structure.
- Geological processes that shape planetary surfaces, like impact cratering, volcanism, tectonics, and erosion.
- How the amount of impact craters on a surface indicates its geological age.
- Evidence that water once flowed on Mars from features like dry riverbeds and rocks formed in water.
- Unique features of specific planets, like Venus' resurfaced crust and lack of plate tectonics on Venus.
- How plate tectonics shapes Earth's surface through seafloor spreading, subduction, and mountain formation
This document summarizes a chapter about planetary geology. It discusses:
- The interiors of terrestrial planets and how seismic waves reveal Earth's layered structure.
- Geological processes that shape planetary surfaces, like impact cratering, volcanism, tectonics, and erosion.
- How the amount of impact craters on a surface reveals its geological age.
- The unique geology of specific planets, including the Moon's maria, Mercury's shrinkage, and evidence that water flowed on ancient Mars.
- How plate tectonics continually shapes Earth's surface through seafloor spreading, subduction, and mountain building.
Gulliver's Travels is a 1726 satirical novel by Jonathan Swift that parodies travel narratives. It recounts the adventures of Lemuel Gulliver, a ship's surgeon, who experiences bizarre voyages to surreal lands, including Lilliput, where he towers over its tiny inhabitants, and Brobdingnag, where he is dwarfed by the giant residents. The book became an instant bestseller and has remained continuously in print ever since.
This document provides an overview of computer hardware and software components. It describes the central processing unit (CPU) as the "brains" of the computer that carries out functions. Random access memory (RAM) is described as temporary storage for data and programs to run faster. The power supply provides power to all motherboard components to allow them to run. The motherboard holds components and allows communication. A graphics card outputs visuals to the monitor. A heat sink cools the processor. Other components described include the network card, hard drive, and optical drive. The document also introduces computer software types like system software, application software, open source software, and proprietary software.
The poet strikes up a conversation with falling rain, asking "Who art thou?". Surprisingly, the rain responds by saying "I am the poem of Earth". It explains that it rises as invisible vapor from the land and sea, reaches the sky where it forms clouds, and returns to Earth as droplets to nourish the dry, seed-filled ground. The rain completes the cycle by giving life back to the earth and purifying it. The poet realizes rain is like a song - both originate from a source, travel, and ultimately return home with love.
The document summarizes the Garoghlanian tribe, an Armenian tribe from 500-800 BC. It describes their culture, which values honesty, hospitality, and large social gatherings involving food. It notes Christianity is the dominant religion, which focuses on forgiveness and tolerance. When two boys from the tribe steal a farmer's horse but return it, the farmer chooses not to tell the family in order to maintain peace in the community as insulting their honor would cause more trouble than the loss of the horse.
India faces a severe water crisis due to its large population of over 1 billion people. Only 86% have access to improved water sources, while 14% lack access to clean water. Disease spreads easily given low access to sanitation and hand washing facilities. The water crisis contributes to India's high infant mortality rate of 34.61 deaths per 1,000 live births. Conservation efforts could help address the crisis by ensuring more reliable access to water.
This document discusses various methods for conserving water, including:
1) Engineering practices like modifying plumbing fixtures and water supply operations and behavioral practices like changing water use habits.
2) Regularly detecting leaks to save money and prevent property damage.
3) Conducting water audits to identify large water users and opportunities to improve efficiency.
4) Reducing water pressure using valves to decrease water usage.
5) Recycling and reusing water for uses like landscape irrigation and industrial processes after appropriate treatment. Proper planning is needed to identify reuse opportunities and required water quality.
This document contains the name and class details of Nikhil Sharma who is in class X-D with roll number 20. The document consists of 30 blank lines with no other information provided.
A farmer's wife wanted a pet to protect their newborn child. They chose a mongoose. One day, while the parents were out, the mongoose's mouth appeared bloodstained. The wife assumed it killed the child, but found a dead snake instead - the mongoose had saved the child. However, in her haste and anger, the wife had thrown a box at the mongoose, killing it, without discovering the truth. The moral is not to act in haste without thinking.
The document discusses fractions and decimals. It includes examples of drawing shapes to represent fractions, word problems involving adding and subtracting fractions and decimals, and finding change from money transactions. It provides students with practice problems and questions about fractions, decimals, and money to help build their skills in these areas of mathematics.
This itinerary provides a 5-day trip to Singapore and Malaysia that is customized for the client. Key highlights include visits to Singapore Flyer, Discovery Centre, Snow City, Sentosa attractions, Petronas Towers and nature sites in Malaysia. Transportation and hotels are arranged near major attractions. Considerations are given to the client's interests and ensuring safety. The itinerary offers a good mix of sightseeing, adventures and relaxation in two beautiful countries.
This document provides information about travel management to Dubai and Mauritius. It includes background on the history and attractions of each destination. For Dubai, attractions described include Dubai Creek, Dubai Museum, Bastakiya neighborhood, Grand Mosque, Wafi City shopping mall, and Deira City Centre mall. For Mauritius, attractions mentioned are Pereybère beach, Cap Malheureux, Black River Gorges National Park, Martello Towers, and dolphin watching on the west coast. The document also outlines travel documents required, meal options on flights, and an example itinerary visiting both destinations over 10 days.
The itinerary includes traveling from New Delhi, India to Miami, USA on Day 1-2, with an arrival in Miami at 0900 hours, check-in at the hotel by 1000 hours, and beginning sightseeing in Florida at 1100 hours after settling in.
The document provides information about various historical monuments located across India. It discusses notable North Indian monuments such as Hawa Mahal and City Palace in Jaipur, Umaid Bhawan Palace in Jodhpur, and Lake Palace in Udaipur. It also describes the Akshardham temple in Delhi and the ancient Nalanda University in Bihar. In South India, it mentions the large Bahubali statue at Shravanbelagola and the Konark Sun Temple in Odisha. The document concludes with a brief overview of how the Archaeological Survey of India works to conserve nationally important ancient monuments and archaeological sites across the country.
The India Gate in Delhi was built to honor soldiers who died in World War 1. There is a shrine located underneath the gate. The Charminar in Hyderabad was built over 400 years ago by Muhammad Quli Qutb Shah and has four towers that are each 53 meters high. The Taj Mahal in Agra was built by the Mughal emperor Shah Jahan as a mausoleum for his wife Mumtaz Mahal and took over 20,000 laborers 22 years to complete.
1) Amul was established as a cooperative brand to provide high quality and affordable dairy products while supporting farmers and the local community.
2) Amul has expanded significantly over the years through various business strategies like developing processing plants, research centers, and training institutes. It focuses on both market and social development.
3) Key to Amul's success has been adopting network and cooperative models, continuous innovation through new products and technologies, and ensuring products reach consumers in a timely manner through coordinated distribution.
This document compares two major fast food chains, McDonald's and Subway. It finds that McDonald's outlets have more sitting capacity than Subway, with 75 persons versus 30. While McDonald's is seen as a family place, Subway is seen as more formal. Although Subway's sandwiches have fewer calories and fat than McDonald's burgers, McDonald's is often associated with weight gain while Subway promotes weight loss. McDonald's has a slightly larger menu than Subway, at 40+ items versus 50+ items. McDonald's is also more commonly chosen for celebrations compared to Subway.
Flight catering involves providing food and beverages on board airplanes. Initially, simple snacks like sandwiches and drinks were served, but hot meals began being served in the mid-1930s as air traffic increased. Flight kitchens must maintain high hygiene standards through processes like microbiological food testing. Factors like the number of flights and their durations affect food quality. Flight kitchens use just-in-time production and cook-chill systems to reduce bacterial growth risks and improve efficiency. Process improvements include reducing cycle times, minimizing excess equipment and inventory, and outsourcing specialty meals.
The document discusses different types of media and how technology has changed media over time. It explains that mass media like television, newspapers, and radio use technologies like satellites, cables, and printing presses that allow them to reach millions of people. However, these technologies are expensive to maintain. As a result, mass media earns money through advertising to cover costs. The document also discusses how local communities have started their own local media like community radio and newspapers to cover issues important to ordinary people that mass media ignores.
Housekeeping is the hotel department responsible for cleanliness. It aims to provide a clean, comfortable environment for guests. The housekeeping department takes care of all hotel rooms, which are the largest part of the hotel and biggest revenue generator. It offers laundry, cleaning, and amenities to satisfy guests and ensure they have a positive stay. Cleanliness and hygiene are vital for guest satisfaction and the hotel's reputation.
The Hyatt Corporation was founded in 1957 with the purchase of the Hyatt House hotel near Los Angeles airport. By the 1960s, Hyatt had created a six-hotel chain, and by the 1970s it operated 52 hotels with $300 million in annual sales, making it one of the top 15 hotel chains in the US. Today Hyatt has over 340 hotels worldwide under brands like Grand Hyatt, Park Hyatt, and Hyatt Regency. It plans continued international expansion, with new properties planned in countries like India, China, Poland and France.
How to Add Chatter in the odoo 17 ERP ModuleCeline George
In Odoo, the chatter is like a chat tool that helps you work together on records. You can leave notes and track things, making it easier to talk with your team and partners. Inside chatter, all communication history, activity, and changes will be displayed.
Executive Directors Chat Leveraging AI for Diversity, Equity, and InclusionTechSoup
Let’s explore the intersection of technology and equity in the final session of our DEI series. Discover how AI tools, like ChatGPT, can be used to support and enhance your nonprofit's DEI initiatives. Participants will gain insights into practical AI applications and get tips for leveraging technology to advance their DEI goals.
Introduction to AI for Nonprofits with Tapp NetworkTechSoup
Dive into the world of AI! Experts Jon Hill and Tareq Monaur will guide you through AI's role in enhancing nonprofit websites and basic marketing strategies, making it easy to understand and apply.
हिंदी वर्णमाला पीपीटी, hindi alphabet PPT presentation, hindi varnamala PPT, Hindi Varnamala pdf, हिंदी स्वर, हिंदी व्यंजन, sikhiye hindi varnmala, dr. mulla adam ali, hindi language and literature, hindi alphabet with drawing, hindi alphabet pdf, hindi varnamala for childrens, hindi language, hindi varnamala practice for kids, https://www.drmullaadamali.com
Macroeconomics- Movie Location
This will be used as part of your Personal Professional Portfolio once graded.
Objective:
Prepare a presentation or a paper using research, basic comparative analysis, data organization and application of economic information. You will make an informed assessment of an economic climate outside of the United States to accomplish an entertainment industry objective.
বাংলাদেশের অর্থনৈতিক সমীক্ষা ২০২৪ [Bangladesh Economic Review 2024 Bangla.pdf] কম্পিউটার , ট্যাব ও স্মার্ট ফোন ভার্সন সহ সম্পূর্ণ বাংলা ই-বুক বা pdf বই " সুচিপত্র ...বুকমার্ক মেনু 🔖 ও হাইপার লিংক মেনু 📝👆 যুক্ত ..
আমাদের সবার জন্য খুব খুব গুরুত্বপূর্ণ একটি বই ..বিসিএস, ব্যাংক, ইউনিভার্সিটি ভর্তি ও যে কোন প্রতিযোগিতা মূলক পরীক্ষার জন্য এর খুব ইম্পরট্যান্ট একটি বিষয় ...তাছাড়া বাংলাদেশের সাম্প্রতিক যে কোন ডাটা বা তথ্য এই বইতে পাবেন ...
তাই একজন নাগরিক হিসাবে এই তথ্য গুলো আপনার জানা প্রয়োজন ...।
বিসিএস ও ব্যাংক এর লিখিত পরীক্ষা ...+এছাড়া মাধ্যমিক ও উচ্চমাধ্যমিকের স্টুডেন্টদের জন্য অনেক কাজে আসবে ...
Assessment and Planning in Educational technology.pptxKavitha Krishnan
In an education system, it is understood that assessment is only for the students, but on the other hand, the Assessment of teachers is also an important aspect of the education system that ensures teachers are providing high-quality instruction to students. The assessment process can be used to provide feedback and support for professional development, to inform decisions about teacher retention or promotion, or to evaluate teacher effectiveness for accountability purposes.
This presentation includes basic of PCOS their pathology and treatment and also Ayurveda correlation of PCOS and Ayurvedic line of treatment mentioned in classics.
A workshop hosted by the South African Journal of Science aimed at postgraduate students and early career researchers with little or no experience in writing and publishing journal articles.
South African Journal of Science: Writing with integrity workshop (2024)
Inside our earth
1. Inside of Our Earth
Submitted by
Himanshu Parashar
VII-A
Roll no:-21
2. •Stony meteorites have a composition like that of the sun with volatile elements removed. (Ratios of
refractory elements is similar to the sun's). Earth is believed to have a bulk composition similar to that of a
stony chondrite meteorite with most of the volatile elements boiled off.
•The earth is a bunch of concentric shells, with inner shells denser than outer shells.
–The crust is rigid and comes in two flavors:
• Oceanic is about 7 km thick, is basaltic (pyroxene + plagioclase), and has a density around 3.0 g/cc
fresh, increasing as it cools. Oceanic crust is elastic-brittle all the way through.
• Continental is about 35 km thick, is granodioritic and has a density around 2.7 g/cc. (Granodiorite has
intermediate-to-sodic plagioclase + K-spar +assorted mafics [mainly amphibole]+ minor quartz)
Continental crust below 15km is plastic. Under mountains, crust can be much thicker.
• Crustal columns usually have the same total mass: they float like blocks of wood in the liquid-like
mantle. Mountain chains have low-density roots (they're like icebergs). Trenches have complex
density structure.
–The mantle is a thick section that has a peridotite (olivine + pyroxene) composition. Part of it is squishy
and flows plastically (the asthenosphere) and the outer 100 km is rather rigid and bound to the crust. The
mantle is 2900 km thick and makes up most of the earth's volume, and has density ranging from 3.3 to 5.5
at the bottom due to compression and phase changes.
–The core is made largely of iron with nickel, sulfur, and possibly other elements. The outer part is liquid,
the inner part is solid. The density is around 10 to 13 g/cc. It is 2250 km thick, but accounts for much
mass.
Internal Structure of the Earth: geology's most wildly speculative topic
v 0015 of 'Internal Structure of the Earth' by Greg Pouch at 2011-03-25 13:48:14 LastSavedBeforeThis 2011-03-25 13:48:03
C:UsersGregAdminDocumentsGeo10118InternalStructure.ppt on 'GWPOUCHDELL1720'
3. Internal Structure of the Earth
3 Conclusions Figures
4 How do we know that?
5 Seismic Observations
6 Geophysics: a Quick Introduction
7 Layers
8 Isostasy
9 Isostasy (table)
10 How did the earth get this way?
5. How do we know that?
• Geophysics
–Seismology, mainly
• By studying arrival times of seismic waves , we can determine the velocity structure of the earth. It is
consistent with a radial organization, except for the crust, which varies from place to place. The text
discusses how seismology has been used to probe the interior of the earth.
• Seismic waves come in several flavors. Among the important ones here are P (Primary,
compressional) and S (Secondary, shear) waves. Only solids can transmit S-waves. Solids and liquids
transmit P waves. We know the earth has a liquid outer core and a solid inner core because it transmits
P-waves but not S-waves; the solid inner core is from P-wave to S-wave conversions.
• The velocity of a seismic wave depends on the density and elastic properties of the medium through
which it travels. Velocities can vary sharply (easy to detect, usually at a compositional interface) or
gradually (hard to detect, often due to phase changes or a gradual changes in composition).
–Gravity: by using very sensitive measuring scales, geophysicists measure the strength of gravity, usually
for exploration or missile-lobbing. These measurements have shown that most areas have nearly the same
mass below them (roots under mountains and holes under basins).
–Magnetics Earth, for reasons that are very poorly understood, has a magnetic field. It is a dipole, kind of
parallel to the spin axis. Measurements on orientation of magnetic field frozen into volcanic rocks
indicates that the earth's magnetic field flips from time to time, which we understand even less.
–Moment of Inertia The rate at which the earth wobbles on its axis can be used to estimate its moment of
inertia. The values found indicate that the core must be very dense.
• Meteorites Analysis of meteorites and various rock samples suggests that the earth has a bulk composition
similar to carbonaceous chondrites, one of the more commonly found types of meteorites, except that most
of the light elements (carbon, hydrogen) have boiled off. Carbonaceous chondrites also have composition
similar to the sun (based on ratios of heavy elements)
• Heat flow can be measured, and indicates that the continents have rather high heat flow, trenches and ocean
floor have very low heat flow, and mid-ocean ridges have high heat flow rates that are rather spotty.
• Speculation and Extrapolation are the main tools in most discussions of earth’s interior.
7. Geophysics: a Quick Introduction
This would look similar for
gravity, in these cases.
•Geophysics is the use of physical measurements to deduce the distribution and identity of earth
features. It is a lot like radiology in medicine. Geophysics is divided into specialties, largely
along the lines of the physical phenomena used, such as seismology, grav-mag, electrical…
•In most geophysical techniques, there is a model of how the property varies, and deviations
from this are called anomalies. For example, in gravity, the earth can be treated as a rotating
ellipsoid, so the modeled gravity at a point can be calculated based on
–distance from the center of the earth and speed of rotation which both depend on latitude
–elevation above sea level moving the point away from center of mass (free air)
–a correction for the mass between the observer and sea level, treated as an infinite slab
(Bouguer correction)
–a correction to the last correction accounting for hills above and valleys below, both
reducing gravity (terrain correction)
–correction for tides and instrumental drift (usually done by measuring at a fixed location)
•In conducting a gravity survey, you would measure gravity (with a fixed mass on a very
accurate scale) recording (for the corrections) at each station the latitude, elevation, time, and
maybe local topography and any other information deemed relevant. For each station, you
calculate modeled/expected gravity (involving whatever level of detail), and observed gravity.
The difference is the anomaly. From the anomaly, you might look for structures like folds and
faults, figure out whether a mountain chain is has a root, find buried stream valleys, etc. …
•In addition to the effects from the sources of interest, there are effects due to larger features,
which we call regional variations, and smaller features and instrumental errors, which we call
noise (e.g., if I am looking for stream valleys that cut into bedrock and are covered by later
sediments, variations due to crustal thickness associated with ancient mountain-building are
the regional [and I'll correct for them] and variations due to individual boulders are noise, and
I'll ignore them)
•The figure at right illustrates the important point that the interpretations of the data are non-
unique: there are many ways to get the same data, so geologic knowledge comes into play.
8. Compositional (Density) Structure
Crustal composition is based on direct
observations, mantle is based on
seismic velocities, xenoliths, and
indirect observations, and the core is
based on seismology, indirect
observations, and moment of inertia.
•Crust
–Continental: granodiorite
– Oceanic: Basaltic
•Mantle: Peridotite
•Core: Iron-Nickel-Sulfur, some other
elements
Mechanical Layers
This is based on our observation of density structures, laboratory experiments determining mechanical
properties of certain rocks at various pressure-temperature conditions, and on estimates of the variation of
temperature with depth
•Lithosphere is solid and includes the crust and the rigid, outermost part of the mantle.
–Crust has P-wave velocities <8 km/sec BY DEFINITION (usually 5.5-7.2 km/sec)
•Continental crust is granodiorite-like and usually about 35 km thick, going up to 70-100 in collision
zones. In areas of extension, it can be thinner. The lower part of continental crust is plastic.
•Oceanic crust is basaltic and usually about 0-7 km thick. At ocean ridges it is thinner. It is less dense
than the mantle when hot (recently-extruded=young) and slightly denser when cold (old). This may be
one of the main driving forces behind plate tectonics.
The strange density situation is due to partial melting of peridotite. Generally, partial melts are more
iron-rich than the source rock: the restite is typically more magnesium-rich. The liquids are less dense
than the solids, but as they cool, they contract and the denser, more easily melted iron-rich product
becomes denser. When the overlying solid is denser, it tends to sink.
•The Moho is the boundary between fast rock and slower rock above, and is taken as crust-mantle boundary
•Mantle has P-wave velocities >8 km/sec
–Uppermost mantle has fast P-waves and S-waves
–Asthenosphere has fast P-waves and slow, attenuated S-waves, indicating partial melting or plastic state
–Lower mantle has fast P-wave and S-waves, indicating solid behavior.
–There are at least two important phase changes in the mantle, one where olivine goes to a denser spinel
structure and one where it goes to an even denser perovskite structure.
•Core
–Outer Core has lower P-wave speeds than the mantle and results in a shadow zone of P-waves and loss
of direct S-waves. No S-waves indicates definitely liquid behavior.
–Inner Core transmits both P and S waves, and is solid.
Layers
9. Isostasy
• Large areas (>100 km) are in isostatic (equal-force)
balance, because they are all floating in equilibrium on
some dense fluid (mid- to lower mantle). Small areas
(<10 km) are not in isostatic equilibrium: they are
supported by rock strength. These numbers appear to
have increased from the Archean to now.
• At some compensation depth, the weight of the
overlying rock column (downward) is balanced by the
pressure of the fluid (upward)
• The mass excess of a mountain chain is balanced by a
mass deficiency at depth
• An example: Suppose the mantle (l) has a density of
3.3, the crust (s) a density of 2.8. A crustal thickness of
35km implies a depth below Moho of 29.7km, and an
elevation above Moho of 5.3 km, or 0.8km above sea
level. (See isostasy.xls) Changing the crustal thickness
to 34km (1000m of actual erosion), the elevation
changes to 650m (150m of elevation decrease)
Similarly, adding a 1000m of sediments of density 2.8
would only raise the elevation by 150m.
• This is how you can get really thick piles of sediments
that all accumulate in shallow water, and why
continents are surprisingly flat, given the variation in
crustal thickness.
A
Td W
B
Physics of Isostasy
The block at right is subject to two forces: its weight W and
the buoyant force B on its bottom (pressure)
W=A ρsolid T g =Area*weight_density_solid*thickness
B=A ρliquid d g =Area*weight_density_liquid *depth
When they are equal (W=B), the block is in isostatic
equilibrium or
ρsolid
T=ρliquid
d or ρsolid
/ρliquid
= d/T
If there is a big density contrast, you get lots of relief for given
variation in thickness.
If there is a big difference in thickness, you get a big difference
in relief
10. Isostasy and Continental Crust
-5.00
0.00
5.00
10.00
15.00
20.00
25.00
30.00
35.00
40.00
45.00
20 25 30 35 40
Thickness in Kilometers
Lengthinkilometers
Depth
Elevation from "top of mantle"
Elevation from Sealevel
Thickness
Isostasy
• A big change in thickness results in a small change in elevation. This is a good example of a negative
feedback loop.
• The ratio of elevation change to thickness change is (T-d)/T=1-ρsolid
/ρliquid
The graph above is an Excel Chart object. Double-clicking it while in edit mode should open it in Excel, and let you see the formulas and values
and play with the values.
11. How did the earth get this way?
• It appears the earth coalesced from solid, stony meteorites (carbonaceous chondrites) in the solar nebula, at
fairly low temperatures. I favor homogeneous accretion followed by separation, but inhomogenous accretion
is certainly a possibility.
• The present structure of core-mantle-crust seems to be due to melting/partial melting event involving
– heat from coalescing the planet (mechanical energy from meteorites falling in),
– short-lived isotopes that decayed and released heat early on (The solar system formed shortly after and, at
least in part, from two super-novas. There were a lot more unstable isotopes in the first few hundred
million years than now.), and
–settling of iron into the core.
• Once the earth got plastic enough for the iron to start settling, the release of heat due to the release of
potential energy would have continued the process. The iron catastrophe may have resulted in the formation
of the crust.
• Continental crust, especially that younger than 2.5Ga, contains most of the radioactive isotopes and so has a
much a steeper geothermal gradient than the rest of the planet. True granites containing K-spar don't really
occur much in Archean terrains.
• The 2.5Ga granite forming event may be related to ex-solution of a water and potassium rich aqueous phase
from the mantle.
12. • Stony meteorites have a composition like that of the sun with volatile
elements removed. (Ratios of refractory elements is similar to the
sun's). Earth is believed to have a bulk composition similar to that of
a stony chondrite meteorite with most of the volatile elements boiled
off.
• The earth is a bunch of concentric shells, with inner shells denser than
outer shells.
• The crust is rigid and comes in two flavors:
–Oceanic is about 7 km thick, is basaltic (pyroxene + plagioclase),
and has a density around 3.0 g/cc fresh, increasing as it cools.
Oceanic crust is elastic-brittle all the way through.
–Continental is about 35 km thick, is granodioritic and has a density
around 2.7 g/cc. (Granodiorite has intermediate-to-sodic
plagioclase + K-spar +assorted mafics [mainly amphibole]+ minor
quartz) Continental crust below 15km is plastic. Under mountains,
crust can be much thicker.
Crustal columns usually have the same total mass: they float like
blocks of wood in the liquid-like mantle. Mountain chains have
low-density roots (they're like icebergs). Trenches have complex
density structure.
• The mantle is a thick section that has a peridotite (olivine + pyroxene)
composition. Part of it is squishy and oozes (the asthenosphere) and
the outer 100 km is rather rigid and bound to the crust. It is 2900 km
thick and makes up most of the earth's volume, and has density
ranging from 3.3 to 5.5 at the bottom due to compression and phase
changes.
• The core is made largely of iron with nickel, sulfur, and possibly other
elements. The outer part is liquid, the inner part is solid. The density
is around 10 to 13 g/cc. 2250 km thick, but accounts for much mass.
Internal Structure of the Earth