• The genetic code is the set of rules by which information encoded in genetic material (DNA or RNA sequences) is translated into proteins (amino acid sequences) by living cells.
• The genetic code, once thought to be identical in all forms of life, has been found to diverge slightly in certain organisms and in the mitochondria of some eukaryotes.
• Nevertheless, these differences are rare, and the genetic code is identical in almost all species, with the same codons specifying the same amino acids.
Hello everyone, I am Dr. Ujwalkumar Trivedi, Head of Biotechnology Department at Marwadi University Rajkot. I teach Molecular Biology to the students of M.Sc. Microbiology and Biotechnology.
The current presentation talks about the types of mutations, various mutagens and their mechanism of mutagenesis. The later part of the presentation describes various DNA repair mechanisms.
Genetic code, Deciphering of genetic code, properties of genetic code, Initiation & termination of codons, Gene Mutation, non sense codon, release factors, Transition , Trans versions
Transportable elements are DNA Sequences that move from one location in a chromosome to another within the same chromosome or into another chromosome.
These are DNA Sequences that move from one location in a chromosome to another within the same chromosome or into another chromosome.
These are DNA Sequences that move from one location in a chromosome to another within the same chromosome or into another chromosome.
These are also known as “Jumping genes”.
Hello everyone, I am Dr. Ujwalkumar Trivedi, Head of Biotechnology Department at Marwadi University Rajkot. I teach Molecular Biology to the students of M.Sc. Microbiology and Biotechnology.
The current presentation talks about the types of mutations, various mutagens and their mechanism of mutagenesis. The later part of the presentation describes various DNA repair mechanisms.
Genetic code, Deciphering of genetic code, properties of genetic code, Initiation & termination of codons, Gene Mutation, non sense codon, release factors, Transition , Trans versions
Transportable elements are DNA Sequences that move from one location in a chromosome to another within the same chromosome or into another chromosome.
These are DNA Sequences that move from one location in a chromosome to another within the same chromosome or into another chromosome.
These are DNA Sequences that move from one location in a chromosome to another within the same chromosome or into another chromosome.
These are also known as “Jumping genes”.
BAC & YAC are artificially prepared chromosomes to clone DNA sequences.yeast artificial chromosome is capable of carrying upto 1000 kbp of inserted DNA sequence
RNA splicing, in molecular biology, is a form of RNA processing in which a newly made precursor messenger RNA transcript is transformed into a mature messenger RNA. During splicing, introns are removed and exons are joined together.
The base sequence information present in the gene (DNA) is copied into an RNA molecule, which directly participates in protein synthesis and provides information for amino acid sequence of the protein. This RNA molecule is called messenger RNA or mRNA. The process of production of RNA copy of a DNA sequence is called transcription; this reaction is catalyzed by DNA-directed RNA polymerase, or simply RNA polymerase.
Evolution has favoured many useful mutation by selection of certain phenotypic characters .This codon usage/ bias is one among them.The evolved characters and its benefits are as follows...............
BAC & YAC are artificially prepared chromosomes to clone DNA sequences.yeast artificial chromosome is capable of carrying upto 1000 kbp of inserted DNA sequence
RNA splicing, in molecular biology, is a form of RNA processing in which a newly made precursor messenger RNA transcript is transformed into a mature messenger RNA. During splicing, introns are removed and exons are joined together.
The base sequence information present in the gene (DNA) is copied into an RNA molecule, which directly participates in protein synthesis and provides information for amino acid sequence of the protein. This RNA molecule is called messenger RNA or mRNA. The process of production of RNA copy of a DNA sequence is called transcription; this reaction is catalyzed by DNA-directed RNA polymerase, or simply RNA polymerase.
Evolution has favoured many useful mutation by selection of certain phenotypic characters .This codon usage/ bias is one among them.The evolved characters and its benefits are as follows...............
Genetic code is the term we use for the way that the four bases of DNA--the A, C, G, and Ts--are strung together in a way that the cellular machinery, the ribosome, can read them and turn them into a protein. In the genetic code, each three nucleotides in a row count as a triplet and code for a single amino acid.
Genetic Code. A comprehensive overview..pdfmughalgumar440
The genetic code serves as nature's instruction manual, dictating how genetic information is translated into proteins essential for life. Comprised of codons which code for specific amino acid or signaling the start or end of protein synthesis. This code exhibits redundancy and universality across organisms, In essence, the genetic code is the foundation of biological diversity and functionality, shaping the characteristics and functions of all living beings.
The sequence of nucleotides in deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA) that determines the amino acid sequence of proteins. Though the linear sequence of nucleotides in DNA contains the information for protein sequences, proteins are not made directly from DNA. Instead, a messenger RNA (mRNA) molecule is synthesized from the DNA and directs the formation of the protein. RNA is composed of four nucleotides: adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), and uracil."(U)."
description of the deciphering of the genetic code and genetic code table and explanation of characteristics of the genetic code and different scientists involved in cracking of the genetic code
Microbial Biotransformation of Pesticides(xenobiotics).pptxAliya Fathima Ilyas
* Biotransformation is the chemical modification made by an organism on a chemical compound, often associated with change in pharmacologic and toxicologic activity.
* Caryophyllaceae is also known as pink family. Members of this family are well known for ornamental purposes.
* This family is well represented in the British Flora and many species are cultivated as ornamental garden flowers.
* The members of this family are commonly found in the temperate regions of the Northern Hemisphere.
*Reference - Taxonomy of Angiosperms - Dr. B. P. Pandey
Pteridophytes are part of a large group of plants known as tracheophytes.
Tracheophytes are plants that have a vascular system that allows water and nutrients to move throughout the plant.
* The Gymnosperms originated in the Devonian period of the Palaeozoic Era and formed the supreme vegetation in the Mesozoic Era.
* It was Robert Brown (1827) who first recognised gymnosperms as a separate entity among plant kingdom.
* The members of this family are mainly distributed in the tropical parts of the world. The plants occur mostly in dry regions.
* Several shrubby species of Capparis occur in the Mediterranean region.
* Reference - Taxonomy of Angiosperms - Dr. B. P. Pandey
* Water hyacinth is scientifically known as Eichhornia crassipes (Mart.) Solms and the common name is Lilac devil. Water hyacinth or water hyacinth is an herbaceous weed, succulent stem and has a flow (stolon) spanning the water surface.
* Water hyacinth is considered invasive throughout the world because it grows rapidly and can form thick mat over the water. These mats shade out the other aquatic plants. Eventually these shaded plants die and decay. Decaying process depletes the amount of dissolved oxygen in the water. Often waters below the water hyacinth masses become devoid of life.
• Transcription machinery interacts with the template strand to produce an mRNA whose sequence resembles the coding strand.
• Life on earth is said to have begun from self-replicating RNA since it is the only class of molecules capable of both catalysis and carrying genetic information.
• Transcription maintains the link between these two molecules and allows cells to use a stable nucleic acid as the genetic material while retaining most of their protein synthesis machinery.
• The scanning tunneling Microscope is an electron microscope that transmits three - dimensional images of the electron cloud around the nucleus.
• The scanning tunneling Microscope (STM) works by scanning a very sharp metal wire tip over a surface. By bringing the tip very close to the surface, and by applying an electrical voltage to the tip or sample, we can image the surface at an extremely small scale - down to resolving individual atoms.
Water stress & physiological consequences in plant growth.pdfAliya Fathima Ilyas
• Plants experience water stress either when the water supply to their roots becomes limiting or when the transpiration rate becomes intense.
• Water stress may range from moderate, and of short duration, to extremely severe and prolonged summer drought that has strongly influenced evolution and plant life.
• The physiological responses of plants to water stress and their relative importance for crop productivity vary with species, soil type, nutrients and climate.
• Spatial data is of crucial importance to the Military Commander in the battle as it is for a decision maker in planning and development in a state’s growth.
• Ministry of Defence in any country gathers data on routing, filtering, analysing and presenting information for decision-making.
• The membrane enclosing a cell is called cell membrane or plasma membrane (animal cells) and plasma lemma (plant cells).
• It contains proteins and lipids in the ratio of 80 : 20 in bacteria on one extreme and on the other extreme 20 : 80 in some nerve cells.
• The over all composition of most of the cell membranes is 40-50% protein and 50-60% lipids; both the components vary in their composition.
• Neo – Darwinians thought that adaptations result from multiple forces and natural selections is only one of these many forces.
• This lead to the formulation of the ‘Germplasm theory’ which states that ‘any change to the somatoplam will not have an influence over the germplasm’.
• Marsilea hirsuta & Marsilea quadrifolia are two most common Indian species, usually found growing in marshy places, wet soil or near muddy margins of ponds.
• The species are hydrophytic or amphibious i.e., they grow rooted in mud or marshes and shallow pools or are completely submerged or partially or entirely out of water in wet habitats.
Students, digital devices and success - Andreas Schleicher - 27 May 2024..pptxEduSkills OECD
Andreas Schleicher presents at the OECD webinar ‘Digital devices in schools: detrimental distraction or secret to success?’ on 27 May 2024. The presentation was based on findings from PISA 2022 results and the webinar helped launch the PISA in Focus ‘Managing screen time: How to protect and equip students against distraction’ https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/education/managing-screen-time_7c225af4-en and the OECD Education Policy Perspective ‘Students, digital devices and success’ can be found here - https://oe.cd/il/5yV
The Roman Empire A Historical Colossus.pdfkaushalkr1407
The Roman Empire, a vast and enduring power, stands as one of history's most remarkable civilizations, leaving an indelible imprint on the world. It emerged from the Roman Republic, transitioning into an imperial powerhouse under the leadership of Augustus Caesar in 27 BCE. This transformation marked the beginning of an era defined by unprecedented territorial expansion, architectural marvels, and profound cultural influence.
The empire's roots lie in the city of Rome, founded, according to legend, by Romulus in 753 BCE. Over centuries, Rome evolved from a small settlement to a formidable republic, characterized by a complex political system with elected officials and checks on power. However, internal strife, class conflicts, and military ambitions paved the way for the end of the Republic. Julius Caesar’s dictatorship and subsequent assassination in 44 BCE created a power vacuum, leading to a civil war. Octavian, later Augustus, emerged victorious, heralding the Roman Empire’s birth.
Under Augustus, the empire experienced the Pax Romana, a 200-year period of relative peace and stability. Augustus reformed the military, established efficient administrative systems, and initiated grand construction projects. The empire's borders expanded, encompassing territories from Britain to Egypt and from Spain to the Euphrates. Roman legions, renowned for their discipline and engineering prowess, secured and maintained these vast territories, building roads, fortifications, and cities that facilitated control and integration.
The Roman Empire’s society was hierarchical, with a rigid class system. At the top were the patricians, wealthy elites who held significant political power. Below them were the plebeians, free citizens with limited political influence, and the vast numbers of slaves who formed the backbone of the economy. The family unit was central, governed by the paterfamilias, the male head who held absolute authority.
Culturally, the Romans were eclectic, absorbing and adapting elements from the civilizations they encountered, particularly the Greeks. Roman art, literature, and philosophy reflected this synthesis, creating a rich cultural tapestry. Latin, the Roman language, became the lingua franca of the Western world, influencing numerous modern languages.
Roman architecture and engineering achievements were monumental. They perfected the arch, vault, and dome, constructing enduring structures like the Colosseum, Pantheon, and aqueducts. These engineering marvels not only showcased Roman ingenuity but also served practical purposes, from public entertainment to water supply.
How to Create Map Views in the Odoo 17 ERPCeline George
The map views are useful for providing a geographical representation of data. They allow users to visualize and analyze the data in a more intuitive manner.
Operation “Blue Star” is the only event in the history of Independent India where the state went into war with its own people. Even after about 40 years it is not clear if it was culmination of states anger over people of the region, a political game of power or start of dictatorial chapter in the democratic setup.
The people of Punjab felt alienated from main stream due to denial of their just demands during a long democratic struggle since independence. As it happen all over the word, it led to militant struggle with great loss of lives of military, police and civilian personnel. Killing of Indira Gandhi and massacre of innocent Sikhs in Delhi and other India cities was also associated with this movement.
How to Make a Field invisible in Odoo 17Celine George
It is possible to hide or invisible some fields in odoo. Commonly using “invisible” attribute in the field definition to invisible the fields. This slide will show how to make a field invisible in odoo 17.
Synthetic Fiber Construction in lab .pptxPavel ( NSTU)
Synthetic fiber production is a fascinating and complex field that blends chemistry, engineering, and environmental science. By understanding these aspects, students can gain a comprehensive view of synthetic fiber production, its impact on society and the environment, and the potential for future innovations. Synthetic fibers play a crucial role in modern society, impacting various aspects of daily life, industry, and the environment. ynthetic fibers are integral to modern life, offering a range of benefits from cost-effectiveness and versatility to innovative applications and performance characteristics. While they pose environmental challenges, ongoing research and development aim to create more sustainable and eco-friendly alternatives. Understanding the importance of synthetic fibers helps in appreciating their role in the economy, industry, and daily life, while also emphasizing the need for sustainable practices and innovation.
The Art Pastor's Guide to Sabbath | Steve ThomasonSteve Thomason
What is the purpose of the Sabbath Law in the Torah. It is interesting to compare how the context of the law shifts from Exodus to Deuteronomy. Who gets to rest, and why?
2. GENETIC CODE
• Genetic Code refers to the relationship between the sequence of nitrogenous bases (UCAG) in mRNA
and the sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide chain.
• In other words, the relationship between the 4 letters language of nucleotides and twenty letters
language of amino acids is known as genetic code.
• The genetic code is the set of rules by which information encoded in genetic material (DNA or RNA
sequences) is translated into proteins (amino acid sequences) by living cells.
• The genetic code, once thought to be identical in all forms of life, has been found to diverge slightly in
certain organisms and in the mitochondria of some eukaryotes.
• Nevertheless, these differences are rare, and the genetic code is identical in almost all species, with the
same codons specifying the same amino acids.
• The genetic code consists of 64 triplets of nucleotides. These triplets are called codons.
• With three exceptions, each codon encodes for one of the 20 amino acids used in the synthesis of
proteins.
• This produces some redundancy in the code; most of the amino acids being encoded by more than one
codon.
3. • DNA (or RNA) carries all the genetic information and it is expressed in the form of proteins.
• Proteins are made of 20 different amino acids.
• The information about the number and sequence of these amino acids forming protein is present
in DNA, and during transcription is passed over to mRNA.
• The form in which it is transferred was not understood for long.
• Pentose sugar and phosphate of DNA could not perform this job of passing on the genetic
message to mRNA because sugar is only of one type and so also the phosphate.
• This leaves only four nucleotides to form the message for 20 amino acids, but 4 nucleotides are
too few for twenty amino acids.
• This difficult problem was solved with the discovery that a codon containing coded information
for one amino acid consists three nucleotides (a triplet code).
• Thus for twenty amino acids, 64 (4 x 4 x 4 or 43 = 64) possible permutation are available. This
break through resulted into 64 codons dictionary - the Genetic Code.
4. • According to Bark (1970) the genetic code is a
code for amino acids, specifically it is
concerned with as to what codons specify what
amino acids.
• Genetic code is the outcome of experiments
performed by M. Nirenberg, S. Ochoa, H.
Khorana, F. Crick and Mathaei, Professor M.
Nirenberg was awarded Nobel Prize in 1961 for
this outstanding work.
• The dictionary of genetic code employs the
letters in RNA (U, C, A, G, i.e., A = Adenine, U =
Uracil, C = Cytosine, G = Guanine)
• The codon for the amino acids, which are the
same in all known life forms, have been
determined experimentally.
5. PROPERTIES OF GENETIC CODE
The code is a triplet codon
• The nucleotides of mRNA are arranged as
a linear sequence of codons, each codon
consisting of three successive
nitrogenous bases, i.e., the code is a
triplet codon.
• The concept of triplet codon has been
supported by two types of point
mutations:
Frame shift mutations
Base substitutions.
1
6. (i) Frameshift mutations
• Evidently, the genetic message once initiated at a
fixed point is read in a definite frame in a series
of three letter words.
• The framework would be disturbed as soon as
there is a deletion or addition of one or more
bases.
• When such frame shift mutations were inter-
crossed, then in certain combinations they
produce wild type normal gene.
• It was concluded that one of them was deletion
and the other an addition, so that the disturbed
order of the frame due to mutation will be
restored by the other.
7. (ii) Base substitution
• If in a mRNA molecule at a particular point, one base pair is
replaced by another without any deletion or addition, the meaning
of one codon containing such an altered base will be changed.
• In consequence, in place of a particular amino acid at a particular
position in a polypeptide, another amino acid will be incorporated.
• For example, due to substitution mutation, in the gene for
tryptophan synthetase enzyme in E. coli, the GGA codon for glycine
becomes a mis-sence codon AGA which codes for arginine.
• Mis-sence codon is a codon which undergoes an alteration to
specify another amino acid.
• A more direct evidence for a triplet code came from the finding
that a piece of mRNA containing 90 nucleotides, corresponded to a
polypeptide chain of 30 amino acids of a growing haemoglobin
molecule.
• Similarly, 1200 nucleotides of “satellite” tobacco necrosis virus
direct the synthesis of coat protein molecules which have 372
amino acids.
8. The code is non-overlapping
• In translating mRNA molecules the codons do not overlap but are “read”
sequentially.
• Thus, a non-overlapping code means that a base in a mRNA is not used
for different codons.
• However, in actual practice six bases code for not more than two amino
acids.
• For example, in case of an overlapping code, a single change in the base
sequence will be reflected in substitutions of more than one amino acid in
corresponding protein.
• Many examples have accumulated since 1956 in which a single base
substitution results into a single amino acid change in insulin, tryptophan
synthetase, TMV coat protein, alkaline phosphatase, haemoglobin, etc.
2
9. 3 The code is comma-less
• The genetic code is comma-less, which means that no codon is reserved for
punctuations.
• It means that after one amino acid is coded, the second amino acid will be
automatically, coded by the next three letters and that no letters are wasted
as the punctuation marks.
4 The code has polarity
• Each triplet is read from 5’ → 3’ direction and the beginning base is 5’
followed by the base in the middle then the last base which is 3’.
• This implies that the codons have a fixed polarity and if the codon is read in
the reverse direction, the base sequence of the codon would reverse and
would specify two different proteins.
10. 5 The code is degenerate
• The code is degenerate which means that the same amino acid is coded by more than one base
triplet.
• Genetic code is degenerate i.e., more than one codon can code for same amino acid.
• For example, the three amino acids arginine, alanine and leucine each have six synonymous
codons.
• There are a total of 64 codons and 20 known amino acids.
• Hence, if you are asked to assign one amino acid to each codon then it is obvious that same
amino acids will be assigned too many amino acids.
• Hence a single amino acid can be coded by many codons except tryptophan and methionine
which are coded by one codon each.
• Degeneracy of genetic code is also known as redundancy.
11. Partial Degeneracy
• When the first two nitrogenous bases are
same but the third base is different, the
degeneracy is called partial degeneracy,
e.g. CUU and CUC (codes for amino acid
leucine)
Complete Degeneracy
• Complete degeneracy occurs when the
third position in the genetic code can be
taken by any of the four bases and the
codon in each case codes for same amino
acid. i.e., UCU, UCA, UCC, UCG (codons
codes for serine)
12. 6 Co – linearity
• DNA is a linear polynucleotide chain and a protein is a linear polypeptide chain.
• The sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide chain corresponds to the sequence of nucleotide
bases in the gene (DNA) that code for it.
• Change in a specific codon in DNA produces a change of amino acid in the corresponding position
in the polypeptide.
• The gene and the polypeptide it codes for are said to be co-linear.
Non - ambiguity
• A particular codon will always code for the same amino acid, (i.e. genetic code is specific ) for e.g.
UUU codes for amino acid Phenylalanine, it cannot code for any other amino acid.
• While the same amino acid can be coded by more than one codon (the code is degenerate), the
same codon shall not code for two or more different amino acids.
• This property of genetic code makes them non ambiguous. However, there are some exceptions.
AUG and GUG both may code for methionine although GUG codes for valine.
GGA is another codon which codes for two amino acid glycine and glutamic acid.
7
13. Some codes act as start codons
• In most organisms, AUG codon is the start or initiation codon, i.e., the polypeptide chain
starts either with methionine (eukaryotes) or N- formyl methionine (prokaryotes).
• Methionyl or N-formyl methionyl-tRNA specifically binds to the initiation site of mRNA
containing the AUG initiation codon.
• In rare cases, GUG also serves as the initiation codon, e.g., bacterial protein synthesis.
• Normally, GUG codes for valine, but when normal AUG codon is lost by deletion, only
then GUG is used as initiation codon.
9
8 Gene – polypeptide pairity
• A specific gene transcribes a specific mRNA that produces a specific polypeptide.
• On this basis, a cell can have only as many types of polypeptides as it has types of genes.
However, this does not apply to certain viruses which have overlapping genes.
14. Some codes act as stop codons
• Three codons UAG, UAA and UGA are the chain stop or termination codons. They do not code for
any of the amino acids.
• These codons are not read by any tRNA molecules (via their anticodons), but are read by some
specific proteins, called release factors (e.g., RF-1, RF-2, RF-3 in prokaryotes and RF in eukaryotes).
• These codons are also called nonsense codons, since they do not specify any amino acid.
• The UAG was the first termination codon to be discovered by Sidney Brenner (1965).
• It was named amber after a graduate student named Bernstein (= the German word for ‘amber’ and
amber means brownish yellow) who help in the discovery of a class of mutations.
• Apparently, to give uniformity the other two termination codons were also named after colours such
as ochre for UAA and opal or umber for UGA.
• The existence of more than one stop codon might be a safety measure, in case the first codon fails
to function.
10
15. 11 The code is universal
• Same genetic code is found valid for all organisms ranging from bacteria to man.
• Such universality of the code was demonstrated by Marshall, Caskey and Nirenberg (1967) who
found that E. coli (Bacterium), Xenopus laevis (Amphibian) and guinea pig (mammal) amino acyl-
tRNA use almost the same code.
• Nirenberg has also stated that the genetic code may have developed 3 billion years ago with the
first bacteria, and it has changed very little throughout the evolution of living organisms.
• Recently, some differences have been discovered between the universal genetic code and
mitochondrial genetic code.
16. Codon Mammalian
mitocondrial code
Yeast mitochondrial
code”
“Universal Code
1. UGA Trp * Trp Stop
2. AUA Met Met Lie
3. CUA Leu Thr Leu
4. AGA Stop Arg Arg
Differences between ‘universal genetic code’ & two mitochondrial
genetic codes
* Italic type indicates that the code differs from the ‘universal’ code
Once you find your sources, you will want to evaluate your sources using the following questions:
Author:
Who is the author?
Why should I believe what he or she has to say on the topic?
Is the author seen as an expert on the topic? How do you know?
Current:
How current is the information in the source?
When was the source published?
Is the information out-of-date?
Accuracy:
Is the content accurate?
Is the information presented objectively? Do they share the pros and cons?
When conducting research, it is easy to go to one source: Wikipedia. However, you need to include a variety of sources in your research. Consider the following sources:
Who can I interview to get more information on the topic?
Is the topic current and will it be relevant to my audience?
What articles, blogs, and magazines may have something related to my topic?
Is there a YouTube video on the topic? If so, what is it about?
What images can I find related to the topic?
After consulting a variety of sources, you will need to narrow your topic. For example, the topic of internet safety is huge, but you could narrow that topic to include internet safety in regards to social media apps that teenagers are using heavily. A topic like that is more specific and will be relevant to your peers. Some questions to think about to help you narrow your topic:
What topics of the research interest me the most?
What topics of the research will interest my audience the most?
What topics will the audience find more engaging? Shocking? Inspiring?
Now, that you have narrowed your topic, you will want to organize your research in a structure that works. There are some common organizational patterns based on the kind of research you are doing.
Organizational Structures:
Cause and Effect- this kind of structure is great for explaining the causes and effects of a topic
Compare and Contrast- in this pattern you highlight the similarities and differences of the topic
Explain process- this structure is great for outlining a series of steps to follow;
Definition- if you want to make sure your audience understands what something is using illustrations, meanings, clarifying misconceptions, you may want to use this structure
Classification- a common organizational structure is grouping like topics or facts from the research together. For instance, in the internet safety about social media apps, you may organize the research where you look at each social media app one at a time
