The document summarizes the human excretory system. It describes the three main types of excretion - ammonotelism, ureotelism, and uricotelism. It then discusses the major organs of the human excretory system, including the kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, and urethra. The kidneys filter waste from the blood and regulate homeostasis. Urine is transported from the kidneys to the bladder via the ureters and is stored in the bladder before being excreted through the urethra.
Living world slide contain more informative towards characteristic of a living organism with their advantage towards development of kingdom system.
Life is a unique process that is made from the aggregation of molecules. These molecules undergo various chemical reactions to perform their specific functions which are called metabolism. This results in the production and utilization of energy. The metabolism will result in the growth, development, reproduction, adaptations, etc of the living organisms through the production of various biomolecules.
These slides contain all the viable secretory gland which is present inside a human body such as Endocrine glands with their interrelationship or coordination.
The endocrine system is a complex network of glands and organs. It uses hormones to control and coordinate your body's metabolism, energy level, reproduction, growth and development, and response to injury, stress, and mood. The following are integral parts of the endocrine system.
This power point presentation deals with the various types of glands present in human body. We have discussed here about Major Endocrine Glands in human body, their structure, their location, the hormones they produce and the effect of those hormones. We have also discussed about disorders that may occur with abnormal hormonal secretions, Lastly we have discussed about the mechanisms in which the hormone works inside human body
Excretory Products and their Elimination Class XI Biology Chapter 19.
Based on NCERT Class XI Biology Text book content.
Includes flowcharts and illustrations.
Human Anatomy and Physiology-II:
Endocrine System:
Classification of hormones, mechanism of hormone action, structure and functions of pituitary gland, thyroid gland, parathyroid gland,
adrenal gland, pancreas, pineal gland, thymus and their disorders.
Living world slide contain more informative towards characteristic of a living organism with their advantage towards development of kingdom system.
Life is a unique process that is made from the aggregation of molecules. These molecules undergo various chemical reactions to perform their specific functions which are called metabolism. This results in the production and utilization of energy. The metabolism will result in the growth, development, reproduction, adaptations, etc of the living organisms through the production of various biomolecules.
These slides contain all the viable secretory gland which is present inside a human body such as Endocrine glands with their interrelationship or coordination.
The endocrine system is a complex network of glands and organs. It uses hormones to control and coordinate your body's metabolism, energy level, reproduction, growth and development, and response to injury, stress, and mood. The following are integral parts of the endocrine system.
This power point presentation deals with the various types of glands present in human body. We have discussed here about Major Endocrine Glands in human body, their structure, their location, the hormones they produce and the effect of those hormones. We have also discussed about disorders that may occur with abnormal hormonal secretions, Lastly we have discussed about the mechanisms in which the hormone works inside human body
Excretory Products and their Elimination Class XI Biology Chapter 19.
Based on NCERT Class XI Biology Text book content.
Includes flowcharts and illustrations.
Human Anatomy and Physiology-II:
Endocrine System:
Classification of hormones, mechanism of hormone action, structure and functions of pituitary gland, thyroid gland, parathyroid gland,
adrenal gland, pancreas, pineal gland, thymus and their disorders.
Basic Introduction to the vast science of the endocrine glands and their interactions. A brief review into the physiological processes that result in endocrine disorders.
Indian Dental Academy: will be one of the most relevant and exciting training center with best faculty and flexible training programs for dental professionals who wish to advance in their dental practice,Offers certified courses in Dental implants,Orthodontics,Endodontics,Cosmetic Dentistry, Prosthetic Dentistry, Periodontics and General Dentistry.
Basics of anatomy of endocrine glands and functions of their hormones with disorders as per the Pharmacy Council of India curriculum.
Only for educational purpose for undergraduate B pharmacy students.
PowerPoint Presentation on the Topic - "Control and Coordination". For class - 10th
Made By - NehaRohtagi1
This presentation will help the students to clear their concepts and learn many new things.
Thank you!
Basic Introduction to the vast science of the endocrine glands and their interactions. A brief review into the physiological processes that result in endocrine disorders.
Indian Dental Academy: will be one of the most relevant and exciting training center with best faculty and flexible training programs for dental professionals who wish to advance in their dental practice,Offers certified courses in Dental implants,Orthodontics,Endodontics,Cosmetic Dentistry, Prosthetic Dentistry, Periodontics and General Dentistry.
Basics of anatomy of endocrine glands and functions of their hormones with disorders as per the Pharmacy Council of India curriculum.
Only for educational purpose for undergraduate B pharmacy students.
PowerPoint Presentation on the Topic - "Control and Coordination". For class - 10th
Made By - NehaRohtagi1
This presentation will help the students to clear their concepts and learn many new things.
Thank you!
these slides are prepared to understand Urinary system IN EASY WAY Important links- NOTES- https://mynursingstudents.blogspot.com/ youtube channel https://www.youtube.com/c/MYSTUDENTSU... CHANEL PLAYLIST- ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY-https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PL93S13oM2gAPM3VTGVUXIeswKJ3XGaD2p COMMUNITY HEALTH NURSING- https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PL93S13oM2gAPyslPNdIJoVjiXEDTVEDzs CHILD HEALTH NURSING- https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PL93S13oM2gANcslmv0DXg6BWmWN359Gvg FIRST AID- https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PL93S13oM2gAMvGqeqH2ZTklzFAZhOrvgP HCM- https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PL93S13oM2gAM7mZ1vZhQBHWbdLnLb-cH9 FUNDAMENTALS OF NURSING- https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PL93S13oM2gAPFxu78NDLpGPaxEmK1fTao COMMUNICABLE DISEASES- https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PL93S13oM2gAOWo4IwNjLU_LCuhRN0ZLeb ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH- https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PL93S13oM2gAPkI6LvfS8Zu1nm6mZi9FK6 MSN- https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PL93S13oM2gAOdyoHnDLAoR_o8M6ccqYBm HINDI ONLY- https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PL93S13oM2gAN4L-FJ3s_IEXgZCijGUA1A ENGLISH ONLY- https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PL93S13oM2gAMYv2a1hFcq4W1nBjTnRkHP facebook profile- https://www.facebook.com/suresh.kr.lrhs/ FACEBOOK PAGE- https://www.facebook.com/My-Student-S... facebook group NURSING NOTES- https://www.facebook.com/groups/24139... FOR MAKING EASY NOTES YOU CAN ALSO VISIT MY BLOG – BLOGGER- https://mynursingstudents.blogspot.com/ Instagram- https://www.instagram.com/mystudentsu... Twitter- https://twitter.com/student_system?s=08
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The presentation explains in detail the excretion process in humans, it contains all the processes occurring inside human kidney. It also gives an insight about different types of excretory waste secreted by animals in general. In all, it is a physiological summary of human kidney and excretion
It is a written order by physician, dentist, nurse practitioner or other designated health professional for a medication to be dispensed by a pharmacy for administration to a patient.
Prescriptions and medication orders are the primary means by which prescribers communicate with pharmacists regarding the desired treatment regimen for a patient. Prescriptions are used in the outpatient, or ambulatory, settings.
whereas medication orders are used in the inpatient or institutional health system setting. Prescriptions and inpatient orders are legal orders that can be used for medications, devices, laboratory tests, procedures, etc.
Prescriptions and medication orders can be handwritten, typed, preprinted, verbal, or entered into a computer program and submitted to the pharmacy by the patient or caregiver, or via fax, computer, or other electronic means.
It is scientific process of improving the knowledge and skills of employee for doing a particular job.
The main purpose of training is to mould the behaviour of new recruits so that they can do their job in a more efficient way
In hospitals education and training activity includes undergraduate and graduate programme in medicine, teaching student nurses, training of technologist, physiotherapist, dietician, administrative residents, social service worker and pharmacist.
providing education about the core principles of primary care to all health care providers creates a foundation of values upon which to develop a positive safety culture;
having an adequate and well-trained primary care health workforce is essential for providing safe, high quality care;
educating the workforce about safety skills has the potential to further improve patient outcomes.
It is defined as knowledge of fact through reading, study or practical experience on chemical substance that is used in diagnosis, prevention and treatment of diseases.
It covers all type of information including; objective and subjective information as well as information gathered by scientific observation or practical experience.
The availability of and rational use of medicines are critical for a successful therapeutic outcome. Though rapid developments in science and technology have led to easy understanding of etiology and pathophysiological basis of various diseases and development of new molecules, many times clinicians fail to achieve the desired therapeutic goals. One of the major reasons for this can be the patient non-compliance or partial compliance towards the prescribed treatment (World Health Organization, 2003). Patient compliance is defined as the adherence of a patient towards the prescriber‘s instructions.
It implies an understanding of how the medicine is to be used, as well as a positive behavior in which the patient is motivated sufficiently to use the prescribed treatment in the manner intended because of a perceived self-benefit and a positive outcome (e.g. enhanced quality of life and well being).
The P&T committee is generally the medical staff committee responsible for managing the formulary system. The P&T committee provides an evaluative, educational, and advisory service to the medical staff and organizational administration in all matters pertaining to the use of available medications. The P&T committee should be responsible for overseeing policies and procedures related to all aspects of medication use within an institution.
This committee assists in the formulation of broad professional policies regarding the evaluation, selection, procurement, distribution, use, safety procedures and other matters relating to drugs use in the hospital.
The outermost layer is termed as epiblema.
Cuticle and stomata are absent.
Cortex is formed of parenchymatous cells.
Endodermis is well developed.
Pericycle is distinct.
Vascular bundles are radial.
Xylem is exarch.
Phloem consists of sieve tubes, companion cells and phloem parenchyma. (In monocots however, the phloem parenchyma is absent).
The outermost layer is termed as epiblema.
Cuticle and stomata are absent. Cortex is formed of parenchymatous cells.
Endodermis is well developed.
Pericycle is distinct. Vascular bundles are radial. Xylem is exarch.
Phloem consists of sieve tubes, companion cells and phloem parenchyma. (In monocots however, the phloem parenchyma is absent).
Biologist Whittaker provided us with the Five Kingdom Grouping, categorizing all the living organisms into five territories – Protista, Monera, Fungi, Plantae, and Animalia. To know additional about plants, it is vital to know more about the Kingdom Plantae or in simple versus the plant kingdom.
The reproductive system is a collection of internal and external organs —in both males and females —that work together for the purpose of procreating.
Due to its vital role in the survival of the species, many scientists feel that the reproductive system is among the most important systems in the entire body.
The human body’s major systems, the reproductive system is the one that differs most between sexes, and the only system that does not function until puberty.
There are two types of nucleic acids, namely deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA). Primarily, nucleic acids serve as repositories and transmitters of genetic information.
Nucleic acids are the polymers of nucleotides (polynucleotides) held by 3′and 5′phosphate bridges. In other words, nucleic acids are built up by the monomeric units—nucleotides (It may be recalled that protein is a polymer of amino acids).
Nucleotides are composed of a nitrogenous base, a pentose sugar and a phosphate. Nucleotides perform a wide variety of functions in the living cells, besides being the building blocks or monomeric units in the nucleic acid (DNA and RNA) structure.
Tryptophan is first hydroxylated to form 5-OH-tryptophan in liver. The reaction is analogous to conversion of Phe - to tyrosine. Liver phenyl alanine hydroxylase also can catalyse hydroxylation of tryptophan. In the next step, 5-OH-tryptophan is decarboxylated, by the enzyme 5-OH-tryptophan decarboxylase, in presence of B6-PO4 to form 5-hydroxy tryptamine (5-HT), also called serotonin. The enzyme is present in kidney, liver and stomach. Aromatic-Lamino acid decarboxylase, widely distributed in tissues can also catalyse this reaction.
The major sites of heme biosynthesis are the liver, which synthesizes a number of heme proteins (particularly the CYP proteins), and the erythrocyte-producing cells of the bone marrow, which are active in hemoglobin synthesis. [Note: Over 85% of all heme synthesis occurs in erythroid tissue.] In the liver, the rate of heme synthesis is highly variable, responding to alterations in the cellular heme pool caused by fluctuating demands for heme proteins. In contrast, heme synthesis in erythroid cells is relatively constant and is matched to the rate of globin synthesis. The initial reaction and the last three steps in the formation of porphyrins occur in mitochondria, whereas the intermediate steps of the biosynthetic pathway occur in the cytosol. [Note: Mature red blood cells (RBCs) lack mitochondria and are unable to synthesize heme.]
Decarboxylation is the reaction by which CO2 is removed from the COOH group of an amino acid as a result an amine is formed. The reaction is catalyzed by the enzyme decarboxylase, which requires pyridoxal-P (B6-PO4) as coenzyme. Tissues like liver, kidney, brain possess the enzyme decarboxylase and also by microorganisms of intestinal tract. The enzyme removes CO2 from COOH and converts the amino acid to corresponding amine.
Phenylalanine is an essential, aromatic amino acid. The need for phenylalanine becomes minimal, if adequate tyrosine is supplied in the food. This is called the sparing action of tyrosine on phenylalanine.
Tyrosine is an aromatic amino acid. It is synthesized from phenylalanine, and so is a non-essential amino acid. The need for phenylalanine becomes minimal, if adequate tyrosine is supplied in the food. This is called the sparing action of tyrosine on the phenylalanine.
Seven amino acids produce acetyl CoA or acetoacetate and therefore are categorized as ketogenic. Of these, isoleucine, threonine, and the aromatic amino acids (phenylalanine, tyrosine, and tryptophan) are converted to compounds that produce both glucose and acetyl CoA or acetoacetate. Leucine and lysine do not produce glucose; they produce acetyl CoA and acetoacetate.
The name phenylketonuria is coined due to the fact that the metabolite phenylpyruvate is a keto acid (C6H5CH2−CO−COO−) excreted in urine in high amounts.
Phenylalanine cannot be converted to tyrosine. So, phenylalanine accumulates. Phenylalanine level in blood is elevated.
OBJECTIVES Digestion and absorption of proteins and amino acids Introduction to amino acids, structure and types Amino acid and nutrition General.
The amino acids undergo certain common reactions like transamination followed by deamination for the liberation of ammonia. The amino group of the amino acids is utilized for the formation of urea which is an excretory end product of protein metabolism.
Diabetes mellitus refers to a group of diseases that affect how your body uses blood sugar (glucose). Glucose is vital to your health because it's an important source of energy for the cells that make up your muscles and tissues. It's also your brain's main source of fuel.
With diabetes, your body doesn’t make enough insulin or can’t use it as well as it should. When there isn’t enough insulin or cells stop responding to insulin, too much blood sugar stays in your bloodstream. Over time, that can cause serious health problems, such as heart disease, vision loss, and kidney disease.
Supplying a huge array of metabolic intermediates for biosynthetic reactions. Normally carbohydrate metabolism supplies more than half of the energy requirements of the body. In fact the brain largely depends upon carbohydrate
Carbohydrate metabolism comprises glycolysis, HMP shunt, Gluconeogenesis, Glycogenolysis, TCA cycle, with Glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency disorder.
Biochemistry or biological chemistry is the study of chemical processes within and relating to living organisms. Biochemistry is the application of chemistry to the study of biological processes at the cellular and molecular level. It emerged as a distinct discipline around the beginning of the 20th century when scientists combined chemistry, physiology, and biology to investigate the chemistry of living systems.
Animals are multicellular and heterotrophic organisms without cell wall and chlorophyll. The method of arranging organism into groups on the basis of similarities and differences is called classification. Taxonomy is the science of classification which makes the study of wide variety of organisms easier.
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Report Back from SGO 2024: What’s the Latest in Cervical Cancer?bkling
Are you curious about what’s new in cervical cancer research or unsure what the findings mean? Join Dr. Emily Ko, a gynecologic oncologist at Penn Medicine, to learn about the latest updates from the Society of Gynecologic Oncology (SGO) 2024 Annual Meeting on Women’s Cancer. Dr. Ko will discuss what the research presented at the conference means for you and answer your questions about the new developments.
ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE IN HEALTHCARE.pdfAnujkumaranit
Artificial intelligence (AI) refers to the simulation of human intelligence processes by machines, especially computer systems. It encompasses tasks such as learning, reasoning, problem-solving, perception, and language understanding. AI technologies are revolutionizing various fields, from healthcare to finance, by enabling machines to perform tasks that typically require human intelligence.
Pulmonary Thromboembolism - etilogy, types, medical- Surgical and nursing man...VarunMahajani
Disruption of blood supply to lung alveoli due to blockage of one or more pulmonary blood vessels is called as Pulmonary thromboembolism. In this presentation we will discuss its causes, types and its management in depth.
These lecture slides, by Dr Sidra Arshad, offer a quick overview of physiological basis of a normal electrocardiogram.
Learning objectives:
1. Define an electrocardiogram (ECG) and electrocardiography
2. Describe how dipoles generated by the heart produce the waveforms of the ECG
3. Describe the components of a normal electrocardiogram of a typical bipolar leads (limb II)
4. Differentiate between intervals and segments
5. Enlist some common indications for obtaining an ECG
Study Resources:
1. Chapter 11, Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, 14th edition
2. Chapter 9, Human Physiology - From Cells to Systems, Lauralee Sherwood, 9th edition
3. Chapter 29, Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology, 26th edition
4. Electrocardiogram, StatPearls - https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK549803/
5. ECG in Medical Practice by ABM Abdullah, 4th edition
6. ECG Basics, http://www.nataliescasebook.com/tag/e-c-g-basics
Title: Sense of Taste
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the structure and function of taste buds.
Describe the relationship between the taste threshold and taste index of common substances.
Explain the chemical basis and signal transduction of taste perception for each type of primary taste sensation.
Recognize different abnormalities of taste perception and their causes.
Key Topics:
Significance of Taste Sensation:
Differentiation between pleasant and harmful food
Influence on behavior
Selection of food based on metabolic needs
Receptors of Taste:
Taste buds on the tongue
Influence of sense of smell, texture of food, and pain stimulation (e.g., by pepper)
Primary and Secondary Taste Sensations:
Primary taste sensations: Sweet, Sour, Salty, Bitter, Umami
Chemical basis and signal transduction mechanisms for each taste
Taste Threshold and Index:
Taste threshold values for Sweet (sucrose), Salty (NaCl), Sour (HCl), and Bitter (Quinine)
Taste index relationship: Inversely proportional to taste threshold
Taste Blindness:
Inability to taste certain substances, particularly thiourea compounds
Example: Phenylthiocarbamide
Structure and Function of Taste Buds:
Composition: Epithelial cells, Sustentacular/Supporting cells, Taste cells, Basal cells
Features: Taste pores, Taste hairs/microvilli, and Taste nerve fibers
Location of Taste Buds:
Found in papillae of the tongue (Fungiform, Circumvallate, Foliate)
Also present on the palate, tonsillar pillars, epiglottis, and proximal esophagus
Mechanism of Taste Stimulation:
Interaction of taste substances with receptors on microvilli
Signal transduction pathways for Umami, Sweet, Bitter, Sour, and Salty tastes
Taste Sensitivity and Adaptation:
Decrease in sensitivity with age
Rapid adaptation of taste sensation
Role of Saliva in Taste:
Dissolution of tastants to reach receptors
Washing away the stimulus
Taste Preferences and Aversions:
Mechanisms behind taste preference and aversion
Influence of receptors and neural pathways
Impact of Sensory Nerve Damage:
Degeneration of taste buds if the sensory nerve fiber is cut
Abnormalities of Taste Detection:
Conditions: Ageusia, Hypogeusia, Dysgeusia (parageusia)
Causes: Nerve damage, neurological disorders, infections, poor oral hygiene, adverse drug effects, deficiencies, aging, tobacco use, altered neurotransmitter levels
Neurotransmitters and Taste Threshold:
Effects of serotonin (5-HT) and norepinephrine (NE) on taste sensitivity
Supertasters:
25% of the population with heightened sensitivity to taste, especially bitterness
Increased number of fungiform papillae
Flu Vaccine Alert in Bangalore Karnatakaaddon Scans
As flu season approaches, health officials in Bangalore, Karnataka, are urging residents to get their flu vaccinations. The seasonal flu, while common, can lead to severe health complications, particularly for vulnerable populations such as young children, the elderly, and those with underlying health conditions.
Dr. Vidisha Kumari, a leading epidemiologist in Bangalore, emphasizes the importance of getting vaccinated. "The flu vaccine is our best defense against the influenza virus. It not only protects individuals but also helps prevent the spread of the virus in our communities," he says.
This year, the flu season is expected to coincide with a potential increase in other respiratory illnesses. The Karnataka Health Department has launched an awareness campaign highlighting the significance of flu vaccinations. They have set up multiple vaccination centers across Bangalore, making it convenient for residents to receive their shots.
To encourage widespread vaccination, the government is also collaborating with local schools, workplaces, and community centers to facilitate vaccination drives. Special attention is being given to ensuring that the vaccine is accessible to all, including marginalized communities who may have limited access to healthcare.
Residents are reminded that the flu vaccine is safe and effective. Common side effects are mild and may include soreness at the injection site, mild fever, or muscle aches. These side effects are generally short-lived and far less severe than the flu itself.
Healthcare providers are also stressing the importance of continuing COVID-19 precautions. Wearing masks, practicing good hand hygiene, and maintaining social distancing are still crucial, especially in crowded places.
Protect yourself and your loved ones by getting vaccinated. Together, we can help keep Bangalore healthy and safe this flu season. For more information on vaccination centers and schedules, residents can visit the Karnataka Health Department’s official website or follow their social media pages.
Stay informed, stay safe, and get your flu shot today!
New Directions in Targeted Therapeutic Approaches for Older Adults With Mantl...i3 Health
i3 Health is pleased to make the speaker slides from this activity available for use as a non-accredited self-study or teaching resource.
This slide deck presented by Dr. Kami Maddocks, Professor-Clinical in the Division of Hematology and
Associate Division Director for Ambulatory Operations
The Ohio State University Comprehensive Cancer Center, will provide insight into new directions in targeted therapeutic approaches for older adults with mantle cell lymphoma.
STATEMENT OF NEED
Mantle cell lymphoma (MCL) is a rare, aggressive B-cell non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL) accounting for 5% to 7% of all lymphomas. Its prognosis ranges from indolent disease that does not require treatment for years to very aggressive disease, which is associated with poor survival (Silkenstedt et al, 2021). Typically, MCL is diagnosed at advanced stage and in older patients who cannot tolerate intensive therapy (NCCN, 2022). Although recent advances have slightly increased remission rates, recurrence and relapse remain very common, leading to a median overall survival between 3 and 6 years (LLS, 2021). Though there are several effective options, progress is still needed towards establishing an accepted frontline approach for MCL (Castellino et al, 2022). Treatment selection and management of MCL are complicated by the heterogeneity of prognosis, advanced age and comorbidities of patients, and lack of an established standard approach for treatment, making it vital that clinicians be familiar with the latest research and advances in this area. In this activity chaired by Michael Wang, MD, Professor in the Department of Lymphoma & Myeloma at MD Anderson Cancer Center, expert faculty will discuss prognostic factors informing treatment, the promising results of recent trials in new therapeutic approaches, and the implications of treatment resistance in therapeutic selection for MCL.
Target Audience
Hematology/oncology fellows, attending faculty, and other health care professionals involved in the treatment of patients with mantle cell lymphoma (MCL).
Learning Objectives
1.) Identify clinical and biological prognostic factors that can guide treatment decision making for older adults with MCL
2.) Evaluate emerging data on targeted therapeutic approaches for treatment-naive and relapsed/refractory MCL and their applicability to older adults
3.) Assess mechanisms of resistance to targeted therapies for MCL and their implications for treatment selection
4. • Process of excretion of NH3 is called Ammonotelism.
• The organism that excrete ammonia are called
ammonotelic.
• Ammonotelic animals: Aquatic invertebrates, aquatic
insects, bony fishes, aquatic amphibians etc.
• NH3 is highly toxic. So excretion needs excess of
water.
• NH3 is readily soluble in water and is excreted by
diffusion through body surface or gill surfaces (in
fishes) as ammonium ions.
• Kidneys do not play any significant role in its removal.
TYPES OF EXCRETION 1. Ammonotelism
5. • Process of excretion of urea is called
ureotelism.
• The organism that excrete urea as
nitrogenous waste are called ureotelic.
• Ureotelic animals: Cartilaginous fishes,
terrestrial & semi-aquatic amphibians
(frogs, toads etc.), aquatic & semi-aquatic
reptiles (alligators, turtles), mammals etc.
• In liver, NH3 is converted into less toxic urea.
So, it needs only moderate quantity of
water for excretion.
• Some amount of urea may be retained in
the kidney matrix of some animals to
maintain a desired osmolarity.
TYPES OF EXCRETION 2. Ureotelism
6. • Process of excretion of uric acid
is called uricotelism.
• The organism that excrete uric
acid are called uricotelic.
• It is insoluble in water. So water
is not required for excretion.
• Uricotelic animals: Insects, some
land crustaceans, land snails,
terrestrial reptiles & birds.
TYPES OF EXCRETION 3. Uricotelism
Ureotelism & uricotelism are needed for water conservation.
7. EXCRETORY ORGANS IN ANIMALS
Excretory organ Seen in
Protonephridia (flame cells)
Platyhelminthes, Planaria, rotifers,
some annelids & cephalochordate.
Nephridia Phylum Annelids (earth worm)
Malpighian tubules Insects
Antennal glands (green glands) Crustaceans (prawn etc.)
Kidneys Higher animals
12. • Reddish brown, bean-shaped structures
enclosed in a tough, 3-layered fibrous
capsule.
• It is situated between the levels of last
thoracic & 3rd lumbar vertebra one on
either side of the median line, last two
pairs of ribs (floating ribs) protect the
kidney.
• The concave side of each kidney faces
inward and convex side faces outwards, the
right kidney is slightly lower than the left.
• Length: 10-12 cm, Width: 5-7 cm,
Thickness: 2-3 cm.
• Average weight: 120-170 gm.
HUMAN EXCRETORY SYSTEM STRUCTURE OF KIDNEY
13. On the concave side of kidney, there is
an opening (hilum or hilus) through
which blood vessels, nerves, lymphatic
ducts & ureter enter the kidney.
HUMAN EXCRETORY SYSTEM STRUCTURE OF KIDNEY
14. • A kidney has outer cortex and
inner medulla.
• Medulla has few conical
projections called renal pyramids
(medullary pyramids) projecting
into the calyces.
• Cortex extends in between the
medullary pyramids as renal
columns called Columns of
Bertini.
HUMAN EXCRETORY SYSTEM STRUCTURE OF KIDNEY
15. Function of Kidney
• Removal of metabolic wastes. As we have discussed, the kidneys filter the blood,
removing metabolic wastes. These wastes are eliminated from the body via the urine.
• Regulation of fluid and electrolyte balance. The kidneys regulate blood solute
concentration, or osmolarity, by conserving or eliminating water and electrolytes such as
sodium, potassium, and calcium ions.
• Regulation of acid-base balance. The kidneys assist in the long-term regulation of blood
pH by conserving or eliminating hydrogen (H+) and bicarbonate (HCO3 -) ions.
• Maintenance of blood pressure. The kidneys directly Influence systemic blood pressure
through their control of blood volume. Additionally, they secrete an enzyme that
Influences both blood volume and peripheral resistance.
• Regulation of erythropoiesis. The kidneys regulate red blood cell production in the bone
marrow by releasing the hormone erythropoietin.
• Performing other metabolic functions. The kidneys play many important metabolic roles,
including detoxifying substances in the blood, activating vitamin D, and making new
glucose through the process of gluconeogenesis.
19. Anatomy of the Kidneys
External Anatomy of the Kidneys
The kidneys are held in place on the posterior body wall and protected by three external layers of
connective tissue (Figure 24.2). From superficial to deep, these layers are as follows:
• Renal fascia. The renal fascia is a layer of dense irregular connective tissue that anchors each kidney
to the peritoneum and to the fascia covering the muscles of the posterior abdominal wall.
• Adipose capsule. The middle and thickest layer, called the adipose capsule, consists of adipose tissue
that wedges each kidney in place and shields it from physical shock. During prolonged starvation, the
body uses the fatty acids in the adipose capsule of the kidney for fuel. This causes the kidney to
droop, a condition called nephroptosis (nef-rop- TOH-sis; -ptosis = “drooping”).
• Renal capsule. The renal capsule is an extremely thin layer of dense irregular connective tissue that
covers the exterior of each kidney like plastic wrap. It protects the kidney from infection and
physical trauma.
20. Internal Anatomy of the Kidneys
A frontal section of the kidney reveals the three distinct regions of this organ: the outermost renal cortex, the middle renal
medulla, and the inner renal pelvis (Figure 24.3a). Together, the renal cortex and the renal medulla make up the urine-
forming portion of the kidney. The renal pelvis and associated structures drain urine that the cortex and medulla have
formed.
Notice in Figure 24.3a that the renal cortex is reddish-brown. This is due to its rich blood supply—it houses 90–95% of the
kidney’s blood vessels. At specific points, extensions of the renal cortex called renal columns pass through the renal
medulla toward the renal pelvis. The renal columns house blood vessels that branch from the renal artery as they travel to
the outer portion of the cortex.
Within the renal medulla we also find cone-shaped renal pyramids (or medullary pyramids), which are separated from one
another by a renal column on each side. Notice that the renal pyramids are darker in color and appear striped, reflecting
that they are made up of parallel bundles of small tubes, with fewer blood vessels than in the renal cortex.
The renal cortex and renal medulla of each kidney contain over one million microscopic filtering structures called nephrons.
Nephrons are the functional units of the kidney—each one is capable of filtering the blood and producing urine.
Figure 24.3b shows the basic structure of a nephron, which consists of two main components: the globe-shaped renal
corpuscle, and a long, snaking tube of epithelium called the renal tubule. Notice how these
components are arranged in the kidney. The renal corpuscle and the majority of the renal tubule reside in the renal cortex,
whereas varying amounts of the renal tubule dip into the renal medulla. The tip of each renal pyramid tapers into a slender
papilla (pah-PIL-ah; papil- = “nipple”), which borders on the first urine draining structure, a cup-shaped tube called a minor
calyx. Urine from three to four minor calyces drains into a larger major calyx. Two to three major calyces, in turn, drain
urine into the large collecting chamber that is the renal pelvis, which leads into the ureter. Smooth muscle tissue in the
walls of the calyces and renal pelvis contracts to help propel urine toward the ureter. Both the calyces and the renal pelvis
reside in the renal sinus.
21.
22.
23. Blood Supply of the Kidneys
The kidneys receive approximately one-fourth of the total cardiac output—about 1200 ml per minute—from
the right and left renal arteries, which branch from the abdominal aorta. The renal arteries fan out into ever-
smaller vessels as they pass through the renal sinus to the renal columns and cortex. Figure 24.4 traces the
path of blood flow through the kidney. From largest to smallest, the arteries shown in Figure 24.4 are as
follows:
1 Renal artery →2 Segmental artery → 3 Interlobar artery → 4 Arcuate artery → 5 Interlobular
(cortical radiate) artery → 6 Afferent arteriole → 7 Glomerulus → 8 Efferent arteriole → 9
Peritubular capillaries 1 → 10 Interlobular vein →11 Arcuate vein →12 Interlobar vein →13
Renal vein.
Note:that no segmental veins are present in the kidneys; the interlobar veins merge in the renal sinus to
form the large renal vein. The renal vein then exits the kidney through the hilum and empties
into the inferior vena cava.
24.
25. • Each kidney has nearly one million
tubular nephrons.
• Nephrons are the structural &
functional units of kidney.
• Each nephron has 2 parts:
Glomerulus (Renal Corpuscle) and
Renal tubule.
NEPHRON
HUMAN EXCRETORY SYSTEM STRUCTURE OF KIDNEY
26. The Renal Corpuscle is responsible for filtering the blood. Each globe-shaped renal corpuscle
consists of two parts: the glomerulus and an outer sheath of epithelial tissue called the
glomerular capsule (or Bowman’s capsule; Figure 24.6). The glomerulus is a group of looping
fenestrated capillaries. These capillaries are called fenestrated because of the large pores, or
fenestrations (fenestre- = “window”), present within their plasma membranes and between
their endothelial cells. These fenestrations, which make the capillaries extremely “leaky,” or
permeable, form a main part of the filtering structure of the renal corpuscle.
Surrounding the glomerulus is the double-layered glomerular capsule, which consists of an
outer parietal layer and an inner visceral layer. The parietal layer is a globelike extension of the
renal tubule consisting of simple squamous epithelium. The visceral layer consists of modified
epithelial cells called podocytes (podo- = “foot”) that wrap around the glomerular capillaries.
Extending from each podocyte are extensions called foot processes, or pedicels. Pedicels weave
together to form filtration slits, which make up another part of the renal corpuscle’s filtering
structure. Between the parietal and visceral layers we find a hollow region, or lumen, called the
capsular space, which is continuous with the beginning of the renal tubule lumen.
Glomerulus (Renal Corpuscle)
28. The Renal Tubule Newly formed filtrate flows from the capsular space into the “pipes” of the nephron: the renal tubule. The
renal tubule is a winding tube responsible for modifying the filtrate. It has three regions: the proximal tubule, nephron loop,
and Distal tubule, each of which differs in structure and function (Figure 24.7).
• 1. Proximal tubule. The initial and longest segment of the renal tubule through which filtrate flows is the proximal
tubule; it consists of simple cuboidal epithelial cells with prominent microvilli. This part of the tubule has both
convoluted (coiled) and straight sections, which is why this text uses the broader term proximal tubule (rather than
proximal convoluted tubule). The many microvilli projecting into the lumen of the proximal tubule form a brush border,
so named because the fine projections resemble the bristles on a brush. This border greatly increases surface area.
• 2. Nephron loop (loop of Henle). The remaining filtrate flows on to the nephron loop, also known as the loop of Henle,
which is the only part of the renal tubule that dips into the renal medulla. The nephron loop has two limbs: The
Descending limb travels toward the renal medulla, turns 180°, and becomes the ascending limb, which climbs back
toward the renal cortex. The descending limb is composed of simple squamous epithelium, and thus is often called the
thin descending limb. In some nephrons this thin segment also forms the bend region and part of the ascending limb,
so there is also a thin ascending limb. However, the majority of the ascending limb is composed of thicker simple
cuboidal epithelium, and is therefore referred to as the thick ascending limb.
• 3. Distal tubule. The final segment through which the filtrate passes in the renal tubule is the distal tubule. (Again, this
text uses the broader term, as this segment of the tubule has both convoluted and straight sections.) Like the proximal
tubule, the distal tubule is composed of simple cuboidal epithelium. However, the distal tubule lacks a brush border.
Renal tubule
32. Ureter
The ureters are the tubes that convey urine from the kidneys to the urinary bladder. They are about 25 to 30 cm long
with a diameter of about 3 mm. The ureter is continuous with the funnel-shaped renal pelvis. It passes downwards
through the abdominal cavity, behind the peritoneum in front of the psoas muscle into the pelvic cavity and passes
obliquely through the posterior wall of the bladder. Because of this arrangement, when urine accumulates and the
pressure in the bladder rises, the ureters are compressed, and the openings occluded. This prevents reflux of urine
into the ureters (towards the kidneys) as the bladder fills and during micturition, when pressure increases as the
muscular bladder wall contracts.
Structure
The ureters consist of three layers of tissue:
• an outer covering of fibrous tissue, continuous with the fibrous capsule of the kidney
• a middle muscular layer consisting of interlacing smooth muscle fibres that form a syncytium spiralling round the
ureter, some in clockwise and some in anticlockwise directions and an additional outer longitudinal layer in the lower
third
• an inner layer, the mucosa, lined with transitional epithelium.
Function
The ureters propel the urine from the kidneys into the bladder by peristaltic contraction of the smooth muscle layer.
This is an intrinsic property of the smooth muscle and is not under autonomic nerve control. The waves of
contraction originate in a pacemaker in the minor calyces. Peristaltic waves occur several times per minute,
increasing in frequency with the volume of urine produced, and send little spurts of urine into the bladder.
33.
34. urinary bladder
The urinary bladder is a reservoir for urine. It lies in the pelvic
cavity and its size and position vary, depending on the amount of
urine it contains. When distended, the bladder rises into the
abdominal cavity. The bladder is roughly pear-shaped, but
becomes more oval as it fills with urine. It has anterior, superior
and posterior surfaces. The posterior surface is the base. The
bladder opens into the urethra at its lowest point, the neck. When
the bladder is empty the inner lining is arranged in folds, or rugae,
and these gradually disappear as the bladder fills. The bladder is
distensible but when it contains 300 to 400 ml the awareness of
the desire to urinate is initiated. The total capacity is rarely more
than about 600 ml. The three orifices in the bladder wall form a
triangle or trigone. The upper two orifices on the posterior wall
are the openings of the ureters. The lower orifice is the point of
origin of the urethra. Where the urethra commences is a
thickening of the smooth muscle layer forming the internal
urethral sphincter ,this sphincter is not under voluntary control.
35. urethra
The urethra is a canal extending from the neck of
the bladder to the exterior, at the external urethral
orifice. Its length differs in the male and in the
female. The male urethra is associated with the
urinary and the reproductive systems, and its about
20cm in length which opens out at the tip of the
penis by urogenital aperture. Thus the urethra
carries both urine and semen.
The female urethra is approximately 4
cm long. It runs downwards and forwards behind
the symphysis pubis and opens at the external
urethral orifice just in front of the vagina. The
external urethral orifice is guarded by the external
urethral sphincter which is under voluntary
control. Except during the passage of urine, the
walls of the urethra are in close apposition.
36. Overview of Renal Physiology
Nephrons carry out three basic physiologic processes
that allow the kidneys to perform their homeostatic
functions (process of urine formation) : filtration,
reabsorption, and secretion.
Glomerular filtration/Ultra filtration- The first process
performed by the nephron is to filter the blood, a
process known as glomerular filtration. This takes place
as blood passes through the membrane of the
glomerular capillaries and some of the plasma is
filtered into the surrounding glomerular space. This
filter is selective based on size, so it holds back cells
and most proteins, which remain in the blood, but
allows some of the smaller substances—including
water, electrolytes (such as Sodium and potassium
ions), acids and bases (such as hydrogen and
bicarbonate ions), organic molecules, and metabolic
wastes—to exit the blood and enter the glomerular
capsule. The fluid and solutes that enter the capsular
space of the nephron form the filtrate, also known as
tubular fluid.
37. The inner part of the glomerular capsule consists of three layers that act as
barriers, or filters; together these layers are called the filtration membrane.
This membrane is made up of the glomerular capillary endothelial cells, a
basal lamina, and podocytes (the visceral layer of the glomerular capsule).
1. Fenestrated glomerular capillary endothelial cells. Like all capillaries, the
glomeruli are composed of endothelial cells. Recall, however, that the
glomerular endothelial cells are fenestrated; they have pores that make
them leakier than most capillaries. The gaps between the glomerular
endothelial cells are relatively large (about 70–100 nm) but are still small
enough to prevent blood cells and platelets from exiting the capillaries.
2. Basal lamina. This thin layer of extracellular matrix gel separates the
glomerular endothelial cells from the podocytes. Collagen fibers within the
basal lamina form a meshwork that acts like a colander, preventing
substances with a diameter greater than 8 nm from entering the capsular
space. This effectively blocks the passage of most plasma proteins. In
addition, the collagen fibers have negative charges that repel negatively
charged plasma proteins, even those smaller than 8 nm in diameter.
3. Podocytes (visceral layer of the glomerular capsule). The podocytes
composing the visceral layer of the glomerular capsule make up the third
and finest filter in the filtration membrane. Note in Figure 24.12 that their
finger-like pedicels wrap around the glomerular capillaries and interlace to
form filtration slits. These narrow slits allow only substances with a diameter
less than 6–7 nm to enter the capsular space. Albumin, the most prevalent
plasma protein, has a diameter of 7.1 nm, so it is normally prevented from
entering the filtrate.
38. Process of Glomerular Filtration
When blood passes through glomerular capillaries, the plasma is filtered into the Bowman capsule. All the
substances of plasma are filtered except the plasma proteins. The filtered fluid is called glomerular filtrate.
Ultrafiltration
Glomerular filtration is called ultrafiltration because even the minute particles are filtered. But, the plasma proteins
are not filtered due to their large molecular size. The protein molecules are larger than the slit pores present in the
endothelium of capillaries. Thus, the glomerular filtrate contains all the substances present in plasma except the
plasma proteins.
METHOD OF COLLECTION OF GLOMERULAR FILTRATE
Glomerular filtrate is collected in experimental animals by micro-puncture technique. This technique involves
insertion of a micropipette into the Bowman capsule and aspiration of filtrate.
• GLOMERULAR FILTRATION RATE
Glomerular filtration rate (GFR) is defined as the total quantity of filtrate formed in all the nephrons of both the
kidneys in the given unit of time. Normal GFR is 125 mL/minute or about 180 L/day.
• FILTRATION FRACTION
Filtration fraction is the fraction (portion) of the renal plasma, which becomes the filtrate. It is the ratio between
renal plasma flow and glomerular filtration rate.
It is expressed in percentage.
Normal filtration fraction varies from 15% to 20%.
39. Glomerular Filtration Rate (GFR)
The amount of filtrate formed by the kidney per minutes is called glomerular filtrate rate(GFR). Over the
course of a day, the kidneys produce about 180 liters of filtrate, GFR of healthy individual is approximately
125ml/minutes.
Filtration Pressures
Let’s first review the two forces that drive fluid movement in a typical capillary bed:
● Hydrostatic pressure. Hydrostatic pressure is the force of a fluid on the wall of its container. In the case of
blood capillaries, hydrostatic pressure is equal to the blood pressure, and it tends to push water out of the
capillary and into the interstitial space. It is about 15 mm Hg. It also opposes glomerular filtration.
● Colloid osmotic pressure. Colloid osmotic pressure (COP) is the pressure created by proteins (primarily
albumin) in the plasma. The osmotic gradient created by these proteins pulls water into the capillaries by
osmosis. which is about 30 mm Hg. It opposes glomerular filtration.
Recall that these two forces work together in a capillary bed to determine the net filtration pressure (NFP) of
the bed. The net filtration pressure determines the direction of water movement between the capillaries
and the interstitial fluid. Simply stated, water moves out of the capillary if hydrostatic pressure is higher than
COP, or into the capillary if COP is higher than hydrostatic pressure.
Glomerular Capillary Pressure
Glomerular capillary pressure is the pressure exerted by the blood in glomerular capillaries. It is
about 55 mm Hg and, varies between 45 and 70 mm Hg. Glomerular
capillary pressure is the highest capillary pressure in the body. This pressure favors glomerular
40. Net Filtration Pressure
Net filtration pressure is the balance between pressure favoring filtration and pressures
opposing filtration. It is otherwise known as effective filtration pressure or essential
filtration pressure.
BP=Systolic/Diastolic
120/80
NFP= 55 - (30+15)= 10mm Hg
Autoregulation of filtration:- Renal blood flow is protected by a mechanism called
autoregulation whereby renal blood flow is maintained at a constant pressure across a wide
range of systolic blood pressures (from 80 to 200 mmHg). Autoregulation operates
independently of nervous control; i.e. if the nerve supply to the renal blood vessels is
interrupted, autoregulation continues to operate. It is therefore a property inherent in renal
blood vessels; it may be stimulated by changes in blood pressure in the renal arteries or by
fluctuating levels of certain metabolites, e.g. prostaglandins. In severe shock when the systolic
blood pressure falls below 80 mmHg, autoregulation fails and renal blood flow and the
hydrostatic pressure decrease, impairing filtration within the nephrons.
41. Selective reabsorption / Tubular reabsorption
Selective reabsorption is the process by which the composition and
volume of the glomerular filtrate are altered during its passage
through the convoluted tubules, the medullary loop and the collecting
tubule. The general purpose of this process is to reabsorb into the
blood those filtrate constituents needed by the body to maintain fluid
and electrolyte balance and the pH of the blood. Active transport is
carried out at carrier sites in the epithelial membrane using chemical
energy to transport substances against their concentration gradients
Some constituents of glomerular filtrate (e.g., glucose, amino acids)
do not normally appear in urine because they are completely
reabsorbed unless they are present in blood in excessive quantities.
The kidneys' maximum capacity for reabsorption of a substance is the
transport maximum, or renal threshold, e.g., normal blood glucose
level is 2.5 to 5.3 mmol/l (45 to 95 mg/100 ml). If the level rises
above the transport maximum of about 9 mmol/1 (160 mg/100 ml)
glucose appears in the urine because all the carrier sites are occupied
and the mechanism for active transfer out of the tubules is
overloaded. Other substances reabsorbed by active transport include
amino acids and sodium, calcium, potassium, phosphate and chloride.
42.
43. REGULATION OF TUBULAR REABSORPTION
Tubular reabsorption is regulated by three factors:
1. Glomerulotubular balance
2. Hormonal factors
3. Nervous factors.
Glomerulotubular Balance
Glomerulotubular balance is the balance between the filtration and reabsorption of solutes and water in kidney. When GFR
increases, the tubular load of solutes and water in the proximal convoluted tubule is increased. It is followed by increase in the
reabsorption of solutes and water. This process helps in the constant reabsorption of solute particularly sodium and water from renal
tubule.
Hormonal Factors
44. Nervous Factor
Activation of sympathetic nervous system increases the tubular reabsorption (particularly of
sodium) from renal tubules. It also increases the tubular reabsorption indirectly by stimulating
secretion of renin from juxtaglomerular cells. Renin causes formation of angiotensin II, which
increases the sodium reabsorption.
TUBULAR SECRETION
INTRODUCTION
Tubular secretion is the process by which the substances are transported from blood into renal
tubules. It is also called tubular excretion. In addition to reabsorption from renal tubules, some
substances are also secreted into the lumen from the peritubular capillaries through the tubular
epithelial cells. Dye phenol red was the first substance found to be secreted in renal tubules in
experimental conditions. Later many other substances were found to be secreted.
Such substances are:
1. Paraaminohippuric acid (PAH)
2. Diodrast
3. 5hydroxyindoleacetic acid (5HIAA)
4. Amino derivatives
5. Penicillin.
45. SUBSTANCES SECRETED IN DIFFERENT
SEGMENTS OF RENAL TUBULES
1. Potassium is secreted actively by sodium-potassium pump in proximal and distal
convoluted tubules and collecting ducts
2. Ammonia is secreted in the proximal convoluted tubule
3. Hydrogen ions are secreted in the proximal and distal convoluted tubules.
Maximum hydrogen ion secretion occurs in proximal tubule
4. Urea is secreted in loop of Henle.
46. Urine is about 95% water and
5% waste products.
Nitrogenous wastes excreted in
urine include urea, creatinine,
ammonia, and uric acid.
Ions such as sodium, potassium,
hydrogen, and calcium are also
excreted.
Urine is clear and amber in colour due to the
presence of urobilin, a bile pigment altered in
the intestine, reabsorbed then excreted by the
kidneys.
The specific gravity is between 1010 to 1030,
and the pH is around 6 (normal range of 4.5 to
8). A healthy adult passes 1000 to 1500 ml per
day.
47.
48. The Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone System
The renin-angiotensinaldosterone system (RAAS) is a complex system whose primary
function is to maintain systemic blood pressure; it preserves the GFR as a secondary effect.
Therefore, it acts on much more than just the afferent and/or efferent arterioles of the
glomeruli. The RAAS also significantly impacts tubular reabsorption in the nephron and
collecting system in order to influence electrolyte balance and blood volume, in addition to
causing changes within the body as a whole.
This system may be triggered into action by three conditions:
• (1) stimulation from neurons of the sympathetic nervous system,
• (2) low glomerular hydrostatic pressure, or
• (3) stimulation from the macula densa cells as part of tubuloglomerular feedback.
Note that often the system is “turned on” by a combination of these three factors.
49.
50. The RAAS proceeds by the following steps,
1 Systemic blood pressure decreases, causing a decrease in the GFR.
2 JG cells release renin. Decreased blood flow through the afferent arteriole triggers the JG
cells to release the enzyme renin into the bloodstream.
3 Renin converts angiotensinogen to angiotensin-I. Renin circulates until it encounters an
inactive protein produced by the liver called angiotensinogen (an′-jee-oh-ten-SINoh- jen).
Renin catalyzes the conversion of angiotensinogen to a product with minimal activity,
angiotensin-I (A-I).
4 ACE converts angiotensin-I to the active angiotensin-II. A-I circulates through the blood
until it encounters an enzyme called angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE), which is made by
cells such as the endothelial cells in the lungs. ACE converts A-I to its active form, angiotensin-
II (A-II).
A-II has several different, simultaneous effects that influence both systemic blood pressure
and the GFR, including:
5a Promotes vasoconstriction of efferent arterioles. A-II constricts all of the renal blood
vessels, but it has a greater effect on the efferent arterioles than on the afferent arterioles.
This “clogs the drain,” raising glomerular hydrostatic pressure. This increased pressure, in turn,
increases the GFR to maintain the filtration rate despite the reduced blood flow.
51. 5b Promotes vasoconstriction of systemic blood vessels. A-II is a powerful vasoconstrictor of nearly all
systemic vessels (it causes effects more than 40 times stronger than those of norepinephrine). This
vasoconstriction increases peripheral resistance, which in turn increases systemic blood pressure.
5c Promotes reabsorption of sodium and chloride ions from the proximal tubule, and water follows. One
of the most powerful effects of A-II on blood pressure comes from its role in renal tubule reabsorption. In
the proximal tubule, A-II promotes reabsorption of both sodium and chloride ions from the filtrate, which
in turn causes reabsorption of water by osmosis. This increases blood volume, which raises blood
pressure.
5d Promotes aldosterone release, leading to increased sodium ion and water
reabsorption. A-II stimulates the adrenal glands to release the hormone
aldosterone. Aldosterone acts on the distal tubule and parts of the collecting system
to increase sodium ion reabsorption from the filtrate. If ADH is present, water
follows by osmosis, so this action increases blood volume,
and blood pressure.
5e Stimulates thirst. Another effect of A-II is to stimulate the thirst centers in the
hypothalamus. This can increase fluid intake, which would increase blood volume.
52. Atrial Natriuretic Peptide
Recall that certain cells of the atria in the heart produce the hormone atrial natriuretic
peptide (ANP). ANP, which is released when the volume of blood in the atria increases, acts
to lower blood volume and blood pressure and thereby reduce the workload of the heart.
One of the ways that ANP accomplishes this task is by increasing the GFR. ANP dilates the
afferent arterioles and constricts the efferent arterioles of the glomeruli, a combination that
“turns up the faucet” and “clogs the drain.” This increases the glomerular hydrostatic
pressure, raising the GFR. High GFR leads to more fluid loss and therefore decreases blood
volume and effectively lowers blood pressure.
Note:- that ANP is part of a system that works to decrease the systemic blood pressure; it
simply happens to do so by impacting the GFR.
53.
54. Micturition
• Micturition, also called urination or
voiding, is the discharge of urine from the
urinary bladder to the outside of the body. It
is activated by a reflex arc called the
micturition reflex, which is mediated by the
parasympathetic nervous system.
This reflex arc is carried out by three
components:
(1) stretch receptors in the wall of the
urinary bladder,
(2) sensory afferent nerve fibers that convey
this information to the sacral portion of the
spinal cord (S2 and S3), and
(3) parasympathetic efferent fibers that
travel to the detrusor muscle and internal
sphincter of the urinary bladder.
55.
56. When urine fills the bladder and stretches its walls,
1.the micturition reflex occurs. In infants and young children, this involuntary reflex is the primary
mechanism by which the urinary bladder is emptied. This reflex arc has two basic steps:
2. Stretch receptors send a signal via sensory afferent fibers to the sacral portion of the spinal cord.
3. Parasympathetic efferent fibers stimulate the detrusor muscle to contract and the internal
urethral sphincter to relax, causing micturition.
As children mature, however, pathways develop between these parasympathetic neurons and the
brain that allow control over the external urethral sphincter. At this point, micturition is
predominantly controlled by the micturition center in the pons, making the process voluntary.
When the bladder is full, two additional steps then occur simultaneously with the involuntary
process
4 Interneurons in the spinal cord communicate the “full bladder” signal to the micturition center in
the pons.
5 If micturition is appropriate, the cerebral cortex facilitates this process by allowing the external
urethral sphincter to relax, and urine is voided.
The time about 500–600 ml has accumulated in the urinary bladder, the urge to urinate
becomes too strong, voluntary control over the external urethral sphincter is lost, and micturition
occurs. After micturition, the bladder contains only about 10 ml of urine.