A systematic procedure for the use of state feedback and output feedback to control
Induction motor is studied. The impact of which is to explore the advantages of feedback control
assuming that all the state variables are measurable. Feedback control is capable of being used for
asymptotic stability of the desired operating condition, for any load torque and for any initial
condition. A suitable model enables motor faults to be simulated and the change in corresponding
parameters to be predicted without physical experimentation. This project presents a
mathematical foundation and theoretical analysis of modeling and applications of induction
machines. A three-phase induction motor is simulated with fundamental equations. The
simulations results are presented for understanding purpose.
This document provides an overview of infrared thermography and its applications for electrical systems. It discusses what infrared thermography is, how it works, common test instruments used, electrical components that can be inspected, typical faults detected, condition monitoring benefits, electrical applications, and case studies. Infrared thermography allows non-contact surface temperature measurements and visualization of thermal issues. It can be used to detect problems in transformers, distribution panels, motors, and more. Periodic inspections provide predictive maintenance benefits like reduced downtime and safety improvements.
Infrared thermography uses infrared sensors to detect abnormal temperatures that can indicate developing equipment problems. It allows for non-contact temperature measurement of moving, electrically hot, fragile, small, or remote targets. Infrared thermography creates images from the infrared light emitted by objects and converts it to a surface temperature map. It is useful for predictive maintenance across various applications including electrical equipment, mechanical systems, commercial buildings, and more.
This document provides an overview of infrared thermography and its application in electrical system fault diagnosis. It begins with an introduction to infrared thermography, describing its history, basic principles of infrared radiation, and how thermography works. The document then discusses advantages and limitations of thermography, as well as how it can be used to detect various types of electrical faults. Specific applications of thermography for conditions monitoring of electrical equipment are also covered. The document provides details on infrared cameras and challenges of thermography for electrical systems. Overall, the document presents infrared thermography as a tool for non-destructive testing of electrical systems to detect faults and failures.
Thermal imaging cameras detect infrared radiation emitted by objects and produce images based on that radiation. They allow users to visualize differences in temperature that are invisible to the naked eye. The document discusses the principles and applications of thermography, including using it for electrical inspections to detect potential problems like loose connections. It provides examples of exceptions found during inspections and a priority scale for when repairs are needed. Thermal imaging has various uses in fields like firefighting, building inspections, manufacturing, and medical and military applications. It is a non-contact, rapid way to scan objects and infrastructure.
This presentation provides an overview of infrared thermography (IRT). It discusses how IRT uses infrared cameras to detect differences in temperature across surfaces and produces thermal images. IRT is a non-contact method that allows real-time scanning and has various applications, including predictive maintenance to detect electrical issues and leaks. The presentation reviews the history, basic principles, components of IRT cameras, and limitations. Examples are given of IRT's use in industries like power plants and buildings to identify hotspots and moisture issues. In conclusion, IRT's non-intrusive and fast scanning abilities make it a valuable tool for condition monitoring and energy efficiency.
Infrared thermography detects infrared energy from objects, converts it to temperature measurements, and creates images showing temperature distribution. Thermographic cameras contain sensors that detect infrared radiation and assign colors to temperature levels, allowing surfaces to be scanned non-contactly. Thermography has applications in electronics troubleshooting, medical diagnostics, industrial inspections, and more. It provides a visual representation of thermal patterns that can reveal issues invisible to the naked eye.
Sachu Technologies provides thermography inspection services in India to identify electrical, mechanical, and other issues. They conduct thermography surveys using state-of-the-art equipment to detect problems like loose connections, overheating, insulation issues, and faults in equipment. Thermography allows issues to be identified before failures or accidents occur, extending equipment life and improving safety. Sachu Technologies also offers related services like power quality analysis, vibration monitoring, and energy audits to support preventative maintenance programs.
This document provides an overview of infrared thermography and its applications for electrical systems. It discusses what infrared thermography is, how it works, common test instruments used, electrical components that can be inspected, typical faults detected, condition monitoring benefits, electrical applications, and case studies. Infrared thermography allows non-contact surface temperature measurements and visualization of thermal issues. It can be used to detect problems in transformers, distribution panels, motors, and more. Periodic inspections provide predictive maintenance benefits like reduced downtime and safety improvements.
Infrared thermography uses infrared sensors to detect abnormal temperatures that can indicate developing equipment problems. It allows for non-contact temperature measurement of moving, electrically hot, fragile, small, or remote targets. Infrared thermography creates images from the infrared light emitted by objects and converts it to a surface temperature map. It is useful for predictive maintenance across various applications including electrical equipment, mechanical systems, commercial buildings, and more.
This document provides an overview of infrared thermography and its application in electrical system fault diagnosis. It begins with an introduction to infrared thermography, describing its history, basic principles of infrared radiation, and how thermography works. The document then discusses advantages and limitations of thermography, as well as how it can be used to detect various types of electrical faults. Specific applications of thermography for conditions monitoring of electrical equipment are also covered. The document provides details on infrared cameras and challenges of thermography for electrical systems. Overall, the document presents infrared thermography as a tool for non-destructive testing of electrical systems to detect faults and failures.
Thermal imaging cameras detect infrared radiation emitted by objects and produce images based on that radiation. They allow users to visualize differences in temperature that are invisible to the naked eye. The document discusses the principles and applications of thermography, including using it for electrical inspections to detect potential problems like loose connections. It provides examples of exceptions found during inspections and a priority scale for when repairs are needed. Thermal imaging has various uses in fields like firefighting, building inspections, manufacturing, and medical and military applications. It is a non-contact, rapid way to scan objects and infrastructure.
This presentation provides an overview of infrared thermography (IRT). It discusses how IRT uses infrared cameras to detect differences in temperature across surfaces and produces thermal images. IRT is a non-contact method that allows real-time scanning and has various applications, including predictive maintenance to detect electrical issues and leaks. The presentation reviews the history, basic principles, components of IRT cameras, and limitations. Examples are given of IRT's use in industries like power plants and buildings to identify hotspots and moisture issues. In conclusion, IRT's non-intrusive and fast scanning abilities make it a valuable tool for condition monitoring and energy efficiency.
Infrared thermography detects infrared energy from objects, converts it to temperature measurements, and creates images showing temperature distribution. Thermographic cameras contain sensors that detect infrared radiation and assign colors to temperature levels, allowing surfaces to be scanned non-contactly. Thermography has applications in electronics troubleshooting, medical diagnostics, industrial inspections, and more. It provides a visual representation of thermal patterns that can reveal issues invisible to the naked eye.
Sachu Technologies provides thermography inspection services in India to identify electrical, mechanical, and other issues. They conduct thermography surveys using state-of-the-art equipment to detect problems like loose connections, overheating, insulation issues, and faults in equipment. Thermography allows issues to be identified before failures or accidents occur, extending equipment life and improving safety. Sachu Technologies also offers related services like power quality analysis, vibration monitoring, and energy audits to support preventative maintenance programs.
Presentation on Thermal Imaging
Please subscribe to my YouTube Channel for best training lectures:
https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCRkUJFOsyZG1E1LDWzUr_hw
This document discusses thermoelectric cooling and is prepared by Mayank H. Pal for a project. It contains information on:
1. Thermoelectric cooling provides an alternative solution to compressor-based coolers by using the Seebeck effect where a voltage is generated by certain materials in a temperature gradient.
2. The basic principles are the Peltier effect where heat is absorbed or released at a junction when an electric current passes between two dissimilar conductors, and using semiconductors with high electrical and low thermal conductivity.
3. Thermoelectric coolers have advantages of small size, light weight, no fluids, precise temperature control, and can be used for heating by reversing current direction.
The project is based on electric heating and its method. This project is a college project done by students. So the project might have some mistakes. Use this project as any source is restricted. The project is uploaded only because of the benefits of the students who want to get the basic idea of the powerpoint presentation of a project.
Deicing of transmisson line by dielectrc lossesbindasbhabani
This document summarizes a seminar presentation on de-icing of transmission lines using dielectric losses. The presentation discusses how ice formation can cause failures and outages, and introduces de-icing through applying a high frequency excitation to cause dielectric heating within the ice. It describes dielectric and skin effect heating mechanisms, and proposes combining the effects with a 100kHz field to achieve uniform ice melting. The presentation covers dielectric loss principles, de-icing types, advantages of reducing costs and applicability to live lines, and disadvantages of potential interference. It concludes dielectric heating is a promising approach for de-icing transmission lines.
3 phase Transmission Line fault detector edit 1-3.pptxKrishna2017
This document presents a project on an automatic tripping mechanism for a three-phase power supply system to prevent damage from faults. The system can detect line-to-ground, line-to-line, and other faults and automatically disconnect power. It uses an Arduino Uno microcontroller along with relays, sensors and other components to sense fault types, locations and temporarily or permanently trip the supply. The system provides safety benefits and can help reduce losses by quickly detecting and isolating faults on transmission lines, substations and industrial applications.
Thermistors are a type of resistor whose resistance changes significantly with temperature. They are made of semiconducting materials like metal oxides and their resistance decreases with rising temperature (NTC thermistors) or increases with rising temperature (PTC thermistors). NTC thermistors are used in applications like temperature sensors and overcurrent protection, while PTC thermistors are used in self-regulating heaters and current-limiting devices. Thermistors have a fast response time, are compact and inexpensive but have non-linear resistance-temperature characteristics and may self-heat.
This document contains information about a power system protection course, including:
1. The syllabus covers 5 units - introduction to protection schemes, operating principles of electromagnetic and static relays, apparatus protection, circuit interruption theory, and circuit breakers.
2. Unit 2 discusses the operating principles of electromagnetic relays like overcurrent, directional, distance, differential and under frequency relays. It also introduces static relays.
3. Directional relays use both current and voltage inputs to operate only for a specific direction of power flow, while non-directional relays operate based only on current.
The document discusses a seminar presentation on Magneto Optical Current Transformers (MOCT). It begins with an introduction on the need for accurate current transformers and limitations of conventional transformers. It then covers the principles and workings of MOCT, which uses the Faraday effect to measure current through a glass prism. The document outlines the design, block diagram, applications and advantages of MOCT over conventional transformers, such as immunity to electromagnetic interference. It concludes by stating MOCT eliminates many drawbacks of conventional current transformers.
This document provides an overview of energy efficient motors. It defines an energy efficient motor as one that uses less power to produce the same output as a standard motor. It notes that energy efficient motors have higher efficiencies of 2-6% compared to standard motors due to features like more copper in the windings and reduced fan losses. The document discusses the need for and advantages of energy efficient motors, including energy and cost savings. It also notes some potential disadvantages like higher initial cost and issues with speed control. Applications mentioned include various industrial uses.
Design Development and Testing of an Overvoltage and Undervoltage Protection ...Kunal Maity
This voltage protection circuit is designed to develop a low-voltage and high-voltage tripping mechanism to protect a load from any damage. The electronic devices get easily damaged due to fluctuation in AC means supply take place frequently.
1. Power theft is a major problem in India, costing billions of rupees annually. Common methods of theft include tampering with meters, bypassing meters, and illegal taps of distribution lines.
2. Technical solutions proposed to detect power theft include electronic tamper detection meters, pre-payment meters, plastic meter enclosures, and using programmable logic controllers (PLCs) and GSM networks to automatically read meters and detect anomalies.
3. A PLC-based system would install meters with PLC modules high on power poles to transmit usage data through power lines to displays in homes, while a second meter verifies usage to detect theft. GSM networks could also enable automatic remote meter reading to
This document presents an overview of reactive power compensation. It defines reactive power compensation as managing reactive power to improve AC system performance. There are two main aspects: load compensation to increase power factor and voltage regulation, and voltage support to decrease voltage fluctuations. Several methods of reactive power compensation are discussed, including shunt compensation using capacitors and reactors, series compensation, static VAR compensators (SVCs), static compensators (STATCOMs), and synchronous condensers. SVC and STATCOM technologies are compared, with STATCOMs having advantages of smaller components, better control, and transient response.
This document discusses polyfuses, which are resettable fuses made of PPTC material. Polyfuses provide overcurrent protection and automatically reset after fault conditions. They operate by rapidly increasing resistance when temperatures rise due to excessive current, which decreases current flow. This protects circuits from damage. Polyfuses come in various forms and ratings and offer advantages over conventional fuses like longer life, compact size, and no need for replacement after tripping. They are widely used to protect electronics, appliances, power supplies and more.
Sphere gaps can be used to measure high voltages up to 2500 kV. They work by measuring the sparkover voltage between two conductive spheres. The standard diameters for the spheres are between 6.25 cm to 200 cm. Various factors like humidity, temperature, and pressure can influence the sparkover voltage. Sphere gaps are accurate to within 3% for measurements if the spacing between the spheres is less than half the sphere diameter.
this is useful for peoples interested in power quality problems and their mitigation. it provides causes, effects of voltage sag and their mitigation techniques.
Seminar on AUTOMATIC SOLAR TRACKING SYSTEMRAKSHSAH
this is the seminar presentation of automatic solar tracking system ,here i have present how it work and advantages and other things related to this.this presentation is our third year{pre finial year } presentation
so guys i hope you like this presentation
This document provides an overview of thermography and infrared temperature measurement. It discusses the basics of near, mid, and thermal infrared wavelengths and how atoms emit infrared energy as photons when electrons move between energy orbitals. Thermal images show the infrared energy emitted, transmitted, and reflected by an object. Emissivity describes a material's ability to emit thermal radiation. Thermal imaging systems use uncooled or cooled infrared detectors to capture infrared wavelengths and convert them into temperature measurements using techniques like two color thermometry. Thermography has applications in areas like condition monitoring, healthcare, security, and manufacturing.
This document discusses thermal imaging and its various applications. It begins by explaining that thermal imaging produces images based on the heat detected from objects and was originally developed for military purposes. It then provides details on:
- How thermal imaging cameras work to detect differences in temperature and produce images.
- Common applications of thermal imaging in fields like firefighting, law enforcement, medical, agriculture, and more.
- The advantages of thermal imaging like its ability to see in total darkness and penetrate obscurants like smoke.
- Specific uses of thermal imaging in border security, condition monitoring, night vision, medical screening, and evaluating solar panels.
Thermography uses infrared imaging to perform medical diagnostics. It detects differences in surface temperature on the body to identify areas of abnormality. Thermography has been used in medicine for thousands of years to detect areas of excess heat or cold associated with disease. Modern medical thermography uses non-contact digital infrared thermal imaging cameras to safely obtain temperature maps of the body surface without limitations. It has applications in detecting cancers, vascular disorders, respiratory issues and more by identifying temperature variations on the skin.
Induction motor modelling and applications reportUmesh Dadde
This document discusses induction motor modeling and applications. It begins with an introduction to electrical drives and induction motors, explaining how they are commonly used with control algorithms and power converters. It then discusses the derivation of induction motor equations and modeling approaches, including the constant voltage/frequency principle and transformation theory. The document covers steady state equations, inverter operation, and simulation results. It examines induction motor components, principles of operation, and developing dynamic equations to model and analyze induction motor behavior.
Presentation on Thermal Imaging
Please subscribe to my YouTube Channel for best training lectures:
https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCRkUJFOsyZG1E1LDWzUr_hw
This document discusses thermoelectric cooling and is prepared by Mayank H. Pal for a project. It contains information on:
1. Thermoelectric cooling provides an alternative solution to compressor-based coolers by using the Seebeck effect where a voltage is generated by certain materials in a temperature gradient.
2. The basic principles are the Peltier effect where heat is absorbed or released at a junction when an electric current passes between two dissimilar conductors, and using semiconductors with high electrical and low thermal conductivity.
3. Thermoelectric coolers have advantages of small size, light weight, no fluids, precise temperature control, and can be used for heating by reversing current direction.
The project is based on electric heating and its method. This project is a college project done by students. So the project might have some mistakes. Use this project as any source is restricted. The project is uploaded only because of the benefits of the students who want to get the basic idea of the powerpoint presentation of a project.
Deicing of transmisson line by dielectrc lossesbindasbhabani
This document summarizes a seminar presentation on de-icing of transmission lines using dielectric losses. The presentation discusses how ice formation can cause failures and outages, and introduces de-icing through applying a high frequency excitation to cause dielectric heating within the ice. It describes dielectric and skin effect heating mechanisms, and proposes combining the effects with a 100kHz field to achieve uniform ice melting. The presentation covers dielectric loss principles, de-icing types, advantages of reducing costs and applicability to live lines, and disadvantages of potential interference. It concludes dielectric heating is a promising approach for de-icing transmission lines.
3 phase Transmission Line fault detector edit 1-3.pptxKrishna2017
This document presents a project on an automatic tripping mechanism for a three-phase power supply system to prevent damage from faults. The system can detect line-to-ground, line-to-line, and other faults and automatically disconnect power. It uses an Arduino Uno microcontroller along with relays, sensors and other components to sense fault types, locations and temporarily or permanently trip the supply. The system provides safety benefits and can help reduce losses by quickly detecting and isolating faults on transmission lines, substations and industrial applications.
Thermistors are a type of resistor whose resistance changes significantly with temperature. They are made of semiconducting materials like metal oxides and their resistance decreases with rising temperature (NTC thermistors) or increases with rising temperature (PTC thermistors). NTC thermistors are used in applications like temperature sensors and overcurrent protection, while PTC thermistors are used in self-regulating heaters and current-limiting devices. Thermistors have a fast response time, are compact and inexpensive but have non-linear resistance-temperature characteristics and may self-heat.
This document contains information about a power system protection course, including:
1. The syllabus covers 5 units - introduction to protection schemes, operating principles of electromagnetic and static relays, apparatus protection, circuit interruption theory, and circuit breakers.
2. Unit 2 discusses the operating principles of electromagnetic relays like overcurrent, directional, distance, differential and under frequency relays. It also introduces static relays.
3. Directional relays use both current and voltage inputs to operate only for a specific direction of power flow, while non-directional relays operate based only on current.
The document discusses a seminar presentation on Magneto Optical Current Transformers (MOCT). It begins with an introduction on the need for accurate current transformers and limitations of conventional transformers. It then covers the principles and workings of MOCT, which uses the Faraday effect to measure current through a glass prism. The document outlines the design, block diagram, applications and advantages of MOCT over conventional transformers, such as immunity to electromagnetic interference. It concludes by stating MOCT eliminates many drawbacks of conventional current transformers.
This document provides an overview of energy efficient motors. It defines an energy efficient motor as one that uses less power to produce the same output as a standard motor. It notes that energy efficient motors have higher efficiencies of 2-6% compared to standard motors due to features like more copper in the windings and reduced fan losses. The document discusses the need for and advantages of energy efficient motors, including energy and cost savings. It also notes some potential disadvantages like higher initial cost and issues with speed control. Applications mentioned include various industrial uses.
Design Development and Testing of an Overvoltage and Undervoltage Protection ...Kunal Maity
This voltage protection circuit is designed to develop a low-voltage and high-voltage tripping mechanism to protect a load from any damage. The electronic devices get easily damaged due to fluctuation in AC means supply take place frequently.
1. Power theft is a major problem in India, costing billions of rupees annually. Common methods of theft include tampering with meters, bypassing meters, and illegal taps of distribution lines.
2. Technical solutions proposed to detect power theft include electronic tamper detection meters, pre-payment meters, plastic meter enclosures, and using programmable logic controllers (PLCs) and GSM networks to automatically read meters and detect anomalies.
3. A PLC-based system would install meters with PLC modules high on power poles to transmit usage data through power lines to displays in homes, while a second meter verifies usage to detect theft. GSM networks could also enable automatic remote meter reading to
This document presents an overview of reactive power compensation. It defines reactive power compensation as managing reactive power to improve AC system performance. There are two main aspects: load compensation to increase power factor and voltage regulation, and voltage support to decrease voltage fluctuations. Several methods of reactive power compensation are discussed, including shunt compensation using capacitors and reactors, series compensation, static VAR compensators (SVCs), static compensators (STATCOMs), and synchronous condensers. SVC and STATCOM technologies are compared, with STATCOMs having advantages of smaller components, better control, and transient response.
This document discusses polyfuses, which are resettable fuses made of PPTC material. Polyfuses provide overcurrent protection and automatically reset after fault conditions. They operate by rapidly increasing resistance when temperatures rise due to excessive current, which decreases current flow. This protects circuits from damage. Polyfuses come in various forms and ratings and offer advantages over conventional fuses like longer life, compact size, and no need for replacement after tripping. They are widely used to protect electronics, appliances, power supplies and more.
Sphere gaps can be used to measure high voltages up to 2500 kV. They work by measuring the sparkover voltage between two conductive spheres. The standard diameters for the spheres are between 6.25 cm to 200 cm. Various factors like humidity, temperature, and pressure can influence the sparkover voltage. Sphere gaps are accurate to within 3% for measurements if the spacing between the spheres is less than half the sphere diameter.
this is useful for peoples interested in power quality problems and their mitigation. it provides causes, effects of voltage sag and their mitigation techniques.
Seminar on AUTOMATIC SOLAR TRACKING SYSTEMRAKSHSAH
this is the seminar presentation of automatic solar tracking system ,here i have present how it work and advantages and other things related to this.this presentation is our third year{pre finial year } presentation
so guys i hope you like this presentation
This document provides an overview of thermography and infrared temperature measurement. It discusses the basics of near, mid, and thermal infrared wavelengths and how atoms emit infrared energy as photons when electrons move between energy orbitals. Thermal images show the infrared energy emitted, transmitted, and reflected by an object. Emissivity describes a material's ability to emit thermal radiation. Thermal imaging systems use uncooled or cooled infrared detectors to capture infrared wavelengths and convert them into temperature measurements using techniques like two color thermometry. Thermography has applications in areas like condition monitoring, healthcare, security, and manufacturing.
This document discusses thermal imaging and its various applications. It begins by explaining that thermal imaging produces images based on the heat detected from objects and was originally developed for military purposes. It then provides details on:
- How thermal imaging cameras work to detect differences in temperature and produce images.
- Common applications of thermal imaging in fields like firefighting, law enforcement, medical, agriculture, and more.
- The advantages of thermal imaging like its ability to see in total darkness and penetrate obscurants like smoke.
- Specific uses of thermal imaging in border security, condition monitoring, night vision, medical screening, and evaluating solar panels.
Thermography uses infrared imaging to perform medical diagnostics. It detects differences in surface temperature on the body to identify areas of abnormality. Thermography has been used in medicine for thousands of years to detect areas of excess heat or cold associated with disease. Modern medical thermography uses non-contact digital infrared thermal imaging cameras to safely obtain temperature maps of the body surface without limitations. It has applications in detecting cancers, vascular disorders, respiratory issues and more by identifying temperature variations on the skin.
Induction motor modelling and applications reportUmesh Dadde
This document discusses induction motor modeling and applications. It begins with an introduction to electrical drives and induction motors, explaining how they are commonly used with control algorithms and power converters. It then discusses the derivation of induction motor equations and modeling approaches, including the constant voltage/frequency principle and transformation theory. The document covers steady state equations, inverter operation, and simulation results. It examines induction motor components, principles of operation, and developing dynamic equations to model and analyze induction motor behavior.
Umesh R. D. presented a seminar on E ink at the Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering at KLE CET Chikkodi. The seminar discussed the history, working, types, applications and future of E ink. E ink was invented in 1996 at MIT and uses microcapsules of charged pigments to display text without using power. It is used in e-readers, watches, signs and other devices due to its low power consumption and ability to be read in sunlight. E ink has advantages over LCD but limitations in displaying colors and video. Future applications are expected in homes, mobile devices, and education.
Unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs), commonly known as drones, have evolved significantly over time. They were first used as early as the 19th century as balloons loaded with explosives. During World War I, they were developed as aerial torpedoes. Nowadays, UAVs are widely used for both military and civilian applications. They come in various configurations like fixed-wing, rotary-wing, and hybrid designs. Key elements of a UAV system include the airframe, propulsion system, sensors, flight computer and payload such as cameras, radars or other instruments.
Electronic ink is a new technology that allows for reusable and rewritable paper-like displays. It uses microcapsules filled with charged pigment particles that can be manipulated by electric fields to appear black or white. When applied to paper pages, it allows books to function like e-readers with updatable content. Two main approaches are E Ink's use of electrophoresis to move particles in microcapsules, and Xerox's use of rotating black and white balls in microcapsules. Electronic ink provides benefits over traditional paper like dynamic updates and a whole library in one reusable book.
Induction motor modelling and applicationsUmesh Dadde
A three-phase induction motor is one of the most popular and versatile motor in electrical
power system and industries. It can perform the best when operated using a balanced three-phase
supply of the correct frequency. In spite of their robustness they do occasionally fail and their
resulting unplanned downtime can prove very costly. Therefore, condition monitoring of
electrical machines has received considerable attention in recent years.
The document provides an overview of unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs), including their history, classification, key elements, applications, and advantages/disadvantages. It discusses the evolution of UAVs from World War I to modern systems. UAVs are classified by platform, size/endurance, and altitude. The key elements of a UAV system are the airframe, propulsion, sensors, payload, and ground control station. A case study of the Predator C Avenger UAV highlights its specifications and performance. Applications of UAVs include remote sensing, surveillance, transport, search and rescue, and armed attacks.
MT11 - Turn Science Fiction into Reality by Using SAP HANA to Make Sense of IoTDell EMC World
Data collected from the “Internet of Things” is a reality, flooding data centers at a rapid pace! But how can you take advantage of that data in real-time? Join this session to examine how Connected Business with Dell and SAP puts that data to work for you - on-premise or cloud - to build solutions that glean real-time insights from IoT
Partial discharge (peluahan parsial) adalah loncatan listrik pada bagian isolasi akibat beda potensial tinggi. Partial discharge dan korona dapat diukur dengan metode tegangan, arus, dan radiasi gelombang elektromagnetik. Korona terjadi jika kuat medan di sekitar penghantar melebihi udara disekitarnya.
Weiber designs an array of economical, non destructive, microprocessor based, automatic, portable, digital moisture meter including Grain moisture tester, Honey moisture analyzer, Leather Moisture Meter, Lentils moisture analyzer, Marble moisture meter, Paper moisture meter, Polyester moisture teste, Viscose moisture
tester, Wool moisture meter etc.For more information please log on http://cutt.us/5jFl
The document discusses various electrical safety services provided by Stonytrack including lightning protection system design, electrical single line diagrams, thermography surveys, earth pit resistance testing, insulation resistance testing, and transformer oil testing. Stonytrack aims to provide comprehensive facility protection from lightning and transient currents according to NFPA standards. Their services also include preventative maintenance programs and electrical safety training.
Thermographic testing uses infrared cameras to detect differences in surface temperatures that may indicate issues. It allows non-contact inspection of electrical equipment, buildings, industrial processes, and more. Key advantages are that it is non-destructive, fast, and can detect problems like loose connections, moisture ingress, insulation issues, and more from a distance. Operator experience is important to properly set up the infrared camera and interpret thermal images.
This is Report for Rebond hummer test it is usufull and respect report . used in work and good for student .non destractive test
and for any one like this branch
Partial discharge (PD) dan korona adalah fenomena peluahan muatan elektrik yang terjadi pada sistem isolasi akibat berbagai faktor seperti kualitas bahan dielektrik dan celah/rongga. Korona ditandai dengan cahaya violet, suara desis, dan bau ozon ketika gradien tegangan permukaan konduktor melebihi nilai kritis. PD dan korona dapat merusak sistem isolasi jika terjadi secara terus menerus.
The document discusses various renewable energy technologies including solar, wind, biofuels, geothermal, hydroelectric, and hydrogen. It outlines the advantages and disadvantages of each technology, how much they currently contribute to energy production, and barriers to their increased adoption such as high costs, land use requirements, or lack of infrastructure. Improving energy efficiency is also highlighted as having potential to significantly reduce wasted energy.
1. The document proposes storing wind energy captured by an offshore wind turbine in Lake Michigan as hydrogen through electrolysis.
2. Hydrogen can be transported and used in fuel cells to meet peak energy demand or sold, providing more utility from the wind energy than direct electricity generation.
3. Technical objectives include optimizing the system through testing components' resistance to weather conditions and developing maintenance schedules.
Thermal imaging technology in power drone inspectiAlbert2019
In the daily UAV power inspection, refinement inspection and troubleshooting, infrared thermal imaging have become an indispensable and important method.
Thermography is a non-contact technique that detects infrared radiation emitted from objects to produce images of their surface temperature distribution. An infrared camera consists of an optic system, detector, amplifier, signal processor and display. It converts infrared radiation into an electrical signal displayed as a heat image. Thermography can be active, using an energy source, or passive, detecting natural temperature differences. It has applications in condition monitoring, medical imaging, and non-destructive testing.
IRJET- Infrared Thermography and its Application in Building ConstructionIRJET Journal
This document discusses the use of infrared thermography in building construction. Infrared thermography is a non-destructive testing method that uses infrared cameras to detect temperature variations on surfaces. This allows it to identify defects in concrete like voids, cracks, or moisture. The document provides examples of how infrared thermography has been used to detect moisture penetration in structures, locate plumbing pipes, and assess the quality of fresh concrete. It also discusses how infrared cameras can monitor the curing of concrete and identify failure points in reinforced steel bars during tensile testing.
The document discusses infrared radiation and infrared thermometry. It describes how infrared thermometers work by detecting infrared radiation emitted from a target based on the target's temperature. The key components of an infrared system are the target, optics and window, detectors, and display interfaces. The advantages of infrared thermometry include non-contact measurement, speed, and ability to measure at high temperatures. Proper determination of the target's emissivity is important for accuracy. Special considerations apply for measuring metals and other materials.
Thermal & Thermography with DLC - White PaperJulian Moss
This document discusses thermal cameras and thermography cameras, including what they are, how they work, and their applications. It provides details on thermal cameras' ability to detect infrared radiation and produce images based on differences in temperatures. It also describes how thermography cameras can provide precise temperature measurements to monitor equipment and detect issues. Examples of applications discussed include industrial monitoring, security, fire prevention, and gas detection.
1. The document presents a new method for monitoring electrical components within concrete structures using infrared thermography (IRT). IRT can detect thermal anomalies or hotspots indicating potential faults.
2. Common faults include loose connections, overloading, and corrosion, which can produce overheating and efficiency losses. The proposed system uses IRT to automatically detect hotspots, process images to identify faulty components, and classify the severity of issues found.
3. The system aims to make inspections faster, less costly and require less expert experience than conventional methods. It analyzes IRT images using image processing and neural networks to classify issues and recommend maintenance actions.
PROTECTION OF ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT USING 3D THERMOGRAPHY AND IMAGE PROCESSINGEklavya Sharma
This paper revolves around a thermal imaging technology that enhance the perception and awareness towards the objects we see around us. Here, we are using this technology for the protection and defect detections of electrical power equipment. Starting from the origin of infrared we will go through the development and research on thermography. Then, it is followed by the real-time 3 dimensional thermography using Matlab and thermal imaging camera. Then the systematic procedures for the temperature measurement thereby detecting the faults in the electrical power equipment using 3D thermography. And then taking the corrective action by guiding the automation software’s according to the temperature signatures of the devices. In addition, this paper presents the outline of the previous researches related to the project.
Radiation pyrometers measure temperature without physical contact by measuring the electromagnetic radiation emitted by hot bodies. There are two main types of pyrometers - radiation pyrometers and optical pyrometers. Radiation pyrometers have an optical system including a lens, mirror, and adjustable eyepiece that collects the heat energy from a hot body and focuses it onto a detector, which converts it into an electrical signal and temperature display. They are able to measure high temperatures without contact and have fast response speeds.
This document provides information about pyrometers, including:
1. A pyrometer is a non-contact device that measures the thermal radiation of an object to determine its surface temperature.
2. Modern pyrometers became widely available in 1901 with the development of the disappearing filament pyrometer. Ratio pyrometers developed in the 1920s-1930s rely on measuring intensity at two wavelengths.
3. Pyrometers use optical systems and detectors to focus thermal radiation and relate the detected radiation to temperature. Common types include optical, radiation, digital, and infrared pyrometers.
This document provides an in-depth guide for using thermal imaging cameras for predictive maintenance inspections in industrial applications. It discusses how thermal imaging cameras work, their benefits over other temperature measurement tools, and various industrial applications where they can be used to detect electrical and mechanical issues. Examples of failures that can be found include overheated motors, connections, and bearings which indicate problems before costly breakdowns occur. The document aims to educate on properly using thermal imaging cameras to optimize maintenance programs.
This document discusses pyrometers, which are devices used to measure temperature without physical contact by measuring the electromagnetic radiation emitted by hot bodies. There are two main types of pyrometers: radiation pyrometers and optical pyrometers. Radiation pyrometers use an optical system including a lens, mirror, and adjustable eyepiece to collect the heat energy emitted by a hot body and focus it onto a detector, which converts it into an electrical signal and temperature display. Radiation pyrometers are able to measure high temperatures without contact and provide a fast response.
A pyrometer is a non-contact device that measures the surface temperature of an object by detecting the thermal radiation it emits. Modern pyrometers became available in 1901 with the development of the disappearing filament pyrometer. Issues with early pyrometers relying on emissivity led to the development of ratio or two-color pyrometers. There are different types of pyrometers including optical, radiation, digital, and infrared pyrometers that use various detectors like thermopiles, photocells, bolometers, and thermistors. Pyrometers are useful for measuring temperatures of moving or inaccessible objects and are widely used in industries like smelting, heat treatment, and steam boilers.
Thermography is a non-destructive testing method that uses infrared cameras to detect flaws in materials and structures. It can detect a range of defects by observing differences in surface temperatures caused by internal flaws. There are several types of thermography testing, including pulsed thermography, which quickly heats a material's surface and detects defects by observing temperature changes over time using an infrared camera. Thermography has advantages like being able to scan large areas quickly in a non-contact manner, but is limited in penetration depth to only a few millimeters beneath surfaces. It has applications in industries like aerospace, defense, and maintenance to identify issues in components.
Infrared Heaters - Star Progetti Heating Systems User Guide Helios Electric I...Thorne & Derrick UK
This document provides guidance on using Helios Electric Infrared IRK heating systems. It discusses how infrared heating works similarly to sunlight by emitting rays that directly heat objects and people, rather than heating the air first. This allows for more efficient and targeted heating. The document provides recommendations on choosing appropriate heater models based on factors like building characteristics, activity type, and environmental conditions. It also covers installation considerations like heater positioning and zoning to optimize comfort and savings.
This document provides guidance on using Helios Electric Infrared IRK heating systems. It discusses the principles of thermal radiation heating compared to traditional convection heating. Radiation heating works by emitting infrared rays directly onto people and objects without heating the air in between. This allows for a more direct and efficient form of heating. The document provides recommendations for choosing appropriate heater models based on factors like installation height, air flow, humidity levels, and type of activity in the space. It also outlines the comfort, economic, and performance advantages of infrared radiation heating systems.
Project report on design and fabrication of temperature measurement setupArun Sadvi
The document describes a project report on the design and fabrication of a temperature measurement setup. It includes an abstract, introduction, chapters on temperature sensors, temperature controllers, interfacing microcontrollers with sensors and displays, procedures, and conclusions. The project involved using a Pt100 platinum resistance temperature sensor, temperature controller, microcontroller, and graphical LCD to measure temperature over time and display the results.
THERMOGRAPHY AND EDDY CURRENT TESTING (ET)laxtwinsme
Thermography- Principles, Contact and non contact inspection methods, Techniques for applying liquid crystals, Advantages and limitation - infrared radiation and infrared detectors, Instrumentations and methods, applications. Eddy Current Testing-Generation of eddy currents, Properties of eddy currents, Eddy current sensing elements, Probes, Instrumentation, Types of arrangement, Applications, advantages, Limitations, Interpretation/Evaluation
various types of temperature measuring instrument
1.expansion types
i)bimetallic strips
ii)liquid in gas
2.based on electric resistivity
i)thermocouple
ii)thermistors(most sensitivity)
3.pyrometers
i)mirror types
ii)optical
iii)photon types(not exact names:-based on collection of photon)
and one interesting term include in pyrometers is THERMOPILE:A large number of themocouple connected in series.Hopes so you all will enjoy
This document discusses thermography testing, which is a non-contact, non-destructive testing method that uses infrared cameras to detect flaws in structures. It can detect a range of defects and be used over large areas. There are different types of thermography including pulsed, lock-in, burst vibro, and lock-in vibro thermography. Thermography has advantages like fast scanning of large areas but limitations in penetration depth. It has applications in aerospace, defense, and other industries to detect issues like voids, delamination, and cracks.
Literature Review Basics and Understanding Reference Management.pptxDr Ramhari Poudyal
Three-day training on academic research focuses on analytical tools at United Technical College, supported by the University Grant Commission, Nepal. 24-26 May 2024
Embedded machine learning-based road conditions and driving behavior monitoringIJECEIAES
Car accident rates have increased in recent years, resulting in losses in human lives, properties, and other financial costs. An embedded machine learning-based system is developed to address this critical issue. The system can monitor road conditions, detect driving patterns, and identify aggressive driving behaviors. The system is based on neural networks trained on a comprehensive dataset of driving events, driving styles, and road conditions. The system effectively detects potential risks and helps mitigate the frequency and impact of accidents. The primary goal is to ensure the safety of drivers and vehicles. Collecting data involved gathering information on three key road events: normal street and normal drive, speed bumps, circular yellow speed bumps, and three aggressive driving actions: sudden start, sudden stop, and sudden entry. The gathered data is processed and analyzed using a machine learning system designed for limited power and memory devices. The developed system resulted in 91.9% accuracy, 93.6% precision, and 92% recall. The achieved inference time on an Arduino Nano 33 BLE Sense with a 32-bit CPU running at 64 MHz is 34 ms and requires 2.6 kB peak RAM and 139.9 kB program flash memory, making it suitable for resource-constrained embedded systems.
We have compiled the most important slides from each speaker's presentation. This year’s compilation, available for free, captures the key insights and contributions shared during the DfMAy 2024 conference.
CHINA’S GEO-ECONOMIC OUTREACH IN CENTRAL ASIAN COUNTRIES AND FUTURE PROSPECTjpsjournal1
The rivalry between prominent international actors for dominance over Central Asia's hydrocarbon
reserves and the ancient silk trade route, along with China's diplomatic endeavours in the area, has been
referred to as the "New Great Game." This research centres on the power struggle, considering
geopolitical, geostrategic, and geoeconomic variables. Topics including trade, political hegemony, oil
politics, and conventional and nontraditional security are all explored and explained by the researcher.
Using Mackinder's Heartland, Spykman Rimland, and Hegemonic Stability theories, examines China's role
in Central Asia. This study adheres to the empirical epistemological method and has taken care of
objectivity. This study analyze primary and secondary research documents critically to elaborate role of
china’s geo economic outreach in central Asian countries and its future prospect. China is thriving in trade,
pipeline politics, and winning states, according to this study, thanks to important instruments like the
Shanghai Cooperation Organisation and the Belt and Road Economic Initiative. According to this study,
China is seeing significant success in commerce, pipeline politics, and gaining influence on other
governments. This success may be attributed to the effective utilisation of key tools such as the Shanghai
Cooperation Organisation and the Belt and Road Economic Initiative.
A SYSTEMATIC RISK ASSESSMENT APPROACH FOR SECURING THE SMART IRRIGATION SYSTEMSIJNSA Journal
The smart irrigation system represents an innovative approach to optimize water usage in agricultural and landscaping practices. The integration of cutting-edge technologies, including sensors, actuators, and data analysis, empowers this system to provide accurate monitoring and control of irrigation processes by leveraging real-time environmental conditions. The main objective of a smart irrigation system is to optimize water efficiency, minimize expenses, and foster the adoption of sustainable water management methods. This paper conducts a systematic risk assessment by exploring the key components/assets and their functionalities in the smart irrigation system. The crucial role of sensors in gathering data on soil moisture, weather patterns, and plant well-being is emphasized in this system. These sensors enable intelligent decision-making in irrigation scheduling and water distribution, leading to enhanced water efficiency and sustainable water management practices. Actuators enable automated control of irrigation devices, ensuring precise and targeted water delivery to plants. Additionally, the paper addresses the potential threat and vulnerabilities associated with smart irrigation systems. It discusses limitations of the system, such as power constraints and computational capabilities, and calculates the potential security risks. The paper suggests possible risk treatment methods for effective secure system operation. In conclusion, the paper emphasizes the significant benefits of implementing smart irrigation systems, including improved water conservation, increased crop yield, and reduced environmental impact. Additionally, based on the security analysis conducted, the paper recommends the implementation of countermeasures and security approaches to address vulnerabilities and ensure the integrity and reliability of the system. By incorporating these measures, smart irrigation technology can revolutionize water management practices in agriculture, promoting sustainability, resource efficiency, and safeguarding against potential security threats.
Advanced control scheme of doubly fed induction generator for wind turbine us...IJECEIAES
This paper describes a speed control device for generating electrical energy on an electricity network based on the doubly fed induction generator (DFIG) used for wind power conversion systems. At first, a double-fed induction generator model was constructed. A control law is formulated to govern the flow of energy between the stator of a DFIG and the energy network using three types of controllers: proportional integral (PI), sliding mode controller (SMC) and second order sliding mode controller (SOSMC). Their different results in terms of power reference tracking, reaction to unexpected speed fluctuations, sensitivity to perturbations, and resilience against machine parameter alterations are compared. MATLAB/Simulink was used to conduct the simulations for the preceding study. Multiple simulations have shown very satisfying results, and the investigations demonstrate the efficacy and power-enhancing capabilities of the suggested control system.
Using recycled concrete aggregates (RCA) for pavements is crucial to achieving sustainability. Implementing RCA for new pavement can minimize carbon footprint, conserve natural resources, reduce harmful emissions, and lower life cycle costs. Compared to natural aggregate (NA), RCA pavement has fewer comprehensive studies and sustainability assessments.
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1. INTRODUCTION
Infrared thermography (IR/T) as a condition monitoring technique is used to remotely
gather thermal information for monitoring the condition of virtually all of the electrical
components on an entire system and from generation to end user. When equipments operating
under regular conditions, has a normal operating thermal signature which is typical of the
specific component being inspected. Infrared thermography presents this normal signature or
baseline to us. Once the baseline is established, IR/T will reveal the thermal variances
deviating from the norm this localized thermal deviation can either be caused by an
overheated condition or absence of heat. The information is reviewed and decisions are made
for repair or to plot the temperature change over time and repair the component at a more
opportune time. The information can be stored and fully analyzed at a later date providing
complete computer aided predictive maintenance capabilities and trending.
Infrared Thermography is currently experiencing rapid growth as more and more
electric utilities and industrial sectors are embracing the technology. The reason for this
growth is company personnel understand the benefits of this non-contact, nondestructive
method. The main benefit being,to find deteriorating components prior to catastrophic failure.
Thermography provides another set of eyes allowing a whole new level of diagnostic aid and
problem solving.
Infrared Thermography is simply a picture of heat, when you consider our natural
environment; everything is radiating a particular intensity of thermal energy. Our eyes are
unable to see this infrared energy unless the temperature of the object goes beyond 5000C.
With an infrared imaging instrument the thermal energy surrounding us can be detected,
imaged, measured and stored for analysis.Temperature and the resulting thermal behavior of
electric power generation and distribution equipment and industrial electrical systems and
processes are the most critical factors in the reliability of any operation or facility.
Temperature is by far the most measured quantity in any industrial environment. For
these reasons, monitoring the thermal operating condition of electrical and electromechanical
equipment is considered to be key to increasing operational reliability.
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In 1800, astronomer Sir William Herschel discovered infrared, and thus began the
exploration .of the science of thermography In 1800, astronomer Sir William Herschel
discovered infrared, and thus began the exploration of the science of thermography. Sir
William designed and created his owntelescopes – becoming very familiar with lenses,
mirrors and light refraction. His thermography research began with the knowledge that
sunlight was made up of all the colors of the spectrum, and that it was also a source ofheat, so
he set out to determine which color(s) were responsible for heating objects. The first
thermography experiment utilized a prism, paperboard, and thermometers with blackened
bulbs where the temperatures of the different colors were measured. As sunlight passed
through the prism, Sir William observed an increase in temperature as he moved the
thermometer from violet to red in the rainbow created by the light.Herschel noted that the
hottest temperature was actually beyond red light, and that the radiation causing this heating
was invisible. He called this invisible radiation "calorific rays." Today, we refer to the
light/energy as
Infrared, and the measuring of the heat emitted as thermal thermography Temperature
is one of the important parameters to tell the condition of internal Process, material and even
quality of the desired output. A qualitative but accurate conclusion can be drawn by observing
the temperature profile of any surface. On the other hand higher temperature also indicates
obvious loss of energy in the form of heat. Therefore temperature monitoring would give
ample indication of the condition of the material, process quality and explore the possibility of
energy conservation avenues. In recent years, many temperature monitoring techniques have
been in use in our industries. These techniques find their application based on the measurable
temperature range, sensitivity and ease in application. A comparison of various typical
techniques has been given in table no. 1. With the on-line condition monitoring technology
becoming an inevitable part of maintenance strategy in today’s scenario, non-contact type
temperature monitoring methods have become more popular. Infrared Thermography is such
a non-contact type technique which provides a fast, reliable and accurate temperature profile
of any material surface.
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2. What is Infrared Thermography
Thermography is nothing but the temperature profiling of a surface or point. As the
Name suggests, infrared thermography is based on Infrared (IR) technique. The principle
underlying t his technique is that every object emits certain amount of IR energy and the
Intensity of this IR radiation is a function of temperature. In an electromagnetic spectrum the IR
region appears between 0.8 micron to 1000 micron wavelength (See Figure 1).This wavelength
of IR spectrum is more than that of a visible spectrum. The IR energy which can directly
represent the surface temperature can be detected and quantified by the help of IR scanning
system.
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2.1 The Thermography Instrument
A thermography instrument can be a thermal pointer or a thermal scanner. The thermal
pointer reads the temperature of a specific dimensional point where as a scanner maps the
thermal profile of an area surface.
The basic IR system consists of an “IR energy detector” and a “Monitor”. The scanner is
an opt mechanical device which converts the IR energy received from an object surface to an
electrical signal. These signals are further fed into the monitor where it is processed and
presented in many forms like simple digital display to indicate temperature level and a video
display for thermal profile (See Figure 2).
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2.2 Test Equipment
Hand held portable camera
I. Battery Powered
II. Operating at correct wavelength
III. Range…..-20°c to +1500°c
IV. Sensitivity…..0.1°c at 30°c
V. Real time display
VI. Image Recording capability
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3. Electrical Thermography
Infrared Thermography is simply a picture of heat. All the bodies emit energy from their
surface as electromagnetic waves, which magnitude is directly related to their temperature. The
hotter the object is, the more energy it tends to radiate. Such temperature settles the wavelength
of the emitted energy; the colder the object is, the higher its wavelength will be, whereas the
hotter it is, the lower its wavelength will be. This last case, is the one of the infrared energy, non
visible to the human eye, but visible by means of an infrared camera. The radiation measured by
the infrared camera depends not only on the temperature of the object but also on its emissivity.
The radiation coming from the surrounding area and reflected on the object also influences the
measuring. Therefore, to measure the temperature accurately, besides the effects of different
sources of radiation that interact with the object, other variables such as emissivity, distance
between the camera and the object scanned, environment temperature and humidity, must also be
considered. In addition, due to the characteristics of the infrared radiation, to detect any
overheating by IR scans, the heat generated must be “directly” in sight of the thermographer. .
All electrical maintenance personnel know as soon as new electrical components are installed
they begin to deteriorate. With fluctuating and continual loads, vibration, fatigue, age, and other
things like operating environment, all of these will increase the probability of faults in electrical
components. These faults, if not found and taken care of, will lead to catastrophic failures,
unplanned shutdowns
3.1. Typical faults in electrical components
All electrical devices are usually rated for power, which indicates the amount of energy
that the devices can conduct without being damaged. If the device is operated at a power above
its speciecations, the excess power can reduce the device's life cycle and efficiency. Basically,
faults in electrical power system can be classified into few categories, i.e., poor connection, short
circuit, overloading, load imbalance and improper component installation. In most cases, the
major cause of overheating in utility components is the change in resistance due to lose
connection. The loose connection causes electricity to use smaller area of the defective
connection than required for proper current °o w and therefore, increases the resistance and
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temperature of the connection. Any problem, which accompanies a change in resistance of the
equipment, causes it to consume more power than the intended load.
According to a thermographic survey conducted during the period of 1999 it was found
that 48% of the problems were found in conductor connection accessories and bolted
connections. This is mainly resulted from the loose connection, corrosion, rust and non-adequate
use of inhibitory grease. On the other hand, 45% of the thermal anomalies appear in
disconnections contacts.
Most of the anomalies are due to deformations, decent pressure of contact, incorrect
alignment of arms and dirtiness. Only 7% of the problems were found in electrical equipments.
Another major cause of overheating in electrical components within the structure is overloading.
Through IRT camera, the sign of overloading can be seen clearly even if the cable was located
deep into the concrete
3.2 Electrical Inspection Items
• Transformer
– Pad Mount
– Dry
– Overhead
• Service Entrance
• Distribution Panels
• Control Panels
• Rectifiers
• Drives
• Capacitor Banks
• Any Electrical Connection
• Main Switchgear
• Motor Control Centers Disconnects
Bus Duct
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4. Infrared Condition Monitoring
Temperature is one of the first observable parameters that can indicate the condition of
operating electrical equipment. Heat is a byproduct of all work whether is it electrical,
mechanical or chemical. All industrial processes operate with mechanical, chemical and
electrical energy being converted from one form to another. The natural byproduct of the
conversion process is heat. Heat generated either intentionally or unintentionally is transferred,
contained and otherwise being controlled to suit specific requirements. Thermal energy not in
control will cause problems
Universally, the electric industry understands that temperature is an excellent indicator to
the operating condition and hence the reliability and longevity of an electrical component.
Associations like IEEE, ANSI, IEC and manufacturers all publish standards and temperature
ratings for electrical components. It is well understood that the life of electrical components and
materials is drastically reduced as temperatures are increased. It is logical, then, that evaluating
the thermal signature of electrical systems with Infrared Thermography will provide the
maintenance department, from generation to the end user, with valuable information directly
related to operational conditions of virtually every item through which electric current passes.
Infrared condition monitoring is the technique capable of revealing the presence of an anomaly
by virtue of the thermal distribution profile that the defect produces on the surface of the
component. The defect will normally alter the thermal signature of the surface due to the change
in the amount of heat generated and the heat transfer properties of the component.
To determine an adverse operating temperature of a component it is necessary to first
determine a baseline. For electrical systems the baseline is established when the system is
operating under normal load and operating conditions. Once a clear understanding is obtained on
what the normal thermal signature is for the many electrical apparatuses and components, the
thermography technician will be able to quickly identify a thermal anomaly. On larger more
critical components such as transformers, circuit breakers, capacitors etc., the baseline images
and data will be stored and compared to new data collected from each inspection interval. It is
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the job of the thermographer to identify record, analyze and diagnose indications of abnormal
heat transfer in the electrical equipment or components. It is important that the data collected is
accurate, repeatable and is properly analyzed. This depends on many variables, the main being
the thermographers level of understanding of infrared instrumentation, background theories and
the level of field experience.
For the classification of thermal abnormalities,
Three critical levels and their corresponding recommended maintenance actions were defined
I -Overheating ≥ 130°C (Serious): immediate outage of the equipment affected for the repairing
of the anomaly.
II - Overheating between 100°C and 130ºC (Priority): repairing of the anomaly as soon as
possible.
III - Overheating between 75°C and 100º C (Programmed): repairing of the anomaly when
possible Correction factors considering the effects of variables such as emissivity, environment
temperature and relative humidity, wind influence and distance to the object were established to
be considered in the measuring. Maximum admitted load ability for the whole facilities to be
scanned were set and tabulated (for instance identifying the equipment with the lowest load
capability of the bay). Therefore, the overheating measured at any level of load could be referred
to such maximum admitted loading level, so as to consider the most unfavorable conditions that
could be present during their operation. Thermographic Reports provide information that
identifies with certainty the item on which a thermal abnormality has been detected, together
with a picture and a thermographic image of the abnormality detected, to facilitate the repairing
tasks for the maintenance personnel. Besides, they add additional information, such as over
temperature registered and temperatures of reference, load level at the time of the scan and
maximum admitted load, overheating above the environment temperature referred to the
maximum admitted load and the real classification of the abnormality
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4.1 Exception Repair Priority Criteria
Hot Spot Temperature…...203F Repair Priority 3
Reference Temperature….156F Corrective Measures Required
Temperature Difference….47F As Soon As Possible
Priority 0
Temperature Difference 10F or Less
No Corrective Measures Required
At This Time.
Priority 1
Temperature Difference 10F to 20F
Corrective Measures Required
At Next Maintenance Period
Priority 2
Temperature Difference 20F to30F
Corrective Measures Required
As Scheduling Permits
Priority 3
Temperature Difference 30F to 100F
Corrective Measures Required
As Soon As Possible
Priority 4
Temperature Difference Over 100F
Corrective Measures Required
Immediately
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5. Benefits of infrared electrical inspections
Since most problems on an electrical system are preceded by a change in its thermal
characteristics and temperature, whether hotter or cooler, a properly trained and experienced
thermographer is able to identify and analyze these problems prior to costly failure occurring.
Infrared electrical inspections provide many benefits to the recipient. The two key advantages
from which the others stem, are:
1. The reduction in disassembling, rebuilding or repairing components which are in good
operating condition. This type of repair is meaningless and costly and may lead to a 30 percent
reduction of production. Furthermore, it is not guaranteed that the component will be in better
condition after the repair, since the location of the problem or cause was not established. With
infrared thermography you identify and hence repair only what needs repairing.
2. Problems that truly exist will be identified quickly, giving time to repair the problem before
failure. In most cases, the problem is identified well before the problem becomes critical.
Depending on the temperature and criticality of the component, the decision can be made to
repair immediately, repair at the first opportune time, or monitor on a continual basis until the
critical temperature is reached or until the repair can be scheduled. Identifying true anomaly,
scheduling the repair, and eliminating the actual cause of the problem within a proper time frame
is the most efficient and cost effective way to maintain the system. The other advantages of an
infrared inspection program are based on the above overall advantages, yet are no less important.
They are:
Safety - failure of electrical components could be catastrophic, injuring or even killing
employees, maintenance personnel or the public.
Greater system security - locating the problems prior to failure greatly reduces unscheduled
outages, associated equipment damage and downtime.
Increased revenue - with more uptime, revenue is maximized. With less maintenance on good
components and faster repairs of faulty components, maintenance costs are reduced leading, to a
better bottom line.
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Reduced outage costs - the cost of an emergency outage is ten times greater than planned
maintenance.
More efficient inspections - since all common electrical problems announce themselves as an
increase in temperature, they are easily detected in a minimum amount of time. No service
interruption is required for infrared inspections.
Improved and less expensive maintenance -
a) Precise pinpointing of problems minimizes time required for predictive and preventive
maintenance,
b) Maintenance efforts are directed to corrective measures rather than looking for the problem,
c) repair only what requires repairing, reducing repair time and unnecessary replacement of good
components.
Reduce spare parts inventory - with improved inspection techniques giving advanced fewer
spare parts are required in inventory. What would it mean to the bottom line if your spare parts
inventory could be reduced by 10 per cent?
Reduced operational costs - with the system up and running for longer periods of time, the
reduction and improvement of inspections, maintenance, spare parts inventory and outages will
reduce the overall cost of operations.
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5.1. Advantages & Disadvantages of IR Thermography
The following points spell the advantages and disadvantages of this technique.
Advantages :
I. It is a non-contact type technique.
II. Fast, reliable & accurate output.
III. A large surface area can be scanned in no time.
IV. Presented in visual & digital form.
V. Software back-up for image processing and analysis.
VI. Requires very little skill for monitoring.
VII. Non Intrusive
VIII. Can work at a distance
IX. Portable
X. Convincing Results
Disadvantages :
I. Cost of instrument is relatively high.
II. Unable to detect the inside temperature if the medium is separated by
i. glass/ polythene material etc.
III. Non Intrinsically safe.
IV. There must be a temperature difference for certain surveys
V. Operator experience is essential
VI. Filters may be needed for certain applications
VII. Sensitivity and Resolution reduce with distance and angle of view
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5.2. ElectricalApplications
This could be an enormous list of equipment and processes since virtually every
component from Generation to low voltage electronic boards can and should be inspected.
Suffice it to say, the Applications fall within four categories:
I. Power generation: hydro, thermal, and nuclear
II. Power distribution: transmission, switchyards, substations, and distribution
III. Industrial users: all process and manufacturing industries
IV. Commercial users: warehouses, office buildings, banks, schools, virtually all
buildings
In the April 1991 article of Transmission & Distribution, the supervisor says “the infrared
equipment allows on-line Maintenance with no interruption to service, resulting in continuity of
service that avoids about 150,000 customer out-of-service hours a year. The annual inspection
tour yields an average of 400 to 450 reports that call for either immediate repair or investigative
action, gathered in all types of weather".
Described below are some of the application areas of IR thermography with illustration of some
real life case examples.
5.2.1. Cooling Efficacy of Radiator Fins of a Power Transformer
Thermography survey of the radiator fins of a power transformer indicates the total
temperature profile as shown in Figure 6. A temperature gain of around 7-8
0
C would indicate
good cooling effect of the transformer oil along the fins. Here an average gain of about 2
0
C in
few of the fins indicates that fins may be having internal deposition or choking resulting in
ineffective cooling.
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Figure 7 : Thermal Figure 8 :hot-spot in LT MCC terminal
Image of a Radiator Fins
5.2.2. Power Circuit of Electrical Drives
It is essential that good power circuit be there to ensure proper functioning of electrical
motors. Sometimes loose contacts at Motor Control Centres(MCC) or at terminal boxes lead to
introduction of high resistance in the circuit. So voltage is dropped across this loose contact and
a severe voltage unbalance is obtained at the motor terminal end. This results in malfunctioning
of the motor. It may so happen that aggravation of such loose contact (thereby high temperature)
will eventually lead to single-phasing situation. Figure 5 indicates a thermography survey of a
415 volt 75 KW induction motor having high temperature (101
0
C) at MCC breaker terminal
with ambient about 30
0
C in R-phase resulting in a voltage unbalance of about 4.7% at motor
terminal
Fig:9: a typical industrial drive
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6. CASE STUDY
6.1applications in distribution systems
Infrared thermographic inspection of electrical distribution system in Thermal image
camera has the ability to produce a visual representation of thermal patterns as heating systems
components are identified and recorded. Maintenance strategies are then planned and carried out
before system breakdowns occur. Heating components are generally noted as white or lighter
colored areas in an infrared image. Transformer secondary connections, transformer overheating,
ground currents, fuse connection or internal heating, transformer bushing heating, utility
connection box break and breaker connection heating are several examples of unwanted
conditions that thermography can locate and provide early warning signs for maintenance
departments.
(a) A typical electrical distribution system consists of a number of isolators, circuit
breakers, Current Transformers, Potential Transformers, Distribution Transformers, bus bars etc.
Most faults are encountered in the form of hot-spots at contact terminals which may be due to
lose contact, corrosive nuts & bolts, broken conductor strands etc. These hot spots are indicated
by high surface temperature. Higher is the current flow, more severe is the fault. On-line thermal
scanning of these contact terminals will identify the hot-spots and severity of the fault (See Table
2). Attending these fault points will, of course, reduce the breakdown of the system and
reliability can be improved
Fig 11:
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Another case also justifies the applicability of the IR thermography technology in a
switchyard of a captive power plant of an aluminum company. With increasing the frequency of
application from 2 to 3 times a year, the reliability of the switchyard could be achieved to nearly
100% as no shutdown is reported. In addition to this, the base line of the critical point has also
come down drastically (See Figure 6).
Figure 12 : Consequence of Application of Thermography in a switchyard of a Captive Power
Plant
(b) The thermal scanning of about 400 first switching sub-stations (11KV/415 volt) of a power
distributing company of a metropoly city of India could reveal very critical points. Necessary
corrective action could lead to save frequent interruption in power supply and huge downtime.
Maintenance activities could be streamlined more appropriately
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CASE STUDY NO.1
Thermal image camera can also identify overheating components such as transformers as
shown in figure 6. Transformer overheating increases transformer losses , weaken the insulation
and may result in reducing transformer life. The principal reasons for transformer overheating
are classified as follows:
I. Excessive transformer loading.
II. Excess current in the neutral of the transformer.
III. Problems in the cooling system.
IV. High harmonic content in the power supply.
V. Sustained overvoltage which exists for a long period of time.47.2°C
Since transformers are a critical and expensive component of the power system so that it
must be protected against faults and overloads. The type of protection used should minimize the
time of disconnection for faults within the transformer and to reduce the risk of catastrophic
failure to simplify eventual repair. Any extended operation of the transformer under abnormal
condition such as faults or overloads compromises the life of the transformer, which means
adequate protection should be provided for quicker isolation of the transformer under such
conditions.
Fig.13: transformer in distribution system
• Electrical connections
• Insulators
• Thermal profile
• Operating temperature
• Liquid Level
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6.2 applications in overhead transmission lines
Overhead transmission lines (O.H.T.L) in order to decrease the number of transmission
failures that can be occurred at all connection points as follows: non-tension sleeves, sleeves,
jumpers, disconnecting switches and overhead ground wires in order to improve power quality.
The following are two examples of unwanted conditions that thermography can Locate and
provide early warning signs for maintenance departments.
CASE STUDY NO.1
.
A high-temperature spot is found at the connector of phase-T conductor at the jumper of
the riser pole. This means that phase-T connector has high temperature due to using
inappropriate equipment and tools; use of a machine bolt instead of hexagon bolt without a
spring ring has caused a bad electrical connection so that it is proposed to make a replacement
using the appropriate equipment and installation.
Fig.14: transmission lines