some persons and some concepts of linguistics straddle the whole century; Zelling Harris is one , and distinctive features are another

1. History of linguistics
Part - I
Dr.Sundarabalu.S
Dept. of Linguistics, Bharathiar University
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2. Theory
• a system of ideas intended to explain something, especially one
based on general principles independent of the thing to be
explained.
• An idea used to account for a situation or justify a course of action.
• A theory is a set of accepted beliefs or organized principles that
explain and guide analysis and one of the ways that theory is
defined is that it is different from practice, when certain principles
are tested.
• 1. Help us classify things: entities, processes, and causal
relationships
• 2. Help us understand how and why already observed regularities
occur
• 3 . Help us predict as yet unobserved relationships
• 4. Guide research in useful directions
• 5. Serve as a basis for action.

3. • Pāṇini (pronounced 4th century BCE; older research
mentions "6th to 5th century BCE was an
ancient Sanskrit philologist, grammarian, and a
revered scholar in ancient India.
• Considered "the father of linguistics",
• Pāṇini likely lived in the northwest Indian
subcontinent during the Mahajanapada era. He is said to
have been born in Shalatula of ancient Gandhara, which
likely was near modern Lahor, a small town at the junction
of the Indus and Kabul rivers, which falls in the Swabi
District of modern Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan.
• Pāṇini is known for his text Aṣṭādhyāyī, a sutra-style
treatise on Sanskrit grammar, 3,959 "verses" or rules
on linguistics, syntax and semantics in "eight chapters"
which is the foundational text of the Vyākaraṇa branch of
the Vedanga, the auxiliary scholarly disciplines of
the Vedic period.
Pāṇini

4. • The Ashtadhyayi is one of the earliest known grammars
of Sanskrit, although Pāṇini refers to previous texts like
the Unadisutra, Dhatupatha, and Ganapatha. It is the
earliest known work on descriptive linguistics, and
together with the work of his immediate predecessors
(Nirukta, Nighantu, Pratishakyas) stands at the
beginning of the history of linguistics itself.
His theory of morphological analysis was more
advanced than any equivalent Western theory before
the mid 20th century, and
his analysis of noun compounds still forms the basis
of modern linguistic theories of compounding, which
have borrowed Sanskrit terms such
as bahuvrihi and dvandva.

5. • The Tholkāppiyam is a work on the grammar of the Tamil
language and the earliest extant work of Tamil
literature and linguistics.
• Tholkappiyam deals
with orthography, phonology, morphology, semantics, prosody and the subject
matter of literature
• 6th century and the 3rd century BCE.
• Leelathilakam, Keralapanineeyam Malayam
• Shabdamanidarpana(c. 1260 CE) kannada
• vyākaranam

6. • Ferdinand de Saussure
• Born 26 November 1857
Geneva, Switzerland
• Died 22 February 1913
(aged 55)Switzerland
• Alma mater :
• University of Geneva
Leipzig University (PhD, 1880)
• University of Berlin
• Era 19th-century philosophy
• Region Western philosophy, School
Structuralism,
Main interests Linguistics
• Notable ideas
Structural linguistics
Semiology
Langue and parole
Signified and signifier
Synchrony and diachrony
Linguistic sign
Semiotic arbitrariness
Laryngeal theory
• Latin, Ancient Greek and SanskritInfluences: Durkheim,Pāṇini

7. Émile Durkheim•David Émile Durkheim
•Born April 15, 1858 France
•Died November 15, 1917 (aged 59) France
•Nationality French
•Fields: Philosophy, Sociology, Education, Anthropology,
Religious Studies
•Institutions University Of Paris, University of Bordeaux
•Language, as a set of representations collectives, also
has a unique quality in that it plays an active role in
structuring an individual’s perception of reality.
•As Durkheim argues, objects of experience do not exist
independently of the society that perceives and
represents them. They exist only through the
relationship they have with society, a relationship that
can reveal very different aspects about reality
depending on the society
French Sociologist
Montparnasse - Cemetery

8. • Functionalism emphasizes a societal stability. If
something happens to disrupt the order and the flow of
the system, society must adjust to achieve a stable
state.
• According to Durkheim, society should be analyzed and
described in terms of functions. Society is a system of
interrelated parts where no one part can function
without the other. These parts make up the whole of
society. If one part changes, it has an impact on
society as a whole.

9. Roman Osipovich Jakobson
Born: 11 October 1896 Moscow, Russian Empire
Died: 18 July 1982 (aged 85) Cambridge, U.S.
Alma mater: Lazarev Institute of Oriental Languages
Moscow University
School Moscow linguistic circle
Prague linguistic circle
Notable ideas: Jakobson's functions of language
Markedness
His universalizing structuralist theory of phonology, based on a
markednes, hierarchy of distinctive features
Jakobson's theory of 'distinctive features’
Jakobson left Moscow for Prague in 1920. In 1928, with his
colleagues of the Prague school, Nikolaj S. Trubetzkoy and S.I.
Karcevskij, he announced his hypothesis that phonemes, the
smallest units of speech sounds that distinguish one word from
another,
Influences: Ferdinand de Saussure, Nikolai Trubetzkoy
Influenced: Dell Hymes
Roman Jakobson

10. • Nikolai Sergeyevich Trubetzkoy
• Moscow, April 16, 1890 – Vienna, June 25, 1938)
• Slavic linguist
• was a Russian linguist and historian whose
teachings formed a nucleus of the Prague School of
structural linguistics.
• He is widely considered to be the founder of
morphophonology.
• Trubetzkoy's views from those of his friend Roman
Jakobson, who should be credited with spreading the
Prague School views on phonology after Trubetzkoy's
death.
• Trubetskoy redefined the phoneme functionally as the
smallest distinctive unit within the structure of a given
language, and he further broke these phonemes into
their distinctive features.
• Influenced by Ferdinand de Saussure and in turn
influencing Roman Jakobson
Nikolai Trubetzkoy

11. Bronisław MalinowskiBronisław Kasper Malinowski
Born 7 April 1884
Place of birth: Kraków, Poland
Died 16 May 1942 (aged 58)
Alma mater: PhD, Philosophy from Jagiellonian
University, Krakow-Poland
Physical Chemistry at University of Leipzig, PhD,
Known for : Father of Social Anthropology
Influences : Émile Durkheim
Malinowski originated the school of social
anthropology
He was an anthropologist whose writings on
ethnography, social theory, and field research were a
lasting influence on the discipline of anthropology.
Malinowski believed culture to be a collection of
ancient items and traditions through which people are
shaped and social groups maintain its integration
 he was one of the first anthropologists to do proper
ethnographic fieldwork.
coining the term participatory observation (field
method) in qualitative research
Phatic communication

12. participatory observation (field method)

13. John Rupert Firth•John Rupert Firth
•(June 17, 1890 in Keighley, Yorkshire – December
14, 1960 in Lindfield , West Sussex - London)
•was an English linguist and a leading figure in British
linguistics during the 1950s.
•He was Professor of English at the University of the Punjab
from 1919–1928.
•He then worked in the phonetics department of
University College London before moving
to the School of Oriental and African Studies,
where he became Professor of General Linguistics,
•London School' of linguistics.
•Firth's students, Michael Halliday,
•His work on prosody, which he emphasised at the expense of
the phonemic principle, work in autosegmental phonology.
•the context-dependent nature of meaning with his notion of
'context of situation', and his work on collocational meaning is
widely acknowledged in the field of distributional semantics
Phonestheme, Prosodic Analysis
.
Speech (1930) ,The Tongues of Men (1937)
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14. Louis Trolle Hjelmslev (Danish:3 October 1899 - 30 May 1965) was
a Danish linguist whose ideas formed the basis of the Copenhagen
School of linguistics. Born into an academic family (his father was
the mathematician Johannes Hjelmslev), Hjelmslev
studied comparative linguistics in Copenhagen, Prague and Paris
Together with Hans Jørgen Uldall he developed a structural theory
of language which he called glossematics, which developed
the semiotic theory of Ferdinand de Saussure.
Glossematics, is a structuralist linguistic methodology of the twentieth
century and system of linguistic analysis based on the distribution
and interrelationship of glossemes,. Glossematics is a theory and
system of linguistic analysis proposed by the Danish scholar Louis
Hjelmslev (1899–1965). It is study of the structure of the
constituent parts
The work was translated into English as "Prolegomena to a Theory of
Language" This work came to represent a breakthrough in
linguistics and formed an entirely new branch of this field. The
author begins by ascertaining that language is an.
Louis Hjelmslev

15. • Dell Hathaway Hymes (June 7, 1927 in Portland, Oregon –
November 13, 2009 in Charlottesville, Virginia) was
a linguist, sociolinguist, anthropologist, and folklorist who
established disciplinary foundations for the comparative,
ethnographic study of language use. His research focused
upon the languages of the Pacific Northwest.
•
Notable Ideas: "linguistic anthropology”
“the S P E A K I N G model”
• He was one of the first to call the fourth subfield of
anthropology "linguistic anthropology" instead of
"anthropological linguistics".
• Hymes constructed the acronym SPEAKING, under which he
grouped the sixteen components within eight divisions:
• The "S-P-E-A-K-I-N-G" model
• Main article: SPEAKING

16. • The "S-P-E-A-K-I-N-G" model
• Hymes developed a valuable model to assist the identification and
labeling of components of linguistic interaction that was driven by
his view that, in order to speak a language correctly, one needs not
only to learn its vocabulary and grammar, but also the context in
which words are used.
• The model had sixteen components that can be applied to many
sorts of discourse: 1.message form; 2.message content; 3.setting;
4.scene; 5.speaker/sender; 6.addressor;
7.hearer/receiver/audience; 8.addressee; 9.purposes
(outcomes); 10.purposes (goals); 11.key; 12.channels; 13.forms
of speech; 14.norms of interaction; 15.norms of interpretation;
and 16. genres.
• Hymes termed this approach "the ethnography of speaking." The
SPEAKING acronym
• As one of the first sociolinguists, Hymes helped to pioneer the
connection between speech and human relations and human
understandings of the world. Hymes is particularly interested in
how different language patterns shape different patterns of
thought.

17. Franz Boas•Franz Boas
•Born July 9, 1858 Minden, Westphalia, Germany
•Died December 21, 1942 (aged 84)New York, U.S.
•Education Ph.D. in Physics, University of Kiel (1881)
•Alma mater: University of Heidelberg, University of Bonn,
University of Kiel
•Occupation: Anthropologist
•His students :Edward Sapir
•Notable ideas: Cultural relativism
• Four-field approach
•Boas called attention especially to the idea that it is also a
means of categorizing experiences, hypothesizing that the
existence of different languages suggests that people
categorize, and thus experience, language differently (this
view was more fully developed in the hypothesis of
Linguistic relativity). part of relativism, also known as the
Sapir–Whorf hypothesis
•The four-field approach in anthropology sees the
discipline as composed of the four subfields of
Archaeology, Linguistics, Physical Anthropology and
Cultural anthropology (known jocularly to students as
"stones", "tones", "bones" and "thrones").
Franz Boas "Father of American
Anthropology"

18. Edward Sapir
• Edward Sapir
• Born January 26, 1884 Lauenburg, Prussia,
Germany.
• Died: February 4, 1939 (aged 55)
U.S. Citizenship American
• Alma mater: Columbia University
Sapir–Whorf hypothesis
Anthropological linguistics
• Fields: Linguistics, Anthropology
• Institutions: University of Chicago
Yale University
• Thesis The Takelma language of south western
Oregon (1909)
• Doctoral advisor :Franz Boas
• Doctoral students: Li Fang-Kuei
• This part of his thinking was developed by his
student Benjamin Lee Whorf into the principle
of linguistic relativity or the "Sapir-Whorf"
hypothesis
• Sapir- The status of linguistics as a science
• Sapir was a colleague of Bloomfield at Chicago,
•One language may take many words to say what
another language says in single word

19. •Friedrich Wilhelm Christian Karl Ferdinand von Humboldt
•22 June 1767 – Died 8 April 1835) was a Prussian philosopher, linguist
•Notable ideas:Language as a rule-governed system
•He is credited with being the first European linguist to identify human
language as a rule-governed system, rather than just a collection of
words and phrases paired with meanings. This idea is one of the
foundations of Noam Chomsky's theory of language.
•One typology classification , proposed by Wilhelm von Humboldt
(structural similarities between lgs)
•Influences: Johann Gottfried Herder
Statue of Wilhelm von Humboldt
outside Humboldt University, Unter den Linden,
Berlin
Wilhelm von Humboldt

20. Notable ideas
Thought is essentially dependent on language
Johann Gottfried Herder
Born: 25 August 1744 Poland)
Died :18 December 1803 (aged 59)
Alma mater: University of Königsberg
Main interests:
Philology, philosophy of language, cultural
anthropology, philosophy of mind, aesthetics,
philosophy of history, political philosophy,
philosophy of religion
The Johann Gottfried Herder statue in Weimar in
front of the church St. Peter und Paul
Johann Gottfried Herder

21. • Born August 20, 1902: Died 21 August
1987 (aged 85) California , United States
• Nationality : Republic of China
• Academic background Education :
University of Michigan, University of
Chicago
• Thesis: Mattole: An Athabaskan
Language (1928)
• Doctoral advisor Edward Sapir
• Li was one of the first Chinese people to study
linguistics outside China. Originally a student of
medicine, he switched to linguistics when he went to
the United States in 1924. He gained a BA in
linguistics at the University of Michigan in 1926 after
only two years of study. He then did graduate study
under Edward Sapir and Leonard Bloomfield at the
University of Chicago.
Li Fang-Kuei
Li Fang-Kuei was a Chinese linguist,
known for his studies of the varieties
of Chinese, and for his reconstructions
of Old Chinese and Proto-Taai.

22. Benjamin Lee Whorf
•Benjamin Lee Whorf
•Born April 24, 1897
•Died July 26, 1941 (aged 44) Nationality American
•Alma mater : Massachusetts Institute of Technology
•Known for Sapir–Whorf hypothesis (Linguistic relativity),
•Nahuatl linguistics, allophone, cryptotype , Maya script
•Scientific career :Fields linguistics, anthropology,
•fire prevention Institutions Hartford Fire Insurance
Company.
•There are certain thoughts of an individual in one
language that cannot be understood by those who
live in another language.
•
•Influences : Edward Sapir, Albert Einstein, C. K.
Ogden,
•Influenced: George Lakoff, John A. Lucy, Michael
Silverstein, Linguistic Anthropology, M.A.K. Halliday

23. Cryptotype or covert categories of a language is a concept coined by
Benjamin Lee Whorf which describes semantic or syntactic features that do not have a
morphological implementation, but which are crucial for the construction and
understanding of a phrase. The cryptotype is understood in opposition to the
phenotype or overt category, namely a category that is overtly marked as such.
Covert categories affect words' combinative power .
British linguist Michael Halliday argued that Whorf's notion of the
"cryptotype" and his conception of "how grammar models reality" will "eventually
turn out to be among the major contributions of twentieth century linguistics".
Halliday described the concept in the following way: "Whorf (1956) distinguished
between overt and covert categories and pointed out that covert categories were
often also “cryptotypes” — categories whose meanings were complex and difficult to
access. Many aspects of clause grammar, and of the grammar of clause complexes, are
essentially cryptotypic.“Through the use of Halliday, the term has become important
in Systemic functional linguistics.

24. • Joseph Harold Greenberg
Born:May 28, 1915
Brooklyn, New York, U.S. Died:May 7, 2001 (aged 85) Stanford, California,
U.S.
• Nationality: American
• Known for Linguistic typology and genetic classification of languages
Amerind languages
• Joseph H. Greenberg was one of the greatest linguists of the twentieth
century
Contributions to linguistics:
Greenberg's reputation rests partly on his contributions to synchronic
linguistics and the quest to identify linguistic universals. During the late
1950s, Greenberg began to examine languages covering a wide
geographic and genetic distribution. He located a number of interesting
potential universals as well as many strong cross-linguistic tendencies.
In particular, Greenberg conceptualized the idea of "implicational universal"
which has the form, "if a language has structure X, then it must also
have structure Y." For example, X might be "mid front rounded vowels"
and Y "high front rounded vowels" (for terminology see phonetics).
Many scholars adopted this kind of research following Greenberg's
example and it remains important in synchronic linguistics.
Linguistic typology (or language typology) is a field of linguistics that studies
and classifies languages according to their structural and functional
features. Its aim is to describe and explain the common properties and
the structural diversity of the world's languages
Joseph Greenberg

25. Charles Ogden
•Born 1 June 1889 Fleetwood , Lancashire, England
•Died 20 March 1957 (aged 67) London, England
•Alma mater Magdalene College, Cambridge
•Era Contemporary philosophy
•Region : Western philosophy , School British
Pragmatism
•Main interests Philosophy of language
•Notable ideas :Semantic triangle, Basic English
Charles Kay Ogden
Language and philosophy
A major step in the "linguistic turn" of 20th century British
philosophy, The Meaning of Meaning set out principles for
understanding the function of language and described the so-
called semantic triangle. Symbol
Thought
Referent

26. • I. A. Richards
• Ivor Armstrong Richards
• Born :26 February 1893
Sandbach, Cheshire, England
• Died 7 September 1979 (aged 86)
Cambridge
• Occupation He was an English educator,
literary critic
• Nationality :English
• Alma mater Magdalene College, Cambridge
I. A. Richards
I. A. in the Alps
Richards‘ intellectual contributions to the establishment of the literary methodology of
the New Criticism are presented in the books The Meaning of Meaning: A Study of
the Influence of Language upon Thought and of the Science of Symbolism (1923), by
C. K. Ogden and I. A. Richards, Principles of Literary Criticism (1926), Practical Criticism
(1929), and The Philosophy of Rhetoric (1936).

27. • William Labov
• Professor of Linguistics
• University of Pennsylvania
• Born: December 4, 1927 (age 91)
Rutherford, New Jersey, U.S.
• Occupation:
Industrial chemist (1949–60);
professor of linguistics (1964–2014)
• He has been described as "an enormously original and influential figure who has created much of
the methodology" of sociolinguistics.He is a professor emeritus in the linguistics department of
the University of Pennsylvania, and pursues research in sociolinguistics, language change, and
dialectology
• The methods he used to collect data for his study of the varieties of English spoken in New York
City, published as The Social Stratification of English in New York City (1966)
• One of Labov's most quoted contributions to theories of language change
• Synchronic shifts: It is also possible for chain shifts to occur synchronically, within the
phonology of a language
• In historical linguistics, a chain shift is a set of sound changes in which the change in pronunciation
of one speech sound (typically, a phoneme) is linked to, and presumably causes, a change in
pronunciation of other sounds as well
• Sociolinguistic approach to examining how language works between people. This is significant
because it contextualizes the study of structure and form, connecting purpose to method

28. • Michael Alexander Kirkwood Halliday
• Born :13 April 1925, Leeds, Yorkshire, England
• Died15 April 2018 (aged 93) Sydney
• Residence Australia
• Nationality: English
• Influences:
• Vilém Mathesius (Prague school)
• Wang Li, J.R. Firth, Benjamin Lee Whorf
• Known for Systemic functional linguistics
• Halliday describes “language as a semiotic system”
• child language development: The first four functions help the child to
satisfy physical, emotional and social needs. Halliday calls them
instrumental, regulatory, interactional, and personal functions.
Halliday was an English-born linguist who developed the internationally influential systemic
functional linguistics model of language. His grammatical descriptions go by the name of
systemic functional grammar
Paradigmatic dimension: Meaning is choice
Stratification dimension. "a space was created in which meanings could be organized in their
own terms, Metafunctional dimension. Language displays "functional complementarity“
Syntagmatic dimension. Language unfolds syntagmatically,
Instantiation dimension. All of these resources are, in turn, "predicated on the vector of
instantiation"
Halliday

29. Kenneth Lee Pike
Kenneth Lee Pike (June 9, 1912 – December 31, 2000)
was an American linguist and anthropologist.
He was the originator of the theory of tagmemics, the coiner of
the terms "emic" and "etic" and the developer of the
constructed language Kalaba-X for use in teaching the theory and
practice of language .
In addition, he was the First President of the Bible-translating
organization Summer Institute in Linguistics (SIL), with which he
was associated from 1942 until his death.
Kalaba-X is a simple constructed language created by the
American linguist Kenneth L. Pike to help with the teaching of
phonemic techniques. 256 problems in phonemic analysis
• emic and etic refer to two kinds of field research done and
view points obtained: emic, from within the social group
(from the perspective of the subject) and etic, from outside
(from the perspective of the observer)
he was the First President of the Bible-translating organization
Summer Institute in Linguistics (SIL), with which he was
associated from 1942 until his death

30. • He lectured in 42 countries and studied well over a
hundred indigenous languages in the field, including
endangered languages in Australia, Bolivia, Cameroon,
Côte d’Ivoire, Ecuador, Ghana, India, Indonesia, Mexico,
Nepal, New Guinea, Nigeria, Peru, the Philippines,
Sudan, and Togo.
• Pike’s major academic contributions to linguistics were
his textbooks on Phonetics (1943), which was called
“The most thorough survey up to that time of the
phonetic possibilities of the human vocal tract”
(Beddor & Catford, 1999), The Intonation of American
English (1945), Phonemics (1947), and Tone Languages
(1948), all published by the University of Michigan.
• All four of these texts are recognized as seminal
contributions today.

31. • Leonard Bloomfield
• Born : April 1, 1887 Chicago , Illinois - Died: April 18, 1949 (aged 62)
• Nationality: American: Alma mater: Harvard College, University of Wisconsin, University of
Chicago, University of Leipzig, University of Göttingen
• Fields : Linguistics, Ethnolinguistics
• Institutions: University of Cincinnati, University of Illinois, Ohio State University, University of
Chicago, Yale University
• Influences: August Leskien, Karl Brugmann, Pāṇini, John B. Watson
• Influenced: Charles Hockett, Zellig Harris
• American linguist whose book Language (1933) was one of the most important general
treatments of linguistic science in the first half of the 20th century . Book language - Bible of
American linguistics
• Bloomfield studied the Sanskrit grammatical tradition originating with Pāṇini,
Bloomfield's approach to linguistics was characterized by its
emphasis on the scientific basis of linguistics, adherence to
behaviorism especially in his later work, and emphasis on formal
procedures for the analysis of linguistic data.
•Mentalism and mechanism ; transition ; phoneme ; analogic
change; cultural borrowing
•Can we thing without words?
•Leonard Bloomfield

32. • Jens Otto Harry Jespersen
• Born 16 July 1860, Randers, Denmark
• Died 30 April 1943 (aged 82) , Denmark
• Education: University of Copenhagen ·
University of Oxford
• Otto Harry Jespersen was a Danish linguist
who specialized in the grammar of the English
language
Book : How to teach a foreign language
by Otto Jespersen

33. • George Lakoff
• Born: May 24, 1941 (age 78)
Bayonne, New Jersey
• Residence: California, U.S.
• Nationality United States
• Alma mater: Indiana University MIT
• Known for: Conceptual metaphor theory
Embodied cognition
• Fields: Cognitive linguistics
Cognitive science
• Institutions: University of California, Berkeley
• Websitegeorgelakoff.com
• 2005. "The Brain's Concept: The Role of the Sensory- Motor System in Conceptual
Knowledge“-
• The essential thrust of Lakoff's work has been the argument that metaphors are a
primarily conceptual construction and are in fact central to the development of
thought.
George Lakoff

34. • Eugene A. Nida (November 11, 1914 – August 25, 2011) was a linguist who
developed the dynamic-equivalence Bible-translation theory and one of
the founders of the modern discipline of translation studies
• Career: In 1943, Nida began his career as a linguist with the American Bible
Society (ABS).
• Nida was instrumental in engineering the joint effort between the
Vatican and the United Bible Societies (UBS) to produce cross-
denominational Bibles in translations across the globe.
• This work began in 1968 and was carried on in accordance with
Nida's translation principle of Functional Equivalence.
• Theories :
1. Nida has been a pioneer in the fields of translation theory and
linguistics.
2. Nida also developed the componential analysis technique
3. where Nida begins by asserting that given that "no two
languages are identical,
4. Nida then sets forth three factors that must be taken into
account in translating:
1.The nature of the message:
2. The purpose of the author and of the translator:
3. The type of audience:
Morphology: The
Descriptive Analysis of
Words - (Univ. of Michigan
Press, 2nd ed. 1949)
Eugene A. Nida

35. • Zellig Sabbettai Harris (October 23, 1909 – May 22, 1992) was a very
influential American linguist, mathematical syntactician, and
methodologist of science. Originally a Semiticist, he is best known for
his work in structural linguistics and discourse analysis and for the
discovery of transformational structure in language.
• His contributions in the subsequent 35 years of his career include
transfer grammar, string analysis (adjunction grammar), elementary
sentence-differences, algebraic structures in language, operator
grammar, sublanguage grammar, a theory of linguistic information,
and a principled account of the nature and origin of language.
• It is widely believedthat Harris carried Bloomfieldian ideas of linguistic
description to their extreme development: the investigation of
discovery procedures for phonemes and morphemes, based on the
distributional properties of these units and of antecedent phonetic
elements.
• His Methods in Structural Linguistics (1951) is the definitive
formulation of descriptive structural work as he had developed it up to
about 1945.
• This book made him famous, but generativists have sometimes
interpreted it as a synthesis of a "neo-Bloomfieldian school" of
structuralism
• Metalanguage and notational systems
• Transformational structure in language
• Linguistics as applied mathematics
Zellig Sabbettai Harris

36. • Major contributions in the 1940s
• Harris's contributions to linguistics as of about 1945 as summarized in
Methods in Structural Linguistics (Harris 1951) include componential
analysis of long components in phonology, componential analysis of
morphology, discontinuous morphemes, and a substitution-grammar
of word- and phrase-expansions that is related to immediate-
constituent analysis, but without its limitations. With its manuscript
date of January 1946, the book has been recognized as including the
first formulation of the notion of a generative grammar.
• Harris's aim was to apply the tools of mathematics to the data of
language and establish the foundations of a science of language
• Distributional hypothesis: The distributional hypothesis in linguistics is derived
from the semantic theory of language usage, i.e. words that are used and occur in
the same contexts tend to purport similar meanings.
• Harris's students in linguistics include, among many others, Noam Chomsky,

37. •David Crystal
•Born 6 July 1941 (age 78)
Lisburn, Northern Ireland, UK
•Nationality : British Alma mater University College London
•He is a British linguist,
•Fields: Linguistics
•Website: davidcrystal.com
•Crystal studied English at University College
London between 1959
•He is an honorary professor of linguistics at Bangor. Retired
from full-time academia, he works as a writer, editor and
consultant, and contributes to television and radio broadcasts.
•His many academic interests include English language
learning and teaching, clinical linguistics, forensic linguistics,
language death,
•Crystal, David (1995). The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the
English Language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
•his article "What is Standard English",
•Book : dictionary of Linguistics and phonetics 6th edit.

38. • Charles Francis Hockett was an American linguist who
developed many influential ideas in American structuralist
linguistics.
• He represents the post-Bloomfieldian phase of structuralism
often referred to as "distributionalism" or "taxonomic
structuralism".
• Born: 17 January 1916, Columbus, Ohio, United States
• Died: 3 November 2000, Houston, Texas, United States
• Influenced by: Leonard Bloomfield
• Education: Yale University, The Ohio State University
• 1958: A Course in Modern Linguistics. The Macmillan
Company: New York.
• At the age of 16, Hockett enrolled at Ohio State University in Columbus, Ohio where he
received a Bachelor of Arts and Master of Arts in ancient history. While enrolled at Ohio
State, Hockett became interested in the work of Leonard Bloomfield, a leading figure in
the field of structural linguistics. Hockett continued his education at Yale University where
he studied anthropology and linguistics and received his PhD in anthropology in 1939.
While studying at Yale, Hockett studied with several other influential linguists such as
Edward Sapir, and Benjamin Whorf. In 1948 his dissertation was published as a series in
the International Journal of American Linguistics.
• contributions to the field of structural linguistics, Hockett also considered such things as
Whorfian Theory, jokes, the nature of writing systems, slips of the tongue, and animal
communication and their relativeness to speech.
Charles Francis Hockett

39. • Jules Bloch Born: 1 May 1880, Paris, France
• Died: 29 November 1953, France
• was a French linguist who studied Indian languages, and was also interested in
languages in their cultural and social contexts.
• Bibliography
• Jules Bloch, La formation de la langue marathe (The Formation of the Marathi
Language), thesis, (1914/1920), Prix Volney.
• Jules Bloch, 1954, The Grammatical Structure of Dravidian Languages, Authorised
Translation from the original French by Ramkrishna Ganesh Harshé, Deccan College
Hand-Book Series, Pune.
• Application of Cartography in Indo-Aryan History),
• Jules Bloch was a French linguist who studied Indian languages, and was also
interested in languages in their cultural and social contexts.
• Books: Pre-Aryan and Pre-Dravidian in India
Jules Bloch

40. • Born26 March 1911 Lancaster
• Died 8 February 1960 (aged 48) Oxford
• Alma mater: Balliol College, Oxford
• Era20th-century philosophy
• Main interests: Philosophy of language, philosophy of mind, ethics
• philosophy of perception
• Notable ideas: Speech acts, performative utterance,
linguistic phenomenology
John Langshaw Austin
•John Langshaw Austin (26 March 1911 – 8 February 1960) was a British philosopher of
language and leading proponent of ordinary language philosophy, perhaps best known for
developing the theory of speech acts.
•Austin, in providing his theory of speech acts, makes a significant challenge to the philosophy
of language, far beyond merely elucidating a class of morphological sentence forms that
function to do what they name.
•Several categories of speech act have been proposed viz. 1.Directives 2.Commissives
3.Expressives 4.Declarations 5.Represntatives 6. Performative .
•Sense and Sensibilia : According to Austin, normally these words allow us to express
reservations about our commitment to the truth of what we are saying, and that the
introduction of sense-data adds nothing to our understanding of or ability to talk about what
we see.
•He was president of the Aristotelian Society from 1956 to 1957.

41. • Stylistics: Leech has written extensively on the stylistics of literary texts. The two stylistic works for
which he is best known are A Linguistic Guide to English Poetry (1969) and Style in Fiction (1981; 2nd
edn. 2007), co-authored
• Semantics: Leech's interest in semantics was strong in the period up to 1980, when it gave
way to his interest in pragmatics. His PhD thesis at London University was on the semantics
of place, time and modality in English,
• Pragmatics: In the 1970s and 1980s Leech took a part in the development of pragmatics as a newly
emerging sub discipline of linguistics deeply influenced by the ordinary-language philosophers J. L.
Austin, J. R. Searle and H. P. Grice. In his main book on the subject, Principles of Pragmatics (1983),
Geoffrey Neil Leech
•Geoffrey Neil Leech (16 January 1936 – 19 August 2014)
•His main academic interests were English grammar, corpus
linguistics, stylistics, pragmatics and semantics.
•He began his teaching career at UCL, where he was influenced
by Michael Halliday as senior colleagues. Cambridge MA. In
1969 Leech moved to Lancaster University, UK, where he was
Professor of English Linguistics from 1974 to 2001. In 2002 he
became Emeritus Professor in the Department of Linguistics and
English Language, Lancaster University. mos. He died in
Lancaster, England on 19 August 2014.

42. • Geoffrey Leech, Author of Semantics (1974) talks about why he chose to study
Semantics…
• When I was a student, 55 years ago, the current climate of linguistic thinking was
against semantics. This was the era when American structuralism was in the
ascendant, and it was considered that meaning could not be studied objectively,
and therefore had to be ignored.
• At that time (1962) I was working with Michael (M.A.K.) Halliday, the most brilliant
mind in British linguistics, who was developing his own theories. I asked him which
of two fields (morphology or semantics – both of which I thought needed to be
developed within his theory) I should focus on, and he recommended semantics.
This pleased me, as it had seemed to me absurd that linguists of that era
concentrated on phonetics, phonology and syntax, and ignored meaning. After all,
what is the point of language without meaning?
• After that I wrote my PhD thesis on the semantics of English, and it was later
published as a book (1969). I was then asked to write a more popular book on
semantics for the general reader – a book that came out in the Penguin linguistic
series in 1974. The rest, as they say, is history!”

43. American-born linguist Noam Chomsky believes that we are born with a predisposition to
learn language. The essence of his theories of language acquisition state that human beings are
pre-wired to learn language and in fact are born with the basic rules for language intact
Chomsky rejects the radical behaviorist psychology of B. F. Skinner, who viewed behavior
(including talking and thinking) as a completely learned product of the interactions between
organisms and their environments. Accordingly, Chomsky argues that language is a unique
evolutionary development of the human species and distinguished from modes of
communication used by any other animal species
1.“Syntactic Structures”, 2.“Language and Mind,” 3.“Aspects of the Theory of Syntax,” 4. “The Minimalist
Program,” 5.generative grammar 6.the concept of a universal grammar,
 fields such as cognitive science, philosophy, psychology, computer science, mathematics, childhood
education, and anthropology
 Chomsky ‘s Doctoral students: Ray Jackendoff, George Lakoff,
NOAM CHOMSKY
Born: Avram Noam Chomsky, December 7,1928 (age 90)
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, U.S.
Noam Chomsky studied philosophy and linguistics at Penn, graduating
with a BA in 1949, an MA in 1951 and a PhD in 1955
Language rooted in the biology not behavior

44. • Born: 14 July 1932, Washington, D.C., United States
• Died February 7, 2002, Manhattan, New York City, New
York, United States
• Books: The metaphysics of meaning, Semantic
Theory,
• Within linguistics, Katz is best known for his
theory of semantics in generative grammar. Prof.
Katz was a staunch defender of Rationalism and
the metaphysical import of "essences“.
• underlying syntactic structure, syntactic
structures by projection rules, Sense, reference
and logic(parameters theory.)
• Katz gives something of a historical narrative of
linguistics and logic in the first half of the
20th century
Katz

45. • logic:
1. Premise 1: If it's raining then it's cloudy.
2. Premise 2: It's raining.
3. Conclusion: It's cloudy
variables representing statements
Premise 1: P → Q
Premise 2: P
Conclusion: Q
The same can be stated succinctly in the following way:
P → Q, P Ⱶ Q
, there are four possible assignments of truth values:
P is true and Q is true
P is true and Q is false
P is false and Q is true
P is false and Q is false

46. Jerry A. Fodor (1935—2017)
Jerry Fodor : Born Jerry Alan Fodor April 22, 1935
New York, New York, United States
Died: November 29, 2017 (aged 82) Manhattan, New York,
United States
Alma mater: Columbia University- 20th-/21st-century
philosophy
Main interests
Philosophy of mind, Philosophy of language, Cognitive science
,Rationalism, Cognitivism, Functionalism

47. • Jerry Fodor was one of the most important philosophers of mind of the late
twentieth and early twenty-first centuries. In addition to exerting an
enormous influence on virtually all parts of the literature in the philosophy
of mind since 1960, Fodor’s work had a significant impact on the
development of the cognitive sciences. In the 1960s, along with Hilary
Putnam, Noam Chomsky, and others, Fodor presented influential criticisms
of the behaviorism that dominated much philosophy and psychology
• Fodor argued that mental states, such as beliefs and desires, are relations
between individuals and mental representations. He maintained that these
representations can only be correctly explained in terms of a language of
thought (LOT) in the mind.
• Fodor, significant parts of the mind, such as perceptual and linguistic
processes, are structured in terms of modules, or "organs", which he
defines by their causal and functional roles.
• “If there is a community of computers living in my head, there had also
better be somebody who is in charge; and, by God, it had better be me.”
• Fodor (1998) "The Trouble with Psychological Darwinism" London Review of
Books, Vol. 20 No. 2, 22 January 1998, pp.11-13

48. • Born John Lyons
23 May 1932 (age 86) Stretford,
• Manchester, England
• Alma mater :Christ's College, Cambridge
• Occupation: English linguist
• In the summer of 1960, Lyons went to Indiana University to work in
a machine translation project; he was chosen because of his expertise
in Russian and linguistics. It was at Indiana, in a post-
Bloomfieldean milieu, where Lyons gave courses on general
linguistics.
• Semantics and sense relations
• R. H. Robins was his PhD supervisor
John Lyons

49. • Robert Henry Robins, (1 July 1921 – 20 April 2000), affectionately
known to his close ones as Bobby Robins, was a British linguist.
Before his retirement, he spent his entire career at the Department
of Phonetics and Linguistics at the School of Oriental and African
Studies of the University of London.
• Robin's work in linguistics covered several diverse areas, including
Firthian prosodic analysis, endangered languages and the history of
linguistic thought. He wrote two popular textbooks, General
Linguistics: An Introductory Survey (1964) and A Short History of
Linguistics (1967)
• Under Firth's directions, Robins carried out field work in the early
1950s
• some persons and some concepts of linguistics straddle the whole
century; zelling Harris is one , and distinctive features are another
(page223; 8 line ) Compiled by
Sundarabalu.S
Dept. of Linguistics, Bharathiar University
Coimbatore-46