1. The document discusses co-channel interference which occurs when the same frequency is reused in different cell locations. It describes how directional antennas and increasing the number of sectors can reduce this interference. 2. Methods to calculate the carrier-to-interference ratio in different scenarios are presented, including for omni-directional antennas with different frequency reuse patterns and for directional antenna systems. 3. Determining the co-channel interference area involves measuring signal levels with a mobile receiver and comparing to thresholds for carrier-to-interference and carrier-to-noise ratios.

1. Interference
Introduction to Co-Channel Interference

2. CO-CHANNEL INTERFERENCE
• Introduction To Co-channel Interference
• Procedure to Find Nearest Neighbours of a Particular Cell
• Co-channel Interference Reduction Factor
• Desired C/Ifrom a Normal and Worst case in an Omni-
directional Antenna
• Impact on Co-channel Interference by Lowering the Antenna
Hight

3. NON CO-CHANNEL INTERFERENCE
•Adjacent Channel Interference
•Near End To Far End Interference
•Interference Between Systems
•Long Distance Interference
•Uhf Tv Interference

4. Interference: A process in which two or more waves are super-
imposed in such a way that they produce higher peaks, lower
troughs, or a new wave pattern.
In other word, it is the effect when the two or more waves overlap
or intersect with each other, and the amplitude of the resulting
wave depends upon the frequencies and phases of the individual
waves.
Co-channel Interference: The interference between the signals
from the co-channel cells is called the co-channel interference.
Adjacent channel Interference: The interference between the
signals from the adjacent channel cell is called the adjacent
channel interference.

5. Major Limiting Factor For Cellular System Performance Is
The Interference
Interferences can cause:
 Cross Talk
 Missed And Blocked Calls.
Sources Of Interference?
 Another mobile in the same cell (if distance & frequency are
close)
 A call-in progress in neighboring cell (if frequency is close).
 Other base stations operating in the same frequency band (from
co-channel cells)
 Non-cellular systems leaking energy into cellular frequency band

6. Cochannel Interference
• The Frequency-reuse Method Is Useful For Increasing The Efficiency Of
Spectrum Usage But Results In Co Channel Interference Because The
Same Frequency Channel Is Used Repeatedly In Different Co Channel
Cells.
 Co-channel Cells  Cells That Share Same Set Of
Frequencies
• The Co Channel Interference Reduction Factor Q = 4.6 Is Based On The
System Required C/I = 18 Db Of The AMPS System.

7. Introduction to Co-Channel Interference
• The co channel interference is usually involved with FDMA,
TDMA, and OFDMA systems.
• The interference occurred because the frequency reuse
scheme is applied to those systems in which the channels
operate at the same frequency but repeatedly in separate
locations.

8. COCHANNEL INTERFERENCE
• In most mobile radio environments, use of a seven-cell reuse pattern is not
sufficient to avoid co channel interference for AMPS systems.
• Increasing K > 7 would reduce the number of co channels per cell, and that
would also reduce spectrum efficiency.
• Therefore, it might be advisable to retain the same number of radios as the
seven-cell system but to sector the cell radially, as if slicing a pie.
• This technique would reduce co channel interference and use channel
sharing and channel borrowing schemes to increase spectrum efficiency.

9. Determination of Co-channel Interference Area
• For detection of serious co channel interference in areas in a cellular system
a test is conducted.
• Test: Find the co channel interference area from a mobile receiver.
• While performing this test we watch for any change detected by a field
strength recorder in mobile unit and compare the data with the condition of
no co channel interference.
• This test must be repeated as the mobile unit travels in every co channel
cell.
• To facilitate the test, we can install a channel scanning receiver in one car.

10. • One channel f1 records the signal level and another channel f2 records
the interference level while the third channel f3 is used to record only
the noise level.
• We can obtain ,in decibels, the carrier to interference ratio C/I by
subtracting the result obtained from f2 from the result obtained from f1.
• We can also obtain the carrier to noise ratio C/N by subtracting the
result obtained from f3 from the result obtained from f1.
• Four conditions should be used to compare the results:

12. • If the carrier- to- Interference ratio C/I is greater than 18 dB through out
the cell, the system is properly designed.
• If C/I is less than 18 dB and C/N is greater than 18 dB in some areas,
there is no co channel interference.
• If both C/I and C/N are less than 18dB and C/N=C/I in a given area there
is a coverage problem.
• 4. If both C/I and C/N are less than 18dB and C/N>C/I in a given area
there is a coverage problem and co channel interference.

13. record the signal strength at every co channel cell
site while a mobile unit is
travelling either in its own cell or in one of the co
channel cells show in fig.

14. DESIGN OF AN OMNIDIRECTIONAL ANTENNA SYSTEM IN THE
WORST CASE
• The value of q = 4.6 is valid for a normal interference case in a K = 7
cell pattern.
• The worst case is at the location where the mobile unit would receive
the weakest signal from its own cell site but strong interferences
from all interfering cell sites.
• a K = 7 cell pattern does not provide a sufficient frequency-reuse
distance separation even when an ideal condition of flat terrain is
assumed.

15. K = 7 cell pattern

16. Carrier-to-Interference ratio
• In the worst case the mobile unit is at the cell boundary R, as shown
in Fig.
• The distances from all six co channel interfering sites are also shown
in the figure: two distances of D − R, two distances of D, and two
distances of D + R.
• Following the mobile radio propagation rule of 40 dB/ dec , we obtain

17. FIGURE .Co channel interference (a worst case).

18. • Then the carrier-to-interference ratio is
• where q = 4.6 is derived from the normal case.
• Substituting q =4.6 into Eq.,
• we obtain C/I = 54 or 17 dB, which is lower than 18 dB.

19. K = 9 and K = 12 cell patterns
• In that case, a co channel interference reduction factor of q = 4.6 is
insufficient.
• Therefore, in an Omni directional-cell system, K = 9 or K = 12 would be a
correct choice.
• The K = 9 and K = 12 cell patterns, are shown in Fig.

20. Carrier-to-Interference ratio

21. frequency-reuse patterns K = 9 and K = 12.

22. Determination of carrier-to-interference ratio C/I
in a directional antenna system
• (a)Worst case in a 120◦ directional
antenna system (N = 7);
• (b) worst case in a 60◦ directional
antenna system(N = 7).

23. Directional Antennas In K = 7 Cell Patterns
• Three-Sector Case: The three-sector case is shown in Fig.
• To illustrate the worst-case situation, two co-channel cells are shown in Fig. a.
• The mobile unit at position E will experience greater interference in the lower
shaded cell sector than in the upper shaded cell-sector site.
• This is because the mobile receiver receives the weakest signal from its own
cell but fairly strong interference from the interfering cell.

24. Directional Antennas In K = 7 Cell Patterns
• Because of the use of directional antennas, the number of principal
interferers is reduced from six to two (Fig. 9.5).
• The worst case of C/I occurs when the mobile unit is at position E, at
which point the distance between the mobile unit and the two
interfering antennas is roughly D +(R/2);
• C/I can be calculated more precisely as follows.

25. Directional Antennas In K = 7 Cell Patterns
• The value of C/I can be obtained by the following expression (assuming that
the worst case is at position E at which the distances from two interferers
are D + 0.7 and D).
• Let q = 4.6; then Eq. becomes

26. • The C/I received by a mobile unit from the 120◦ directional antenna
sector system expressed in Eq.
greatly exceeds 18 dB in a worst case.
• Equation shows that using directional antenna sectors can improve the
signal-to-interference ratio, that is, reduce the co channel interference.
• However, in reality, the C/I could be 6 dB weaker than in Eq. in a heavy
traffic area as a result of irregular terrain contour and imperfect site
locations.
• The remaining 18.5 dB is still adequate.

27. Six-Sector Case.
• We may also divide a cell into six sectors by using six 60◦-beam directional
antennas as shown in Fig. b.
• In this case, only one instance of interference can occur in each sector as shown
in Fig. 9.5.
• Therefore, the carrier-to-interference ratio in this case is
• For q = 4.6, Eq. becomes
• which shows a further reduction of co channel interference.

28. Directional Antenna in K = 4 Cell Pattern
• Three-Sector Case.
• To obtain the carrier-to-interference ratio, we use the same procedure as in the K
= 7 cell-pattern system.
• The 120◦ directional antennas used in the sectors reduced the interferers to two
as in K = 7 systems, as shown in Fig. 9.7.
• We can apply Eq. here.
• For K = 4, the value of ;
• therefore, Eq. becomes

29. FIGURE . Interference with frequency-reuse
pattern K = 4.

30. Six-Sector Case.
• There is only one interferer at a distance of D + R shown in Fig.
• With q = 3.46, we can obtain
• If 6 dB is subtracted from the result of Eq., the remaining 20 dB is
adequate.

31. 2.Smaller Cells:
In case of k=4 then cells are placed very closer.
In case of smaller cells we use 3sector case i.e it is better.
Comparing K=7 and K=4 systems:
A K=7 cell-pattern system is a logical way to begin an omnicell system.
• The cochannel reuse distance is more or less adequate,according to the desired criterion.
• When the traffic increases,a three sector system should be implemented,that is, with three
120 degrees directional antennas in place.
• In certain hotspots, 60 degree sectors can be used locally to increase the channel utilization.
• If a given area is covered by both k=7 and k=4 cell patterns and both patterns have a six-
sector configuration, then the k=7 system has a total of 42 sector , but the k=4 system has a
total of only 26 sectors and the system of k=7 and six sectors has less cochannel interference.

32. Antenna Parameters and their effects
• LOWERING THE ANTENNA HEIGHT:
• Lowering the antenna height does not always reduce the co channel interference.
• In some circumstances, such as on fairly flat ground or in a valley situation,
lowering the antenna height will be very effective for reducing the co channel and
adjacent-channel interference.

33. On a High Hill or a High Spot
• The effective antenna height, rather than the actual height, is always
considered in the system design.
• Therefore, the effective antenna height varies according to the location of
the mobile unit.
• When the antenna site is on a hill, as shown in Fig. a, the effective antenna
height is h1 + H.

34. FIGURE . Lowering the antenna height

35. On a High Hill or a High Spot
• If we reduce the actual antenna height to 0.5h1, the effective antenna
height becomes 0.5h1 + H.
• The reduction in gain resulting from the height reduction is

36. On a High Hill or a High Spot
• If h1 << H, then Eq. becomes
• This simply proves that lowering antenna height on the hill does not
reduce the received power at either the cell site or the mobile unit.

37. In a Valley
• The effective antenna height as seen from the mobile unit shown in Fig.
b is he1, which is less than the actual antenna height h1.
• If he1 = 2/3 h1 and the new antenna height is lowered to ½ h1, then the
new effective antenna height, is
• Then the antenna gain is reduced by

38. In a Valley

39. In a Valley
• This simply proves that the lowered antenna height in a valley is very
effective in reducing the radiated power in a distant high elevation area.
• However, in the area adjacent to the cell-site antenna, the effective antenna
height is the same as the actual antenna height.
• The power reduction caused by decreasing antenna height by half is only

40. In a Forested Area
• In a forested area, the antenna should clear the tops of any trees in the
vicinity, especially when they are very close to the antenna.
• In this case, decreasing the height of the antenna would not be the
proper procedure for reducing co channel interference
• because excessive attenuation of the desired signal would occur in the
vicinity of the antenna and in its cell boundary if the antenna were
below the treetop level.

41. Reduction of cochannel interference by
means of notch in the tilted pattern
• Reduction of cochannel interference
• Method1:-Separation between cells
• Method2:-Use of directional antennas
• Method3:-Lowering the antenna height
• Method 1 increases frequency cells and channels assigned to cell sites is less
• Method 3 weakens the reception level of signal
• Method 2 is a good approach which uses directional antennas especially
when the number of frequency reuse cells are fixed.

42. • Installation of 120 degree directional antenna can reduce the
interference in the system by eliminating the radiation to the rest of its
240 degree sector.
• However, cochannel interference can exist even when a directional
antenna is used.
• With the separation of D=4.6R in 120 degree directional antenna, the
area of interference at the interference receiving cell is illuminated by
central angle 19 degree sector of the entire 120 degree transmitting
antenna pattern of serving cell.

44. • Therefore attempts should be made to reduce the signal strength signal
strength of the interference in this 19 degree sector.
• There are two ways to tilt down the antenna patterns: i) Electronically ii)
Mechanically
• The electronic down tilting is to change the phases among the elements
of a colinear array antenna.
• Mechanical down tilting is to down tilt the antenna physically.
• To achieve a significant gain of C/I in the interference receiving cell, we
should consider using a notch in the center of the antenna pattern at the
interfering cell.

45. • An antenna pattern with a notch can be obtained by tilting the high gain
directional antenna mechanically downward.

46. Umbrella pattern
• It achieved by use of staggered discone antenna
• It is used only in omnidirectional case
• Benefits
• Energy is confined to immediate area of antenna
• Used to control both cochannel and long distance interference
• Hilly terrain consists of more holes, where umbrella pattern is more effective
• Frequency reuse distance can be shortened
• We can increase the antenna height and still decrease the cochannel
interference for umbrella patterns. But for normal antenna patterns we cannot
raise the antenna high enough to cover the weak signal spots.

47. Use of parasitic elements
• It create desired pattern in certain directions
• A drive antenna and single parasite can be combined in several ways

48. • A single parasite spaced one-quarter wavelength from drive antenna and
two parasites spaced one half wavelength from driven antenna are
shown in above fig.
• The radiation patterns are such that as shown in above figure because
the current flow in the parasite is much weaker than that in the drive
antenna.
• The combination of figures a and b gives the parabola dish which is
shown in fig c
• This is an effective arrangement for cell-site directional antennas with
non-wind-resistant structure which is a four element structure with one
active element.

49. Depending on length of drive antenna and parasite

50. • The above three cases are studied as follows
• The two elements are placed as close as 0.04λ.
• In the first case the lengths of the two elements are identical and
separated by 0.04λ. At the close spacing, the current flow in the parasite
is very strong. The two elements form a null along Y-axis in the
horizontal plane and z-axis in the vertical plane. The directive gain of 3
dB is obtained.

51. • In the second case the length of the parasite is 5 percent longer than
that of active one and separated by 0.04λ. In this case parasite acts as
reflector. The patterns are shown for both horizontal and vertical planes.
The directive gain of 6 dB is obtained.
• In the third case the length of the parasite is shorter than that of active
one and separated by 0.04λ. In this case parasite acts as director. The
patterns are shown for both horizontal and vertical planes. The directive
gain of 8 dB is obtained.

52. Non Co Channel Interference

53. Voice quality
• Voice quality often cannot be measured by objective parameters
such as
• carrier-to-noise ratio C/N,
• the carrier-to-interference ratio C/I
• The baseband signal to noise ratio S/N
• the signal to noise and distortion ratio (SINAD).
 Multi path fading plus variable vehicular speed are major factors for
deterioration of voice quality.

54. Following methods can correct imbalance
• Received carrier level be high to increase the signal level.
• Receiver sensitivity be high to lower the noise level.
• Maintain Low distortion level in the receiver to increase SINAD.
• Use a Diversity receiver to reduce the fading.
• Use a Good system design in mobile radio environment and good
adjacent-channel rejection to reduce the interference.

55. Subjective test
• Subjective test can be set up according to the criterion that 75% of
customers perceive the voice quality at a given C/N as being good
or excellent.
• CM4, CM5 the top two levels among the five circuit-merit (CM)
grades.
• The simulator of this test must be adjusted for different mobile
speeds.

56. Objective test
There are many objective tests at the baseband for both voice and data.
• The characterization of voice quality is very difficult, but evaluation of data
transmission is easy.
• There are two major terms: bit-error rates and word error rates.
• The bit-error rate (BER) is the first-order statistic (independent of time or vehicle
speed), and
• the word-error rate (WER) is the second-order statistic, which is affected by the
vehicle speed.

57. SINAD measurement
• SINAD has been Used as a measurement of communication signal
quality at the baseband or in the cellular mobile receiver to measure
the effective FM receiver sensitivity.
• SINAD = total output power/ non signal portion
= signal +noise + distortion/noise + distortion

58. Types of Non Co-channel
Interference
ADJACENT-CHANNEL INTERFERENCE

59. “Adjacent-channel interference”
•Interference from channels that are adjacent in
frequency is called adjacent channel interference.
•The primary reason for that is Imperfect Receive
Filters which cause the adjacent channel energy to
leak into your spectrum
• “Adjacent-channel interference” is a broad term.
• It includes next-channel (the channel next to the operating channel)
interference and neighboring-channel (more than one channel away
from the operating channel) interference.
• Adjacent-channel interference can be reduced by the frequency
assignment.

60. Next-Channel Interference
• Next-channel interference in an AMPS system affecting a particular mobile unit
cannot be caused by transmitters in the common cell site but must originate at
several other cell sites.
• This is because any channel combiner at the cell site must combine the selected
channels, normally 21 channels (630 kHz) away, or at least 8 or 10 channels away
from the desired one.
• Therefore, next-channel interference will arrive at the mobile unit from other cell
sites if the system is not designed properly.

61. FIGURE . Characteristics of channel-band
filter.

62. next-channel interference
• The methods for reducing this next-channel interference use the receiving end.
• The channel filter characteristics are a 6 dB/oct slope in the voice band and a 24
dB/oct falloff outside the voice-band region (see Fig.).
• If the next-channel signal is stronger than 24 dB, it will interfere with the
desired signal.
• The filter with a sharp falloff slope can help to reduce all the adjacent-channel
interference, including the next-channel interference.

63. Neighboring-Channel Interference
• The channels that are several channels away from the next channel will cause
interference with the desired signal.
• Usually, a fixed set of serving channels is assigned to each cell site.
• If all the channels are simultaneously transmitted at one cell-site antenna, a
sufficient amount of band isolation between channels is required for a
multichannel combiner to reduce inter modulation products.
• Can be reduced if we use multiple antennas

64. NEAR-END–FAR-END INTERFERENCE
•In one cell: Because motor vehicles in a given cell are usually moving,
some mobile units are close to the cell site and some are not.
• The close-in mobile unit has a strong signal that causes adjacent channel
interference (see Fig. a).
• In this situation, near-end–far-end interference can occur only at the reception
point in the cell site.
• If a separation of 5B (five channel bandwidths) is needed for two adjacent
channels in a cell in order to avoid the near-end–far-end interference, it is then
implied that a minimum separation of 5B is required between each adjacent
channel used with one cell.

65. NEAR-END–FAR-END INTERFERENCE

66. NEAR-END–FAR-END INTERFERENCE
• In Cells of Two Systems:
• Adjacent-channel interference can occur between two systems in a duopoly-
market system.
• In this situation, adjacent-channel interference can occur at both the cell site and
the mobile unit.
• For instance, mobile unit A can be located at the boundary of its own home cell A
in system A but very close to cell B of system B as shown in Fig b.
• The other situation would occur if mobile unit B were at the boundary of cell B of
system B but very close to cell A of system A.

67. In Cells of Two Systems:
• Following the definition of near-end–far-end interference, the solid
arrow indicates that interference may occur at cell site A and
• The dotted arrow indicates that interference may occur at mobile
unit A.
• Of course, the same interference will be introduced at cell site B and
mobile unit B.

68. EFFECT ON NEAR-END MOBILE UNITS
• Avoidance of Near-End–Far-End Interference:
• The near-end mobile units are the mobile units that are located very close to the
cell site.
• These mobile units transmit with the same power as the mobile units that are far
away from the cell site.
• The situation described below is illustrated in Fig.
• The distance d0 between a calling mobile transmitter and a base-station receiver
is much larger than the distance dI between a mobile transmitter causing
interference and the same base-station receiver.

69. FIGURE.Near-end–far-end ratio interference.

70. EFFECT ON NEAR-END MOBILE UNITS
• Therefore, the transmitter of the mobile unit causing interference is close
enough to override the desired base-station signal.
• This interference, which is based on the distance ratio, can be expressed as
where γ is the path-loss slope.
• The ratio dI /d0 is the near-end–far-end ratio.
• From Eq. the effect of the near-end–far-end ratio on the carrier–adjacent-
channel interference ratio is dependent on the relative positions of the moving
mobile units.

71. Interference Between Systems
• In One city:
• Let us assume that there are two systems operating in one city. If a
mobile unit of system A is closer to the cell site of system B (fig a) while
a call is being initiated through system A, adjacent channel interference
can be produced if the transmitted frequency of the mobile unit A is
close to the covered band of preamplifier at cell site B.
• Due to this, the signals from mobile unit A will then leak into the
receiving channel of system B and cross talk will occur.

73. • In adjacent cities:
• Two systems operating at the same frequency band and in the two
adjacent cities may interfere with each other if they do not coordinate
their frequency channel use.
• Most cases of interferences are due to cell sites at high altitudes shown
in below figure

74. • In start up systems a high altitude cell site is always attractive which
covers a larger area.
• How ever if the neighboring city also uses the same system, then the
result is a strong interference which can be avoided by the following
methods:
• 1. The frequencies used in one city should not be used in the adjacent
city. This arrangement is useful for two low capacity systems.
• 2. If both systems are high capacity, then decrease in the antenna height
will reduces the interference.
• 3. Directional antennas can be used.

75. Long Distance Interference
• Overwater path:
• This phenomenon is mentioned below
• 1. A 41-mi overwater path operating at 1.5 GHz in Massachusetts Bay,
because of low ducts, steady signal well above normal level is
received and because of high ducts, a high signal level is received
with deep fading.
• 2. A 275-mi overwater path operating at 812 and 857 MHz between
Charleston, South Carolina and Daytona beach, Florida.

76. • Federal Express Engineers have discovered that mobile unit in
Charleston with in 1-2 mi of shore line are capable of clear
communication with a repeater station in Daytona Beach.
• The same situation applies when the mobile unit is in Daytona Beach.
• Overland Path:
• Tropospheric scattering over a land path is not as persistent as that over
water and can be varied from time to time. Usually Tropospheric
propagation is more pronounced in morning and distance can be about
200-mi.

77. UHF TV interference
• Two types of interference can occur between UHF television and
850‐MHz cellular mobile phones.
• 1.Interference to UHF TV Receivers from Cellular Mobile Transmitters
• 2.Interference of Cellular Mobile Receivers by UHF TV Transmitters
• Interference to UHF TV Receivers from Cellular Mobile Transmitters:
• Frequency separation is wide and the power levels used by the UHF TV
broadcast transmitters, the likelihood of interference from cellular
phone transmission affecting broadcasting is very small.
• It can interfere when cell site transmission is 90MHz above TV channel.
• Some UHF channels overlap cellular mobile channels

78. • It can interfere under only two conditions
• 1. Band region with overlapping frequencies
• 2. Image interference region:- TV receiver or cellular receiver can receive two
transmitted signals, one from TV and one from cellular transmitter produce
intermodulation product which falls within the TV or mobile receive band
•Interference between TV and cellular mobile channels is
illustrated in Fig

79. • Interference of Cellular Mobile Receivers by UHF TV Transmitters:
• When a mobile receiver approaches a TV transmitter, it is easy to find
that transmission from the TV station will not interfere with the
reception at the mobile receiver.
• When the cell-site receiver is only 1 mi or less away from the TV station,
interference may result. However when the cell site is very close to the
TV station, the interference decreases as a result of the two vertical
narrow beams pointing at different elevation levels. For this reason it is
advisable to mount a cell-site antenna in the same vicinity as the TV
station antenna if the problems of shielding and grounding can be
controlled.

80. THE END