Immunity2
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The document discusses how the immune system responds to pathogens. When a pathogen enters the body, lymphocytes recognize it and produce antibodies specific to that pathogen. The antibodies coat the pathogen and recruit phagocytes to destroy it. Memory cells remain after an infection to allow for a faster response if the same pathogen is encountered again. It takes time for antibodies to be produced and for the pathogen to be eliminated, during which time the pathogen may continue to reproduce. Vaccination provides active immunity by exposing the body to dead or weakened pathogens to stimulate memory cell production without causing disease.
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Immunity
A British woman visiting India was bitten by a dog but did not seek medical treatment. Seven weeks later back in Britain, she fell ill and doctors could not diagnose her mild symptoms. She was eventually taken to a specialist tropical diseases hospital where it was discovered she had rabies from the dog bite in India. Rabies is a viral disease transmitted through infected animal bites that is almost always fatal if left untreated.
Immunity
The document discusses the human immune system and how it protects the body from disease. It describes both first-line defenses like the skin, respiratory system, and digestive system that act as barriers against pathogens, as well as second-line defenses like white blood cells that specifically target pathogens. It also discusses active and passive immunity, how vaccines help build immunity, and some common infectious and non-infectious diseases and how they are caused and spread.
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IGCSE human biology-- chap: disease....by T@NV!R
Microbes can be pathogenic or non-pathogenic. Pathogenic microbes cause diseases like bacterial diseases (e.g. typhoid, tuberculosis), viral diseases (e.g. AIDS, influenza), and fungal diseases (e.g. athlete's foot). Diseases can be transmitted through vectors, air, water, food, direct contact, or sexually. Immunity and vaccines help the body fight diseases. Common viral diseases include influenza, AIDS, hepatitis, and polio which have specific transmission methods and treatments. Bacterial diseases like cholera, tuberculosis, and tetanus also have unique causative agents and prevention strategies.
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The document discusses diseases, immunity, and vaccination. It defines pathogens and transmissible diseases, and describes how the body has defenses against disease like the skin, mucus, and immune cells. It explains that antibodies target antigens on pathogens for destruction, and that active immunity results from infection or vaccination by producing antibodies and memory cells. Vaccination works by introducing harmless pathogens to trigger an immune response and long-term immunity through memory cells. The document also discusses passive immunity providing short-term protection through acquired antibodies without memory cells.
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Microbes can be pathogenic or non-pathogenic. Pathogenic microbes cause diseases like bacterial diseases (e.g. typhoid, tuberculosis), viral diseases (e.g. AIDS, influenza), and fungal diseases (e.g. athlete's foot). Diseases can be transmitted through vectors, air, water, food, direct contact, or sexually. Immunity and vaccines help the body fight diseases. Common viral diseases include influenza, AIDS, hepatitis, and polio which have specific transmission methods and treatments. Bacterial diseases like cholera, tuberculosis, and tetanus also have unique causative agents and prevention strategies.
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The document discusses diseases, immunity, and vaccination. It defines pathogens and transmissible diseases, and describes how the body has defenses against disease like the skin, mucus, and immune cells. It explains that antibodies target antigens on pathogens for destruction, and that active immunity results from infection or vaccination by producing antibodies and memory cells. Vaccination works by introducing harmless pathogens to trigger an immune response and long-term immunity through memory cells. The document also discusses passive immunity providing short-term protection through acquired antibodies without memory cells.
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Microbes such as bacteria, viruses, and fungi can cause disease in humans. Important scientists like Ignaz Semmelweiss, Louis Pasteur, and Joseph Lister helped discover that microbes were the cause of diseases and developed practices like hand washing and sterilization to prevent their spread. The human body also has natural defenses against microbes like skin, mucus, stomach acid, white blood cells, and the ability to develop antibodies from vaccines or previous exposures that provide protection.
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1. HIV is transmitted through sexual contact, contaminated needles, blood transfusions, and from mother to child during pregnancy or birth. It attacks CD4 T cells in the immune system.
2. AIDS develops when HIV has destroyed enough T cells to weaken the immune system, making a person vulnerable to opportunistic infections.
3. Some diseases like allergies, cancer, diabetes, asthma, and heart disease are not spread between people but have other causes like genetics or environment.
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The susceptibility of the host to a specific infectious agent can be altered through immunization (e.g., against measles) or through taking medications that can prevent establishment of infection following exposure (chemoprophylaxis). Since malnutrition and specific vitamin deficiencies (such as vitamin A) may increase susceptibility to infection, ensuring proper nutrition and administering vitamin A can be more general ways of increasing host resistance. If persons survive a communicable disease, he or she may develop immunity that will prevent the disease from recurring if re-exposed to the causative agent.
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Microbes such as bacteria, viruses, and fungi can cause disease in humans. Important scientists like Ignaz Semmelweiss, Louis Pasteur, and Joseph Lister helped discover that microbes were the cause of diseases and developed practices like hand washing and sterilization to prevent their spread. The human body also has natural defenses against microbes like skin, mucus, stomach acid, white blood cells, and the ability to develop antibodies from vaccines or previous exposures that provide protection.
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1. HIV is transmitted through sexual contact, contaminated needles, blood transfusions, and from mother to child during pregnancy or birth. It attacks CD4 T cells in the immune system.
2. AIDS develops when HIV has destroyed enough T cells to weaken the immune system, making a person vulnerable to opportunistic infections.
3. Some diseases like allergies, cancer, diabetes, asthma, and heart disease are not spread between people but have other causes like genetics or environment.
Communicable disease
Communicable diseases occur only when the causative agent comes into contact with a susceptible host in a suitable environment. Prevention and control efforts for communicable diseases may be directed to any of these three elements. Communicable diseases affect both individuals and communities, so control efforts may be directed at both. Treatment of persons with communicable diseases with antibiotics typically kills the agent and renders them noninfectious. Thus, treatment is also prevention. A simple way to prevent the occurrence of communicable diseases is to eliminate the infectious agent through, for example, cooking food, washing hands, and sterilizing surgical instruments between use. Assuring the safety of drinking water through filtration and chlorination and treating sewage appropriately are other important means of preventing the spread of communicable diseases.
For most communicable diseases there is an interval between infection and occurrence of symptoms (the incubation period) in which the infectious agent is multiplying or developing. Some persons who are infected may never develop manifestations of the disease even though they may be capable of transmitting it (inapparent infection). Some persons may carry (and transmit) the agent over prolonged periods (carriers) whether or not they develop symptoms. Treatment during the incubation period may cure the infection, thereby preventing both disease and transmission. This preventive treatment (chemoprophylaxis) is often used in persons who have been exposed to sexually transmitted diseases such as syphilis and gonorrhea. It also is effective in persons who have been infected with tuberculosis, although the preventive treatment must be given for several months.
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Louis Pasteur was a French chemist who discovered that microorganisms cause disease in humans. He invented pasteurization to kill harmful microbes. In the late 1800s, scientists realized the connection between microorganisms and the spread of disease. Robert Koch developed a method for identifying disease-causing organisms that helped advance treatment. Joseph Lister recognized the relationship between infections and cleanliness, and used carbolic acid to disinfect surgical tools and wash skin, reducing surgical infections.
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The document discusses various types of infections including primary, secondary, latent and opportunistic infections. It explains different modes of transmission for pathogens such as direct contact, droplet transmission, and indirect transmission through vehicles like contaminated water or food. Various organisms that cause diseases are described based on their portal of entry and exit from the host.
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This document discusses infectious and non-infectious diseases. Infectious diseases can spread from person to person through various mediums and vectors, while non-infectious diseases cannot. Common infectious diseases mentioned include influenza, ringworm, cholera, dengue, while examples of non-infectious diseases are cancer, hypertension, and diabetes. The document then examines in more detail how infectious diseases can be transmitted through water, air, touch, or vectors like mosquitoes and rats. It provides examples of specific diseases spread through each method. Finally, it outlines the body's defenses against pathogens like skin, saliva, mucus membranes, and how they help filter or kill microorganisms.
contagious diseases
Contagious diseases are transmitted through physical contact, secretions, or airborne means from an infected person. Common signs of infectious disease include fever, diarrhea, fatigue, muscle aches, and coughing. Contagious diseases are caused by bacteria, viruses, fungi, and parasites, which are transmitted in various ways such as animal bites, contaminated food or water, or mosquito bites. It is advised to seek medical help for animal bites, breathing issues, prolonged cough or fever, rashes, swelling, or vision problems.
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This document summarizes various topics in human biology related to disease. It discusses the types of pathogenic and non-pathogenic microbes, different types of diseases including bacterial, viral, fungal, and parasitic. Specific diseases like cholera, tuberculosis, AIDS, influenza, polio, and more are explained in terms of their causative agent, transmission, symptoms, treatment, and prevention. The roles of immunity, vaccines, incubation periods, and carriers are also defined.
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1. The document discusses microorganisms and infectious diseases. It defines key terms like pathogens, virulence, pathogenesis, and defines the chain of infection.
2. The chain of infection involves a source or reservoir, mode of transmission, portal of entry and exit. Common modes of transmission include direct or indirect contact, droplets, vehicles like food or water, and vectors.
3. The human body has natural defenses against infection like skin, mucous membranes, and immune responses. Maintaining hygiene and sanitation can also help prevent the spread of diseases.
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The document discusses germ theory and microorganisms that cause disease. It explains that diseases can be either infectious or non-infectious, with infectious diseases caused by pathogens like bacteria, viruses, protozoans, and fungi. Key figures discussed include Louis Pasteur, Joseph Lister, Robert Koch and his postulates for identifying microorganisms that cause specific diseases.
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The document summarizes information about tuberculosis (TB) and rabies:
TB is caused by the bacterium Mycobacterium tuberculosis. It most commonly affects the lungs but can spread to other organs. Symptoms include cough, fever and weight loss. It is diagnosed through skin tests, chest x-rays and sputum analysis. Treatment involves antibiotics like isoniazid.
Rabies virus causes acute inflammation of the brain. Initial symptoms include anxiety and paralysis followed by hydrophobia and death. It is transmitted through bites from infected mammals. Diagnosis involves tests on cerebrospinal fluid and biopsy. Post-exposure vaccines can prevent illness if given within 6 days of exposure.
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This document discusses different types of infections. It defines an infection as occurring when germs enter the body and cause disease. Infections can be acquired from other people, contaminated food/water, or insect bites. The main types of infections covered are: primary (first exposure), reinfection (repeated exposure), secondary (weakened immunity allows other infection), focal (localized), nosocomial (hospital-acquired), iatrogenic (caused by medical treatment), exogenous (from external source), endogenous (internal microbe in wrong place), subclinical (no symptoms), atypical (unusual symptoms), latent (hidden form activated by weakened immunity), and systemic (throughout the body). The document then examines viral,
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The human excretory system includes the kidneys, ureters, bladder, and urethra. The kidneys filter waste from the blood to produce urine via tiny tubules called nephrons. The urine travels from the kidneys down the ureters and into the bladder, where it is stored until excretion through the urethra. For those with kidney failure, dialysis provides an artificial filtration of the blood to remove waste, while transplantation involves surgically implanting a donor kidney to replace non-functioning ones.
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The respiratory system allows for gas exchange in humans. Air enters through the nose or mouth and passes through the trachea into the lungs. In the lungs, the bronchi branch into smaller tubes called bronchioles that end in alveoli, which are tiny air sacs where gas exchange occurs. Oxygen from the inhaled air passes into the bloodstream, and carbon dioxide passes from the bloodstream into the alveoli to be exhaled. Breathing is driven by the diaphragm and intercostal muscles contracting and relaxing to expand and contract the lungs and chest.
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This document discusses respiration and gas exchange. It explains that aerobic respiration uses oxygen to break down glucose, releasing carbon dioxide and water. Anaerobic respiration in yeast breaks down glucose into alcohol and carbon dioxide without oxygen. Anaerobic respiration in humans produces lactic acid instead of alcohol when oxygen cannot be supplied fast enough to muscles during vigorous exercise.
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Excretion is the removal of waste products from an organism. These waste products include the byproducts of metabolism like urea and ammonia, as well as toxic materials and substances in excess. Egestion refers specifically to the passing out of undigested food through the anus, whereas excretion removes metabolic waste products. In mammals, excess protein is broken down into urea in the liver through a process called deamination and then transported to the kidneys for excretion in urine. The liver plays an important role in metabolizing nutrients and filtering waste from the bloodstream.
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The document discusses coordination between receptors and effectors in the body. It describes how stimuli are detected by receptors and responses are carried out by effectors, such as muscles and glands. There are two pathways for coordination - the nervous system, which uses nerves and electrical impulses, and the endocrine system, which uses hormones. The nervous system allows for very fast coordination, which is important for functions like hunting and avoiding predators. It then describes the basic anatomy and processes of the nervous system in more detail.
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This document summarizes the processes of plant reproduction, including pollination and fertilization. It discusses:
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- The pollen tube grows and transfers the male gamete to the ovule contained in the ovary. Fertilization occurs when the male and female gametes fuse.
- After fertilization, the zygote develops into an embryo inside the seed. The ovary develops into fruit, protecting the seed until conditions allow for germination.
Homeostasis
Homeostasis refers to the maintenance of a constant internal environment in the body, keeping factors such as temperature, water concentration, and glucose levels stable despite changes in the external environment. This allows cells to function efficiently and prevents damage. Endothermic animals like mammals and birds internally regulate their body temperature, while ectothermic animals like reptiles rely on external temperatures. The skin plays an important role in homeostasis through its structure - the epidermis contains cells that protect the body and produce melanin and keratin, while the dermis contains sweat glands, blood vessels, and nerves that help regulate temperature.
Reprod in humans
The document describes human reproduction. It explains that sexual reproduction involves the fusion of male and female gametes. The male system produces sperm in the testes and transfers them via the sperm ducts. The female system contains ovaries which hold eggs from birth. At ovulation, an egg is released into the fallopian tubes where fertilization by sperm may occur, forming a zygote. The zygote implants in the uterus and develops via the placenta and umbilical cord until birth.
Reprod in humans
1. The male gamete (sperm) fuses with the female gamete (ova/egg) during fertilization to form a zygote.
2. The zygote develops into an embryo that is implanted in the uterus and receives nutrients via the placenta and umbilical cord without mixing of the mother and embryo's blood.
3. Childbirth is triggered by contractions that open the cervix and push the baby through the birth canal, after which the placenta detaches and is delivered.
Human repro part2
1. The document discusses reproduction in humans, including ante-natal care for the mother during pregnancy and care for the newborn baby. It emphasizes the importance of diet, exercise, and avoiding harmful substances during pregnancy.
2. Breastfeeding is described as important for providing nutrients and antibodies to help the baby grow and avoid infection. Other topics covered include birth control methods and some common sexually transmitted infections.
Lesson 12 levels of organisation (1)
This document discusses different types of specialized cells and their functions. It provides examples of:
- Red blood cells that transport oxygen using hemoglobin.
- Ciliated cells in the lungs that move mucus and trapped particles away from the lungs using cilia.
- Root hair cells that absorb water and minerals from soil through their large surface area and semi-permeable cell membranes.
- Xylem vessels that transport water and dissolved minerals throughout plants in a continuous flow through hollow, reinforced tubes.
- Nerve cells that transmit electrical impulses along their long, branched structures to connect and communicate between different parts of the body.
Lesson 15 active-transport
Active transport is the movement of particles against a concentration gradient from an area of lower concentration to an area of higher concentration. It requires energy from respiration, unlike diffusion and osmosis which move particles down a concentration gradient without energy. During active transport, carrier proteins in the cell membrane use energy from ATP to move substances against their concentration gradient from outside to inside the cell. Examples of active transport include plant root hair cells taking in nitrates from soil and animal kidney cells reabsorbing glucose from kidney tubules.
Lesson 13 diffusion
Sharks are able to quickly find injured prey through diffusion. Diffusion is the passive movement of particles from an area of high concentration to low concentration down a concentration gradient. Injured animals release chemicals into the water that sharks can detect with their highly sensitive smell. These chemicals diffuse through the water, creating a scent trail that sharks follow to find weak or injured animals.
Lesson 5 features of the plant kingdom (1)
The document summarizes key features of the plant kingdom. It describes the four main phyla as mosses, conifers, ferns and flowering plants. Flowering plants are further divided into monocotyledons and dicotyledons. Monocotyledons have one cotyledon, parallel leaf veins, flower parts divisible by three, and examples include kaffir lily. Dicotyledons have two cotyledons, branching leaf veins, flower parts divisible by four or five, with hibiscus as an example.
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Immunity
The document discusses immunity and infectious diseases. It defines immunity as the body's ability to fight off pathogens through antibodies and cells. Pathogens include fungi, protozoans, bacteria, and viruses. Robert Koch first identified microbes as causing disease and developed Koch's Postulates to identify pathogens. The immune system has three lines of defense - physical and chemical barriers, inflammation, and lymphocytes and antibodies. Immunity can be active through disease exposure or vaccination, producing memory cells for long-term protection, or passive through transferring antibodies temporarily from another source.
Introduction to immunology BDMechanism.pptx
The document provides an overview of the immune system, including:
- Passive and active immunity.
- Three lines of defense: barriers, inflammatory response, and specific immune response involving B and T cells.
- Key immune cells like macrophages, neutrophils, natural killer cells that provide nonspecific defenses.
- Specific defenses rely on lymphocytes that recognize antigens through variable receptor genes, generating immune memory.
#1 donohue immune system, vaccines, and antibiotics
Here are the answers to the multiple choice questions from the test, along with brief explanations:
1. What is your body’s first line of defense?
a) Skin
Explanation: The skin acts as a physical barrier that prevents pathogens from entering the body.
2. Scientists from different fields work together to continually modify the chemical composition of antibiotic medicines. This is to keep up with the adaptive abilities of the pathogens antibiotics are intended to treat. Antibiotics inhibit the formation of membranes in certain prokaryotes. Which of the following would most likely be treated with antibiotics?
b) Foreign pathogens
Explanation: Antibiotics are used to treat bacterial infections caused by foreign pathogens like bacteria.
3.
#1 donohue immune system, vaccines, and antibiotics
The document summarizes the immune system's three lines of defense against pathogens:
1. Barriers to infection like skin and mucous membranes that keep pathogens out of the body.
2. The inflammatory response that responds when pathogens enter, causing swelling and fever to fight the infection.
3. The immune response involving specialized white blood cells like macrophages, T cells, and B cells that mount a specific attack against the pathogen through antibodies and memory cells to prevent future infections.
Agsgsgsgegehsgegsrgegegegegegegeggegegepptx
The human immune system has multiple lines of defense against pathogens. The first line of defense includes physical barriers like the skin and mucus membranes, as well as chemicals in saliva and stomach acid. The second line of defense consists of white blood cells like phagocytes that engulf pathogens and T-cells that destroy infected cells. The third line of defense involves antibodies that target specific pathogens. Immunity can be active, acquired from exposure to actual or weakened pathogens through vaccination, or passive, acquired from a mother. While highly effective, the immune system can also cause disorders like allergies and be compromised by viruses such as HIV.
activeandpassiveimmunity-171008123407 (1).pdf
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activeandpassiveimmunity-171008123407 (2).pptx
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Active and passive immunity
This document discusses active and passive immunity. It defines active immunity as the production of antibodies by one's own immune system in response to an antigen, either through natural infection or vaccination. Passive immunity is the transfer of antibodies from another individual, such as through breastfeeding. The document outlines the types of pathogens that can cause disease and the mechanisms by which they do so. It also describes the body's lines of defense, including physical barriers, phagocytic cells, inflammation, and the immune system. Within the immune system, it distinguishes between innate immunity involving non-specific responses and adaptive immunity mediated by B cells and T cells through humoral and cell-mediated immunity. The document further details the mechanisms of antibody production and action
The human immune system
The human immune system has multiple lines of defense that protect the body from pathogens. The skin and mucus membranes form the first line of defense, while white blood cells like phagocytes and lymphocytes make up the second line. The third line of defense involves antibodies that are produced after exposure to a pathogen. Immunity can be either active, gained from direct exposure or vaccination, or passive, transferred from mother to child. Together these layered defenses help the immune system fight off infection and disease.
Chapter 17 immune system and diseases
The document provides information about the lymphatic system and immune system. It discusses the organs and tissues that are part of the lymphatic system, including the thymus, lymph nodes, spleen, and tonsils. It describes the barrier defenses of the skin, mucous membranes, and other internal defenses like interferon and phagocytes. It also discusses lymphocytes and the specific immune response involving B cells, T cells, antigens, antibodies, and memory cells. It provides information on immunity and how it can be acquired naturally or artificially through vaccination.
Active and passive immunity
This document discusses the nature of disease and the human immune system. It covers several topics:
1) The various causes of disease including pathogens, genetic disorders, toxins, and physical damage. It also describes the mechanisms by which pathogens can cause disease.
2) The immune system's three lines of defense - external barriers, internal inflammation and phagocytosis, and the adaptive immune system.
3) The different types of immunity, both natural and artificial, as well as active versus passive immunity. Vaccines are discussed as a way to artificially acquire active immunity.
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L6_immunity__system.ppt
The immune system has both innate (non-specific) defenses and adaptive (specific) defenses. The innate system uses physical and chemical barriers like skin and mucus as well as cells that attack foreign substances. If pathogens breach these defenses, the adaptive system mounts an antigen-specific response using B cells, T cells, and antibodies. Vaccines help active immunity develop by exposing the body to antigens without causing disease. The immune system defends the body but can also cause issues like allergies and asthma when improperly activated.
Immune system
The document discusses the immune system and how it defends the body against disease. It describes both non-specific defenses like the skin and mucus membranes, as well as specific defenses involving white blood cells and antibodies. It explains how viruses and bacteria differ, and how antibiotics can treat bacterial but not viral infections. The document also discusses challenges to the immune system like colds, influenza, allergies, and autoimmune disorders.
immune_system.ppt
The document discusses the immune system and how it defends the body against disease. It describes both non-specific defenses like the skin and mucus membranes, as well as specific defenses involving white blood cells and antibodies. It explains how viruses and bacteria differ, and how antibiotics can treat bacterial but not viral infections. The document also discusses challenges to the immune system like colds, the flu, and allergies.
The Human Immune System.ppt
The human immune system has three lines of defense against pathogens. The first line includes physical barriers like skin and mucus membranes, and chemicals in saliva and stomach acid. The second line consists of white blood cells that attack pathogens inside the body. This includes phagocytes that engulf bacteria and T-cells that destroy virus-infected cells. The third line of defense involves antibodies that target specific pathogens. Antibodies are produced when the body is exposed to an antigen through infection or vaccination. Together, these layered defenses protect the body from disease.
The Immune System
The human immune system has three lines of defense against pathogens. The first line includes physical barriers like skin and mucus membranes, and chemicals in saliva and stomach acid. The second line consists of white blood cells that attack pathogens inside the body. This includes phagocytes that engulf bacteria and T-cells that destroy virus-infected cells. The third line of defense involves antibodies that target specific pathogens for destruction. The immune system also develops long-term immunity against pathogens it has encountered before through active immunity from infection or vaccination, or through passive immunity transferred from mother to child.
The human immune system
The human immune system has three lines of defense against pathogens. The first line includes physical barriers like skin and mucus membranes, and chemicals in saliva and stomach acid. The second line consists of white blood cells that attack pathogens inside the body. This includes phagocytes that engulf bacteria and T-cells that destroy virus-infected cells. The third line of defense involves antibodies that target specific pathogens. Antibodies provide long-lasting active immunity against diseases, while vaccines produce immunity by exposing the immune system to weakened or dead pathogens. The immune system also has memory, allowing it to respond faster upon re-exposure to a pathogen.
The human immune system with clear illustration
The human immune system has three lines of defense against pathogens. The first line includes physical barriers like skin and mucus membranes, and chemicals in saliva and stomach acid. The second line consists of white blood cells that attack pathogens inside the body. This includes phagocytes that engulf bacteria and T-cells that destroy virus-infected cells. The third line of defense involves antibodies that target specific pathogens. Antibodies are produced when the body is exposed to an antigen through infection or vaccination. Together, these layered defenses protect the body from disease.
The Human Immune System.ppt
presentation about human immune system which throw light on how body s resistance power work and protect our body..how antibody works and how cellular immunity works
Body defenses against infection
The document summarizes the body's immune defenses against infection. It describes two main types of immunity: innate immunity, which provides nonspecific defenses like skin barriers and phagocytes; and acquired (adaptive) immunity, which develops after exposure and provides pathogen-specific responses using B cells, T cells, antibodies, and immunological memory. The immune system uses successive lines of defense, from physical barriers and phagocytes to inflammation and antibodies, to protect the body. Vaccines help produce active immunity by exposing the immune system to weakened or killed pathogens.
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#1 donohue immune system, vaccines, and antibiotics
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Reprodinhumans 170322174812
1. The male gamete (sperm) fuses with the female gamete (ova/egg) during fertilization to form a zygote.
2. The zygote develops into an embryo, which implants in the uterus and develops further into a fetus through the roles of the placenta and umbilical cord.
3. Childbirth occurs when contractions push the baby through the birth canal, after which the placenta detaches from the uterus and is delivered.
Unit 9 transport in animals
The document discusses the circulatory system and blood transport in animals. It describes single and double circulatory systems. In a single circulation, blood travels from the heart to the gills to absorb oxygen and then to the organs before returning to the heart. In a double circulation, there are two circuits - one where blood passes from the heart to the lungs to absorb oxygen and release carbon dioxide, and another where blood passes from the heart to the organs and tissues to deliver oxygen before returning to the heart. A double circulation has evolved to create more pressure to pump blood around the system and separate oxygen-rich and oxygen-poor blood.
Unit 7 digestion
The document discusses the process of digestion. It begins with an overview of the alimentary canal and its parts, including the mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, and anus. It then covers the stages of digestion - ingestion, digestion, absorption, assimilation, and egestion. Specific topics covered include the roles and locations of enzymes in breaking down food, as well as the functions of organs like the liver, gallbladder and pancreas in digestion.
Unit 7 animal nutrition - diet
This document provides information about animal nutrition and balanced diets. It defines what a balanced diet is and lists the seven major types of nutrients: carbohydrates, proteins, fats, vitamins, minerals, water, and fiber. It describes the sources and functions of these nutrients and explains that an unbalanced diet can lead to deficiency diseases. Specific nutrient deficiencies that are discussed include vitamin C (scurvy), vitamin D (rickets), vitamin A (night blindness), calcium, and iron (anemia). The document also covers malnutrition conditions like marasmus and kwashiorkor that can result from poor nutrition.
Future form
This document discusses the uses and meanings of various future tense forms in English, including:
1. The future tense forms "will" and "shall" are used to indicate intentions, predictions, promises and other future meanings.
2. "Be going to" is used to express plans and intentions for the future, as well as predictions based on present evidence.
3. Other future forms discussed include the future continuous (e.g. "will be having") to refer to future activities in progress, and the future perfect (e.g. "will have done") to refer to completed future actions.
Relatives (1)
The document discusses relative pronouns and relative clauses in English grammar. It defines the relative pronouns who, whom, which, whose, and that. It explains the difference between defining and non-defining relative clauses, and notes that defining clauses are essential to understand the meaning, while non-defining clauses provide extra information. It provides examples of using relative pronouns in subject, object, and indirect object positions. It also provides guidelines on omitting object and indirect object pronouns and using prepositions with relative pronouns. Finally, it includes some practice examples applying these rules.
Lesson 23 unit 6 – plant nutrition
The document discusses plant nutrition and photosynthesis. It defines photosynthesis as the process by which plants manufacture carbohydrates from carbon dioxide, water, and sunlight using chlorophyll. The key organelle that contains chlorophyll and allows this process is the chloroplast. The document then provides exercises about leaf structure, the process of photosynthesis, and factors that can affect photosynthesis rates.
Lesson 21 enzymes
Enzymes are protein catalysts that speed up chemical reactions without being consumed. They have an active site that binds to a specific substrate molecule. As the substrate binds to the active site, it undergoes a reaction to form product molecules. Enzyme activity is optimized at certain temperatures and pH levels, but high heat or extreme pH can cause the enzyme to denature, or lose its shape. Enzymes play important roles in biology and industry, from seed germination to food processing and stain removal.
Lesson 20 unit 4 - dna
DNA is made of two strands that twist together in a spiral shape called a double helix. Each strand contains a series of bases - adenine (A), cytosine (C), guanine (G), and thymine (T). The bases bond together in a complementary pairing with A always bonding to T and C always bonding to G. The sequence of these bases provides a code that determines the proteins made in cells and thus controls development and characteristics.
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Lesson 19 unit 4 – biological molecules
Unit 4 discusses biological molecules including carbohydrates, fats, proteins, and water. Carbohydrates include sugars and starches made of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, and serve as energy sources. Fats contain glycerol and fatty acids and store large amounts of energy. Proteins are made of amino acids and perform important roles in structure, enzymes, antibodies, and cell formation. Water is essential for life as it allows metabolic reactions to occur and is the main component of blood, digestive fluids, and other tissues. The document outlines properties and functions of these molecules and describes common tests to identify their presence.
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Immunity2
- 1. Immunity
- 2. Antibodies • Lymphocytes in WBC produce chemicals called antibodies • Each lymphocytes produces a specific type of antibody. • Antibodies – chemicals secreted by lymphocytes, which attach to antigens and help destroy them. • Antigen – chemicals on the surface of pathogens, which are recognised as foreign by the body.
- 3. • The job of the antibody is to kill the pathogen • How? • Coats the surface of the pathogen – preventing entrance • Alert phagocytes, to come and destroy pathogens
- 4. Question? • Do you think it is a good use of the bodies resources to be constantly producing and secreting antibodies? • No. • The lymphocytes wait for a signal that a pathogen is present which can be destroyed by the lymphocytes particular antibodies
- 5. What happens? Pathogen enters the body | Met by many different lymphocytes | A lymphocyte will recognise the pathogen as something its antibodies can destroy | Rapidly divides (mitosis) to create clones of itself | These lymphocytes then secrete their antibodies, overwhelming the pathogen
- 6. What affects the time it takes to produce the antibodies? Firstly, the lymphocytes may take time to recognise the pathogen Then it takes time to produce enough lymphocytes that can secrete enough antibodies Meanwhile, the pathogen is reproducing
- 7. Extra defense • Memory cells – cells produced by lymphocytes that remain in the body and are able to respond quickly to a pathogen • Next time the same type of pathogen enters the body, memory cells react quickly • Destroying the pathogen before it has time to reproduce itself (fig.10.13)
- 8. Question? • If a person is infected with a disease (first infection), why does it take time for him/her to get better? • Firstly, lymphocytes take time to recognise the specific pathogen. • Secondly, it takes time for the lymphocytes to clone themselves enough to produce enough antibodies to kill the pathogen • Thirdly, the pathogen is reproducing itself during this time
- 9. Vaccination • Introduction into the body of dead or weakened pathogens, to make the person immune to an infectious disease.
- 10. 2 types of Immunity • Active immunity – long term defense - getting over the disease - vaccination • Passive immunity – short term defense - "antibodies acquired from another individual" - mother to baby through breast milk - injection of antibodies
- 11. • Active immunity can be very long lasting. = sometimes a whole lifetime = sometimes need "booster shots" • Passive immunity is short term. = The body has not made memory cells = Antibodies eventually breakdown
- 12. Rabies bite case study • The woman could have been vaccinated against rabies before going to India • What would have happened? • The woman could have been given an emergency injection of antibodies. • What would have happened?
- 13. Why is vaccination a good idea? • Smallpox completely eradicated • Polio is now rare • Controls infectious diseases
- 14. Auto-immune diseases • "a disease caused by a person's own immune system attacking parts of their body" • Lymphocytes react to a person's own cells as if they were pathogens • Eg. Type 1 Diabetes
- 15. Type 1 Diabetes • Beta cells in the pancreas produce insulin (controls glucose levels in blood) • In people with type 1 diabetes, the lymphocytes attack these beta cells • Loss of beta cells = insulin is no longer produced (glucose levels not controlled) • People with type 1 diabetes usually take insulin injections and must watch their diets.