The key characteristic of a cellular network is the ability to reuse frequencies to increase both coverage and capacity. Cellular networks divide geographic areas into smaller cells and assign different frequency groups to neighboring cells to minimize interference and allow for frequency reuse. This allows the same frequencies to be reused in different cells separated by a sufficient distance.
Introduction to basics of wireless networks such as
• Radio waves & wireless signal encoding techniques
• Wireless networking issues & constraints
• Wireless internetworking devices
Introduction to basics of wireless networks such as
• Radio waves & wireless signal encoding techniques
• Wireless networking issues & constraints
• Wireless internetworking devices
UNIT I
WIRELESS COMMUNICATION
Cellular systems- Frequency Management and Channel Assignment- types of handoff and their characteristics, dropped call rates & their evaluation -MAC – SDMA – FDMA –TDMA – CDMA – Cellular Wireless Networks
UNIT I
WIRELESS COMMUNICATION
Cellular systems- Frequency Management and Channel Assignment- types of handoff and their characteristics, dropped call rates & their evaluation -MAC – SDMA – FDMA –TDMA – CDMA – Cellular Wireless Networks
STANDARD ASCENSION TOWERS GROUP was established on Dec 08 2015 as a domestic business corporation. Larry Jordan II Buffalo NY. Founded 5 Stems llc a telecommunication infrastructure construction company Minority and vet owned. BS Florida Tech, MBA/PHD Colorado Tech.
STANDARD ASCENSION TOWERS GROUP was established on Dec 08 2015 as a domestic business corporation. Larry Jordan Buffalo NY. Founded 5 Stems llc a telecommunication infrastructure construction company Minority and vet owned. BS Florida Tech, MBA/PHD Colorado Tech.
The GSM/UMTS/LTE Basics course presents in a concise form all the issues connected with modern cellular network, where GSM including GPRS/EDGE and UMTS including HSDPA/HSUPA services are commonly used and implementation of LTE together with IMS is a challenge of the following years.
During the training, all the radio access technologies i.e. GSM, UMTS and LTE and all types of services i.e. traditional telephony, packet transmission and IMS services are presented with the equal stress, since in the modern cellular network, all of them are run or will be run simultaneously in the near future.
Instead of presenting the topics in the traditional form, describing one technology after another, this course rather concentrates on common radio and network problems and on how this common problems are solved by GSM, UMTS and LTE, Thanks to, such form of the training, it becomes clear for the participants, that within 3GPP, there are no technologies that are fundamentally better or worsen then the others; each of them is optimized towards a certain environments and services; and all of them interwork with each other, creating one common, constantly evolving network.
With the GSM/UMTS/LTE Basics course participants may begin their cellular network education. Further, there are more advanced courses, which present aspects of GSM, UMTS and LTE technologies in greater detail.
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For most of us, our name existed even before we did.
In anticipation of our arrival, our parents went through an ultra stressful process of narrowing down dozens of potential names until they chose the perfect one.
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flora and fauna of himachal pradesh and keralaAJAL A J
flora and fauna of himachal pradesh and kerala
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Increase your Conversion Rate. ...
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The Indian economy is classified into different sectors to simplify the analysis and understanding of economic activities. For Class 10, it's essential to grasp the sectors of the Indian economy, understand their characteristics, and recognize their importance. This guide will provide detailed notes on the Sectors of the Indian Economy Class 10, using specific long-tail keywords to enhance comprehension.
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2024.06.01 Introducing a competency framework for languag learning materials ...Sandy Millin
http://sandymillin.wordpress.com/iateflwebinar2024
Published classroom materials form the basis of syllabuses, drive teacher professional development, and have a potentially huge influence on learners, teachers and education systems. All teachers also create their own materials, whether a few sentences on a blackboard, a highly-structured fully-realised online course, or anything in between. Despite this, the knowledge and skills needed to create effective language learning materials are rarely part of teacher training, and are mostly learnt by trial and error.
Knowledge and skills frameworks, generally called competency frameworks, for ELT teachers, trainers and managers have existed for a few years now. However, until I created one for my MA dissertation, there wasn’t one drawing together what we need to know and do to be able to effectively produce language learning materials.
This webinar will introduce you to my framework, highlighting the key competencies I identified from my research. It will also show how anybody involved in language teaching (any language, not just English!), teacher training, managing schools or developing language learning materials can benefit from using the framework.
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The people of Punjab felt alienated from main stream due to denial of their just demands during a long democratic struggle since independence. As it happen all over the word, it led to militant struggle with great loss of lives of military, police and civilian personnel. Killing of Indira Gandhi and massacre of innocent Sikhs in Delhi and other India cities was also associated with this movement.
1. 3.2 FREQUENCY RE USE
The key characteristic of a cellular network is the ability to re-use frequencies
to increase both coverage and capacity.
AJAL.A.J
Assistant Professor –Dept of ECE,
Federal Institute of Science And Technology (FISAT) TM
MAIL: ec2reach@gmail.com
2. Cellular Concept
The limited capacity of the first mobile radio-telephone services was related
to the spectrum used…not much sharing and a lot of bandwidth dedicated to
a single call.
– good coverage
– interference: impossible to reuse the same frequency
The cellular concept addressed many of the shortcomings of the first mobile
telephones
– Frequency reuse
– Wasted spectrum allocated to a single user
In 1968, Bell Labs proposed the cellular telephony concept to the FCC
It was approved and then the work began!
– FCC allocated spectrum (took away TV UHF channels 70-83) in the
825-845 MHz and 870-890 MHz bands
3. Cellular Concept
developed by Bell Labs 1960’s-70’s
areas divided into cells
a system approach, no major technological changes
a few hundred meters in some cities, 10s km at country side
each served by base station with lower power transmitter
each gets portion of total number of channels
neighboring cells assigned different groups of channels,
interference minimized
hexagon geometry cell shape
4. What is a Cell?
• Cell is the Basic Union in The System
– defined as the area where radio coverage is given by
one base station.
• A cell has one or several frequencies, depending on
traffic load.
– Fundamental idea: Frequencies are reused, but not in
neighboring cells due to interference.
5. Cellular Concept
Limited number of frequencies => limited channels
Single high power antenna => limited number of users
Smaller cells => frequency reuse possible => more number of users
Base stations (BS): implement space division multiplex
– Each BS covers a certain transmission area (cell)
– Each BS is allocated a portion of the total number of channels available
– Cluster: group of nearby BSs that together use all available channels
Mobile stations communicate only via the base station
– FDMA, TDMA, CDMA may be used within a cell
As demand increases (more channels are needed)
– Number of base stations is increased
– Transmitter power is decreased correspondingly to avoid interference
6. Cellular Concept
Cell size:
– 100 m in cities to 35 km on the country side (GSM)
– even less for higher frequencies
– Umbrella cell: large cell that includes several smaller cells
• Avoid frequent handoffs for fast moving traffic
Cell shape:
– Hexagonal is useful for theoretical analysis
– Practical footprint (radio coverage area) is amorphous
BS placement:
– Center-excited cell: BS near center of cell
• omni-directional antenna
– Edge-excited cell: BSs on three of the six cell vertices
• sectored directional antennas
7. Cellular Concept
Advantages:
– higher capacity, higher number of users
– less transmission power needed
– more robust, decentralized
– base station deals with interference, transmission area etc. locally
Problems:
– fixed network needed for the base stations
– handover (changing from one cell to another) necessary
– interference with other cells: co-channel, adjacent-channel
Important Issues:
– Cell sizing
– Frequency reuse planning
– Channel allocation strategies
Bottom line: Attempt to maximize availability of channels in an area
8. • Cells labeled with the same letter use the same
group of channels.
• Cell Cluster: group of N cells using complete
set of available channels
• Many base stations, lower power, and shorter
towers
• Small coverage areas called “cells”
• Each cell allocated a % of the total number of
available channels
• Nearby (adjacent) cells assigned different
channel groups
– to prevent interference between neighboring
base stations and mobile users
9. Cell characteristics
• Implements space division multiplex: base
station covers a certain transmission area
(cell)
• Mobile stations communicate only via the
base station
• Advantages of cell structures:
– higher capacity, higher number of users
– less transmission power needed
– more robust, decentralized
– base station deals with interference, transmission area etc. locally
• Problems:
– fixed network needed for the base stations
– handover (changing from one cell to another) necessary
– interference with other cells
• Cell sizes from some 100 m in cities to, e.g., 35 km
on the country side (GSM) - even less for higher
frequencies
10. Shape of Cells
Square
Width d cell has four neighbors at distance d and four at
distance 2d
Better if all adjacent antennas equidistant
Simplifies choosing and switching to new antenna
Hexagon
Provides equidistant antennas
Radius defined as radius of circum-circle
Distance from center to vertex equals length of side
Distance between centers of cells radius R is 3 R
Not always precise hexagons
Topographical limitations
Local signal propagation conditions
Location of antennas
13. Cellular Network Architecture
Mobile Public
Switching
Center
Telephone
network
and Internet
Mobile
Switching
Center
Wired network
14. Frequency Reuse
Adjacent cells assigned different frequencies to avoid
interference or crosstalk
Objective is to reuse frequency in nearby cells
– 10 to 50 frequencies assigned to each cell
– transmission power controlled to limit power at that frequency
escaping to adjacent cells
– the issue is to determine how many cells must intervene between
two cells using the same frequency
15. Frequency Reuse
each cell allocated a group k channels
– a cluster has N cells with unique and disjoint channel
groups, N typically 4, 7, 12
total number of duplex channels S = kN
Cluster repeated M times in a system
Total number of channels that can be used (capacity)
– C = MkN = MS
Smaller cells higher M higher C
+ Channel reuse higher capacity
+ Lower power requirements for mobiles
– Additional base stations required
– More frequent handoffs
– Greater chance of ‘hot spots’
16. Frequency planning
f3 f3 f3
f2 f2
f1 f1 f1
f3 f3 3 cell cluster
f2 f2 f2
f1 f1
f3 f3 f3
f2 f3 f7
f5 f2
f4 f6 f5
7 cell cluster f1 f4
f3 f7 f1
f2 f3
f6 f5 f2
f2 f2 f2
f1 f f1 f f1 f
h h
3 cell cluster
3 3 3
h 2 h 2
g2 1 h3 g2 1 h3 g2
g1 g1 g1
g3 g3 g3 with 3 sector antennas
18. Frequency planning
• Frequency reuse only with a certain
distance between the base stations
• Standard model using 7 frequencies:
f3
f5 f2
f4 f6 f5
f1 f4
f3 f7 f1
f2
19. FREQUENCY REUSE
• The allotted frequency spectrum for mobile
communication
• during the 1 G is in the range of (800- 900 )
Mhz
• but ,Using this small bandwidth, thousands of
subscribers need to be served over a large
area.
• To manage this situation, a technique called
‘’frequency reuse ‘’ is adopted.
22. Cellular Networks
• Propagation models represent cell as a circular area
• Approximate cell coverage with a hexagon - allows easier
• analysis
• Frequency assignment of F MHz for the system
• The multiple access techniques translates F to T traffic channels
• Cluster of cells K = group of adjacent cells which use all of the systems
frequency assignment
31. Freq reuse Advantage
Cluster3
Freq reuse: Several cells in
coverage area that use same set
of frequencies
Cochannel cells: Those cells
Cluster1 using same freqs
Cochannel interference: The
mobile in cell A also gets
signals from other Co channel
cells
Cluster2
31
33. Frequency Reuse
Power of base transceiver controlled
Allow communications within cell on given frequency
Limit escaping power to adjacent cells
Allow re-use of frequencies in nearby cells
Use same frequency for multiple conversations
10 – 50 frequencies per cell
E.g.
The pattern consists of N cells
K total number of frequencies used in systems
Each cell has K/N frequencies
Advanced Mobile Phone Service (AMPS) K=395, N=7 giving 57
frequencies per cell on average
34. Characterizing Frequency
Reuse distance between centers of cells that use the same
D = minimum
band of frequencies (called cochannels)
R = radius of a cell
d = distance between centers of adjacent cells (d = R)
N = number of cells in repetitious pattern
Reuse factor
Each cell in pattern uses unique band of frequencies
Hexagonal cell pattern, following values of N possible
N = I2 + J2 + (I x J), I, J = 0, 1, 2, 3, …
Possible values of N are 1, 3, 4, 7, 9, 12, 13, 16, 19, 21, …
D/R= 3N
D/d = N
37. Example of frequency reuse factor
or pattern 1/4
The frequency reuse factor is the rate at which the same frequency can
be used in the network. It is 1/K (or K according to some books) where
K is the number of cells which cannot use the same frequencies for
transmission. Common values for the frequency reuse factor are
1/3, 1/4, 1/7, 1/9 and 1/12 (or 3, 4, 7, 9 and 12 depending on notation).
38. Reuse Ratio : q
Assuming hexagonal shape cells of equal size
D
= q = 3N
R
where:
D: Distance between the centres of cells
R: Radius of the cell
q: Reuse ratio
N: Cluster size
38
39. Example
For N = 7 and R 5 km
D = 3N R
D = 3× 7 × 5
D = 4.583 × 5 = 22.91
The minimum distance at which the same frequency can
be reused is approximately 4.6 times R, which is in this
case 22.91 km
39
42. So what is FREQUENCY REUSE ?
• After allotting the available total bandwidth
among a set of cells , the same frequency
band will be used in another set of cells .
• This kind of reuse can be adopted until the
entire area to be covered is exhausted .
• Note
• Seven cells in a set is the most frequently
used configuration.this configuration
usually operates with a cell diameter of 1-
3 km range
43. Cellular architecture
One low power transmitter per cell
B Frequency reuse–limited spectrum
A
Cell splitting to increase capacity
Reuse distance: minimum distance between
two cells using same channel for satisfactory
signal to noise ratio
Measured in # of cells in between
44. Reuse distance 2 – reuse pattern
One frequency can be (re)used in all cells of the same color
47. Capacity calculation—FDMA
n: capacity (number of total users)
m: number of cells to cover the area
N: frequency reuse factor (# cells/cluster)
B: bandwidth per user
W: total available bandwidth (spectrum)
mW
n=
N B 50
48. Problem
In an FDMA system calculate
frequency re use factor ?
• m= 70
• W= 100
• n=10
• B=100
• N = ? cells/cluster
49. Capacity calculation—FDMA
In the previous example,
• m=20,
• W=25 MHz,
• N=4, and
• B=30 KHz.
m W 20 25000
n= = = 4,166
N B 4 30
52
50. Capacity calculation—TDMA
• n: capacity (number of total users)
• m: number of cells to cover the area
• N: frequency reuse factor (# cells/cluster)
• B: bandwidth per user
• W: total available bandwidth (spectrum)
• Nu: number of time slots per carrier
mW
n= Nu
N B 53
52. Capacity of CDMA
n: number of users
W: total bandwidth
R: data rate
Sr: signal to noise ratio
W
n=
R × Sr
55
53. Capacity per cell (CDMA)
Assume:
W=1.25MHz=1,250,000 Hz
R=9600 bps
Sr should be larger than 3dB => 2 times
W 1250000
n= = = 65 users
R × S r 9600 × 2
56
54. System architecture
• A set of seven cells will be controlled by a
BSC base station controller
• The terminal station located in every cell
will have access to the BSC.
• 7 base terminal stations will have one
BSC
• For every frequency reuse , 1 BSC is
required.
The elements that determine frequency reuse are
the reuse distance and the reuse factor
55. Scenario
• For 100 BTS we require more than 14
BSC’s
• All BSC are connected to a Mobile
Switching centre.
• Here mobile stations are connected to
BTS by wireless means
• All Base stations are connected to their
respective BSC’sby cables.
• In modern communication , fibre optic
cables are used to connect BTS
56. @ 3G
Fig: Advanced cellular mobile
communication system Architecture
57. Cell Planning (1/3)
• The K factor and Frequency Re-Use Distance
7
6 2
K = i2 + ij + j2 1
K = 22 + 2*1 + 12 5 3
j
K=4+2+1 7 R
2
K=7 6
1 i
D
5 3
4
D= √3K * R
D = 4.58R
Frequency re-use distance is based on the cluster size K
The cluster size is specified in terms of the offset of the center of a cluster from the
center of the adjacent cluster
59. Cell Planning (3/3)
• Cell sectoring
– Directional antennas
subdivide cell into 3
or 6 sectors
– Might also increase
cell capacity by factor
of 3 or 6
• Cell splitting
– Decrease
transmission power in
base and mobile
– Results in more and
smaller cells
– Reuse frequencies in
non-contiguous cell
groups
– Example: ½ cell
radius leads 4 fold
capacity increase
60. BTS
• BTS acts as an interface between the
Mobile unit & BSC
• BTS connects mobile units by wireless
means to the BSC
BTS Antenna
• BTS has got an antenna usually at an elevation location.
• Invariantly , Roof tops,
• Small steel towerare used for erecting the BTS antenna.
61. Omni directional coverage= coverage in all
directions
• Compact power supply systems (some even
chargeable batteries) are used at the base
terminal stations.
• BTS is usually located at the centre of the cell
area for omni directional coverage.
INDIAN ANALOGY
62. Bandwidth vs mobility
• The wireless interface at BTS and wired
topologytopology between BTS- BSC & BSC
– MSC necessitates certain translation in
protocols.
• Upto the stage of BTS , air interface protocols
are used. After BTS , the transmission media
happen to be wired one , mostly fibre optic
communication.
• Hence at the BTS or BSC stage , there is a
need for the translation of these protocols
63. Illustration – of translation
requirement
• In mobile communication at the mobile
user’s unit the speech signal is connected
into 13 kbps digitized voice. This
conversion is is required to have an air
interface with bandwidth efficiency.
• But the backbone network through which
the voice has to travel in certain
applications can provide 64 kbps.
Contd…
64. Contd…
• PCM digitization is adopted in fixed
telephone network which make use of
these backbone network.
• When mobile unit converts the analog
information into 13kbps digital
information , the BSC converts the same
into 64 kbps information.
65. Frequency reuse revisited: cluster size and reuse distance
Cluster with cluster
size N
D
frequency group
A
Co-channel cells frequency group
B
[ 68 ]
66. The geometry of a hexagonal cell
Unit scale is distance between
neighboring cell centers.
For cell radius
To find the distance from
the origin, , of point ,
convert axis:
[ 69 ]
67. The geometry of a hexagonal cell [continue]
– So,
– Using this equation to locate co-channel cells, we start from a
reference cell and move i hexagons along the u-axis and then j
hexagons along the v-axis.
– The distance between co-channel cells in adjacent clusters is
– The number of cells in a cluster, N, is hence
since i and j can only take integer values.
– The frequency reuse factor , Q, is defined by
[ 70 ]
68. Frequency Reuse Factor
Effective reuse of resources can highly enhance
the system capacity
Frequency reuse factor (FRF) K defines frequency
reuse pattern
With a smaller frequency reuse factor (FRF), more
available bandwidth can be obtained by each cell
69. Previous Frequency Reuse
Schemes
With the usage of FRF-1, the most user terminals (UTs) are
afflicted with heavy Inter-cell interference (ICI)
Especially near the cell edge
The conventional method to figure out this problem is by
increasing the FRF
mitigate the ICI efficiently
but decrease on available bandwidth
The most representative approaches improving cell-edge
performance while retaining spectrum efficiency
Soft Frequency Reuse (SFR) scheme
Incremental Frequency Reuse (IFR) scheme
70. FREQUENCY REUSE SCHEME
Soft Frequency Reuse (SFR) Scheme
Incremental Frequency Reuse (IFR) Scheme
Enhanced Fractional Frequency Reuse (EFFR)
73. Limitations of SFR
How to define the borderline to divide cell area for
CCUs and CEUs is a key issue
Generally, there are more CEUs than CCUs in a cell
since the outer surface area is much larger than the inner part
CEUs have maximum one third of the entire bandwidth to utilize,
which results in lower spectrum efficiency
More ICI could happen even in a low traffic-load
situation, while there are still subchannels in idle and
underutilized in the system
The resource allocation via the SFR scheme starts always from
the first subchannel up
74. Incremental Frequency Reuse
(IFR) Scheme (1)
The only difference between the IFR design and
the classical reuse-1
Classical reuse-1: allocate resources always from
the first subchannel
IFR: start dispensing resources from different points
75. Incremental Frequency Reuse
(IFR) Scheme (2)
IFR scheme can overcome the low spectrum reuse
efficiency problem and the more ICI at low
loading traffic problem
IFRscheme only performs better when just
fewer traffic exists in a system
When the loading factor is greater than 0.3, it is
inferior to the SFR scheme
76. Enhanced Fractional Frequency
Reuse (EFFR) (1) HYBRIDS
Enhanced Fractional Frequency Reuse (EFFR) scheme
intends to retain the advantages of the both approaches
Concept
Define 3 cell types for directly contiguous cells in a cellular system
Reserves for each cell-type a part of the whole frequency band named
Primary Segment
The Primary Segments among different type cells should be
orthogonal
The Primary Segment of each cell will be further divided into
reuse-3 part: cannot be reused by directly neighboring cells
reuse-1 part: is at the same time a part of the Secondary Segments
belonging to the other two cell-types
78. Power Allocation and SINR
Estimation
Transmission Power Allocation
Any cell-type is not allowed to use the reuse-3 subchannels
dedicated to the other two cell types
The power allotted to the reuse-3 subchannels can be tripled
Signal-to-Interference-Ratio (SINR) Estimation
A cell acts on the Secondary Segment as a guest, and occupying
secondary subchannels is actually reuse the primary subchannels
belonging to the directly adjacent cells
Reuse on the Secondary Segment should conform to two rules:
monitor before use
resource reuse based on SINR estimation
Each cell listens on every secondary subchannel all the time
Before occupation, a cell makes SINR evaluation and chooses resources
with best estimation values for reuse
If all available secondary resources are either occupied or not good
enough to a link, this cell will give up scheduling resources
82. Frequency Reuse @ CDMA
In CDMA reuse patterns are not required.
Subscriber in every cell can use the same frequency
at the same time. Subscriber is discriminated from
another by the assignment of a unique code to every
conversation.
In GSM freq. Reuse pattern of 7 is used.
83. Problems
– Propagation path loss for signal power: quadratic or higher in distance
– fixed network needed for the base stations
– handover (changing from one cell to another) necessary
– interference with other cells:
• Co-channel interference:
Transmission on same frequency
• Adjacent channel interference:
Transmission on close frequencies
84. Solution: Topology of Different Areas
20
20 20
40
20
100 60 60 60
20
100
100
20
60 100
100
Town 20
20
Suburb
Highway 20
Rural
Central ideas of cellular systems Small coverage areas (cells) Frequency reuse Handoff (not all mobile calls can be completed within a single cell) Cell splitting to increase capacity Cell radius depends on the propagation conditions and the network design : • ranges from few meters for indoor or microcellular networks to 10s of kilometers of rural service areas A basestation/network provides service for users by coordinating access (time slots, frequency channels, or codes) to channels Bandwidth (channels) is (are) split amongst a group of cells – called cluster • Cluster is repeated to cover a wider geographical area
In this the Cluster size is 7, N = I^2 +J^2+Ij I =2, J=1
The reuse distance D is given by the formula in yellow highlight, where D: Distance between center of co-channel (same frequency) cells R: Cell radious K: Cluster size Co-channel interference causes • Voice Channels: Loss of quality • Control Channels: Dropped calls Reduce co-channel interference by increasing distance between co-channels • Q = co-channel reuse ratio = D/R • Small Q increases system capacity (N is small) • Small Q increases co-channel interference (less distance between cells)