Biology is a natural science concerned with the study of life and living organisms. Modern biology is a vast and eclectic field composed of many specialized disciplines that study the structure, function, growth, distribution, evolution, or other features of living organisms
This presentation gives a detail overview on Viruses - Morphology and Classification. The presentation is helpful for students of B. Pharm Second Year and those who wants to gain basic knowledge about Viruses.
Subject - Microbiology
Biology is a natural science concerned with the study of life and living organisms. Modern biology is a vast and eclectic field composed of many specialized disciplines that study the structure, function, growth, distribution, evolution, or other features of living organisms
This presentation gives a detail overview on Viruses - Morphology and Classification. The presentation is helpful for students of B. Pharm Second Year and those who wants to gain basic knowledge about Viruses.
Subject - Microbiology
A comprehensive illustration about viruses and their genetic system. The life cycle of bacteriophages. The transfer of their genetic system via the process of transduction (Generalised and Specialised) and studying the gene mapping in phages.
Bacteriophage is the most common and extensively studied virus. The life cycle of bacteriophages. The transfer of their genetic system via the process of transduction (Generalised and Specialised) and studying the gene mapping in phages. This theoretical explanation about viruses and their genetic system will help the learner in the fields of biotechnology, microbiology, basic science, life science, and various other fields of biology.
Viruses are microscopic organisms that exist almost everywhere on earth. They can infect animals, plants, fungi, and even bacteria.Viruses vary in complexity. They consist of genetic material, RNA or DNA, surrounded by a coat of protein, lipid (fat), or glycoprotein. Viruses cannot replicate without a host, so they are classified as parasitic.They are considered the most abundant biological entity on the planet.
Here we discuss the general properties of viruses in detail.
It is a written order by physician, dentist, nurse practitioner or other designated health professional for a medication to be dispensed by a pharmacy for administration to a patient.
Prescriptions and medication orders are the primary means by which prescribers communicate with pharmacists regarding the desired treatment regimen for a patient. Prescriptions are used in the outpatient, or ambulatory, settings.
whereas medication orders are used in the inpatient or institutional health system setting. Prescriptions and inpatient orders are legal orders that can be used for medications, devices, laboratory tests, procedures, etc.
Prescriptions and medication orders can be handwritten, typed, preprinted, verbal, or entered into a computer program and submitted to the pharmacy by the patient or caregiver, or via fax, computer, or other electronic means.
It is scientific process of improving the knowledge and skills of employee for doing a particular job.
The main purpose of training is to mould the behaviour of new recruits so that they can do their job in a more efficient way
In hospitals education and training activity includes undergraduate and graduate programme in medicine, teaching student nurses, training of technologist, physiotherapist, dietician, administrative residents, social service worker and pharmacist.
providing education about the core principles of primary care to all health care providers creates a foundation of values upon which to develop a positive safety culture;
having an adequate and well-trained primary care health workforce is essential for providing safe, high quality care;
educating the workforce about safety skills has the potential to further improve patient outcomes.
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Similar to Virus, Viroid, Bacteriophage by BNP.pdf
A comprehensive illustration about viruses and their genetic system. The life cycle of bacteriophages. The transfer of their genetic system via the process of transduction (Generalised and Specialised) and studying the gene mapping in phages.
Bacteriophage is the most common and extensively studied virus. The life cycle of bacteriophages. The transfer of their genetic system via the process of transduction (Generalised and Specialised) and studying the gene mapping in phages. This theoretical explanation about viruses and their genetic system will help the learner in the fields of biotechnology, microbiology, basic science, life science, and various other fields of biology.
Viruses are microscopic organisms that exist almost everywhere on earth. They can infect animals, plants, fungi, and even bacteria.Viruses vary in complexity. They consist of genetic material, RNA or DNA, surrounded by a coat of protein, lipid (fat), or glycoprotein. Viruses cannot replicate without a host, so they are classified as parasitic.They are considered the most abundant biological entity on the planet.
Here we discuss the general properties of viruses in detail.
Similar to Virus, Viroid, Bacteriophage by BNP.pdf (20)
It is a written order by physician, dentist, nurse practitioner or other designated health professional for a medication to be dispensed by a pharmacy for administration to a patient.
Prescriptions and medication orders are the primary means by which prescribers communicate with pharmacists regarding the desired treatment regimen for a patient. Prescriptions are used in the outpatient, or ambulatory, settings.
whereas medication orders are used in the inpatient or institutional health system setting. Prescriptions and inpatient orders are legal orders that can be used for medications, devices, laboratory tests, procedures, etc.
Prescriptions and medication orders can be handwritten, typed, preprinted, verbal, or entered into a computer program and submitted to the pharmacy by the patient or caregiver, or via fax, computer, or other electronic means.
It is scientific process of improving the knowledge and skills of employee for doing a particular job.
The main purpose of training is to mould the behaviour of new recruits so that they can do their job in a more efficient way
In hospitals education and training activity includes undergraduate and graduate programme in medicine, teaching student nurses, training of technologist, physiotherapist, dietician, administrative residents, social service worker and pharmacist.
providing education about the core principles of primary care to all health care providers creates a foundation of values upon which to develop a positive safety culture;
having an adequate and well-trained primary care health workforce is essential for providing safe, high quality care;
educating the workforce about safety skills has the potential to further improve patient outcomes.
It is defined as knowledge of fact through reading, study or practical experience on chemical substance that is used in diagnosis, prevention and treatment of diseases.
It covers all type of information including; objective and subjective information as well as information gathered by scientific observation or practical experience.
The availability of and rational use of medicines are critical for a successful therapeutic outcome. Though rapid developments in science and technology have led to easy understanding of etiology and pathophysiological basis of various diseases and development of new molecules, many times clinicians fail to achieve the desired therapeutic goals. One of the major reasons for this can be the patient non-compliance or partial compliance towards the prescribed treatment (World Health Organization, 2003). Patient compliance is defined as the adherence of a patient towards the prescriber‘s instructions.
It implies an understanding of how the medicine is to be used, as well as a positive behavior in which the patient is motivated sufficiently to use the prescribed treatment in the manner intended because of a perceived self-benefit and a positive outcome (e.g. enhanced quality of life and well being).
The P&T committee is generally the medical staff committee responsible for managing the formulary system. The P&T committee provides an evaluative, educational, and advisory service to the medical staff and organizational administration in all matters pertaining to the use of available medications. The P&T committee should be responsible for overseeing policies and procedures related to all aspects of medication use within an institution.
This committee assists in the formulation of broad professional policies regarding the evaluation, selection, procurement, distribution, use, safety procedures and other matters relating to drugs use in the hospital.
The outermost layer is termed as epiblema.
Cuticle and stomata are absent.
Cortex is formed of parenchymatous cells.
Endodermis is well developed.
Pericycle is distinct.
Vascular bundles are radial.
Xylem is exarch.
Phloem consists of sieve tubes, companion cells and phloem parenchyma. (In monocots however, the phloem parenchyma is absent).
The outermost layer is termed as epiblema.
Cuticle and stomata are absent. Cortex is formed of parenchymatous cells.
Endodermis is well developed.
Pericycle is distinct. Vascular bundles are radial. Xylem is exarch.
Phloem consists of sieve tubes, companion cells and phloem parenchyma. (In monocots however, the phloem parenchyma is absent).
Biologist Whittaker provided us with the Five Kingdom Grouping, categorizing all the living organisms into five territories – Protista, Monera, Fungi, Plantae, and Animalia. To know additional about plants, it is vital to know more about the Kingdom Plantae or in simple versus the plant kingdom.
The reproductive system is a collection of internal and external organs —in both males and females —that work together for the purpose of procreating.
Due to its vital role in the survival of the species, many scientists feel that the reproductive system is among the most important systems in the entire body.
The human body’s major systems, the reproductive system is the one that differs most between sexes, and the only system that does not function until puberty.
There are two types of nucleic acids, namely deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA). Primarily, nucleic acids serve as repositories and transmitters of genetic information.
Nucleic acids are the polymers of nucleotides (polynucleotides) held by 3′and 5′phosphate bridges. In other words, nucleic acids are built up by the monomeric units—nucleotides (It may be recalled that protein is a polymer of amino acids).
Nucleotides are composed of a nitrogenous base, a pentose sugar and a phosphate. Nucleotides perform a wide variety of functions in the living cells, besides being the building blocks or monomeric units in the nucleic acid (DNA and RNA) structure.
Tryptophan is first hydroxylated to form 5-OH-tryptophan in liver. The reaction is analogous to conversion of Phe - to tyrosine. Liver phenyl alanine hydroxylase also can catalyse hydroxylation of tryptophan. In the next step, 5-OH-tryptophan is decarboxylated, by the enzyme 5-OH-tryptophan decarboxylase, in presence of B6-PO4 to form 5-hydroxy tryptamine (5-HT), also called serotonin. The enzyme is present in kidney, liver and stomach. Aromatic-Lamino acid decarboxylase, widely distributed in tissues can also catalyse this reaction.
The major sites of heme biosynthesis are the liver, which synthesizes a number of heme proteins (particularly the CYP proteins), and the erythrocyte-producing cells of the bone marrow, which are active in hemoglobin synthesis. [Note: Over 85% of all heme synthesis occurs in erythroid tissue.] In the liver, the rate of heme synthesis is highly variable, responding to alterations in the cellular heme pool caused by fluctuating demands for heme proteins. In contrast, heme synthesis in erythroid cells is relatively constant and is matched to the rate of globin synthesis. The initial reaction and the last three steps in the formation of porphyrins occur in mitochondria, whereas the intermediate steps of the biosynthetic pathway occur in the cytosol. [Note: Mature red blood cells (RBCs) lack mitochondria and are unable to synthesize heme.]
Decarboxylation is the reaction by which CO2 is removed from the COOH group of an amino acid as a result an amine is formed. The reaction is catalyzed by the enzyme decarboxylase, which requires pyridoxal-P (B6-PO4) as coenzyme. Tissues like liver, kidney, brain possess the enzyme decarboxylase and also by microorganisms of intestinal tract. The enzyme removes CO2 from COOH and converts the amino acid to corresponding amine.
Phenylalanine is an essential, aromatic amino acid. The need for phenylalanine becomes minimal, if adequate tyrosine is supplied in the food. This is called the sparing action of tyrosine on phenylalanine.
Tyrosine is an aromatic amino acid. It is synthesized from phenylalanine, and so is a non-essential amino acid. The need for phenylalanine becomes minimal, if adequate tyrosine is supplied in the food. This is called the sparing action of tyrosine on the phenylalanine.
Seven amino acids produce acetyl CoA or acetoacetate and therefore are categorized as ketogenic. Of these, isoleucine, threonine, and the aromatic amino acids (phenylalanine, tyrosine, and tryptophan) are converted to compounds that produce both glucose and acetyl CoA or acetoacetate. Leucine and lysine do not produce glucose; they produce acetyl CoA and acetoacetate.
The name phenylketonuria is coined due to the fact that the metabolite phenylpyruvate is a keto acid (C6H5CH2−CO−COO−) excreted in urine in high amounts.
Phenylalanine cannot be converted to tyrosine. So, phenylalanine accumulates. Phenylalanine level in blood is elevated.
OBJECTIVES Digestion and absorption of proteins and amino acids Introduction to amino acids, structure and types Amino acid and nutrition General.
The amino acids undergo certain common reactions like transamination followed by deamination for the liberation of ammonia. The amino group of the amino acids is utilized for the formation of urea which is an excretory end product of protein metabolism.
Diabetes mellitus refers to a group of diseases that affect how your body uses blood sugar (glucose). Glucose is vital to your health because it's an important source of energy for the cells that make up your muscles and tissues. It's also your brain's main source of fuel.
With diabetes, your body doesn’t make enough insulin or can’t use it as well as it should. When there isn’t enough insulin or cells stop responding to insulin, too much blood sugar stays in your bloodstream. Over time, that can cause serious health problems, such as heart disease, vision loss, and kidney disease.
Supplying a huge array of metabolic intermediates for biosynthetic reactions. Normally carbohydrate metabolism supplies more than half of the energy requirements of the body. In fact the brain largely depends upon carbohydrate
Carbohydrate metabolism comprises glycolysis, HMP shunt, Gluconeogenesis, Glycogenolysis, TCA cycle, with Glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency disorder.
Biochemistry or biological chemistry is the study of chemical processes within and relating to living organisms. Biochemistry is the application of chemistry to the study of biological processes at the cellular and molecular level. It emerged as a distinct discipline around the beginning of the 20th century when scientists combined chemistry, physiology, and biology to investigate the chemistry of living systems.
Animals are multicellular and heterotrophic organisms without cell wall and chlorophyll. The method of arranging organism into groups on the basis of similarities and differences is called classification. Taxonomy is the science of classification which makes the study of wide variety of organisms easier.
Fungi is most abundantly found organism in earth, almost all parts of earth we found earth, here we represent some characteristic with their uses and disadvantages .
Fungi are eukaryotic organisms that include microorganisms such as yeasts, moulds and mushrooms. These organisms are classified under kingdom fungi.
This pdf is about the Schizophrenia.
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Observation of Io’s Resurfacing via Plume Deposition Using Ground-based Adapt...Sérgio Sacani
Since volcanic activity was first discovered on Io from Voyager images in 1979, changes
on Io’s surface have been monitored from both spacecraft and ground-based telescopes.
Here, we present the highest spatial resolution images of Io ever obtained from a groundbased telescope. These images, acquired by the SHARK-VIS instrument on the Large
Binocular Telescope, show evidence of a major resurfacing event on Io’s trailing hemisphere. When compared to the most recent spacecraft images, the SHARK-VIS images
show that a plume deposit from a powerful eruption at Pillan Patera has covered part
of the long-lived Pele plume deposit. Although this type of resurfacing event may be common on Io, few have been detected due to the rarity of spacecraft visits and the previously low spatial resolution available from Earth-based telescopes. The SHARK-VIS instrument ushers in a new era of high resolution imaging of Io’s surface using adaptive
optics at visible wavelengths.
Nutraceutical market, scope and growth: Herbal drug technologyLokesh Patil
As consumer awareness of health and wellness rises, the nutraceutical market—which includes goods like functional meals, drinks, and dietary supplements that provide health advantages beyond basic nutrition—is growing significantly. As healthcare expenses rise, the population ages, and people want natural and preventative health solutions more and more, this industry is increasing quickly. Further driving market expansion are product formulation innovations and the use of cutting-edge technology for customized nutrition. With its worldwide reach, the nutraceutical industry is expected to keep growing and provide significant chances for research and investment in a number of categories, including vitamins, minerals, probiotics, and herbal supplements.
Earliest Galaxies in the JADES Origins Field: Luminosity Function and Cosmic ...Sérgio Sacani
We characterize the earliest galaxy population in the JADES Origins Field (JOF), the deepest
imaging field observed with JWST. We make use of the ancillary Hubble optical images (5 filters
spanning 0.4−0.9µm) and novel JWST images with 14 filters spanning 0.8−5µm, including 7 mediumband filters, and reaching total exposure times of up to 46 hours per filter. We combine all our data
at > 2.3µm to construct an ultradeep image, reaching as deep as ≈ 31.4 AB mag in the stack and
30.3-31.0 AB mag (5σ, r = 0.1” circular aperture) in individual filters. We measure photometric
redshifts and use robust selection criteria to identify a sample of eight galaxy candidates at redshifts
z = 11.5 − 15. These objects show compact half-light radii of R1/2 ∼ 50 − 200pc, stellar masses of
M⋆ ∼ 107−108M⊙, and star-formation rates of SFR ∼ 0.1−1 M⊙ yr−1
. Our search finds no candidates
at 15 < z < 20, placing upper limits at these redshifts. We develop a forward modeling approach to
infer the properties of the evolving luminosity function without binning in redshift or luminosity that
marginalizes over the photometric redshift uncertainty of our candidate galaxies and incorporates the
impact of non-detections. We find a z = 12 luminosity function in good agreement with prior results,
and that the luminosity function normalization and UV luminosity density decline by a factor of ∼ 2.5
from z = 12 to z = 14. We discuss the possible implications of our results in the context of theoretical
models for evolution of the dark matter halo mass function.
2. History
In 1879, Adolf Mayer, a German scientist first observed the dark and light spot on
infected leaves of tobacco plant and named it tobacco mosaic disease. Although he
failed to describe the disease, he showed the infectious nature of the disease after
inoculating the juice extract of diseased plant to a healthy one. The next step was taken by
a Russian scientist Dimitri Ivanovsky in 1890, who demonstrated that sap of the leaves
infected with tobacco mosaic disease retains its infectious property even after its filtration
through a Chamberland filter.
The superhelical nature of polyoma virus DNA was first described by Weil and
Vinograd while Dulbecco and Vogt showed its closed circular nature in 1963. In the
same year Blumberg discovered the hepatitis B virus. Temin and Baltimore
discovered the retroviral reverse transcriptase in 1970 while the first human
immunodeficiency virus (HIV) was reported in 1983 by Gallo and Montagnier.
3.
4. Virus diversity
Viruses are minute, non-living entities that copy themselves once inside the living host cells. All living
organisms (animals, plants, fungi, and bacteria) have viruses that infect them. Typically viruses are made
up of coat (or capsid) that protects its information molecule (RNA or DNA); these information
molecules contain the blue prints for making more virus. The viruses are highly diverse in their shape,
size, genetic information, and infectivity. Viruses are all around us, on an average a human body
encounters billion virus particles every day. Our intestinal, respiratory, and urogenital tract are reservoirs
for many different kinds of viruses, it is astonishing that with such constant exposure, there is little or no
impact of these organisms in human health. The host defense mechanism is quite strong to remove all
these in normal condition, while they cause many nasty diseases only when the person is immune-
compromised. Although viruses have a limited host range but sometimes they may jump the species
barrier and causes fatal disease, recent spread of swine influenza is an ideal example of such kind of
spread. The epidemic viruses, such as influenza and severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS), cause
diseases that rapidly spread to a large human population within no time, and seem to attract more
scientific and public attention than do endemic viruses, which are continually present in a particular
population.
5. Genetic Material of Viruses:
• In addition to proteins, viruses also contain genetic material, that could be either
RNA or DNA.
• No virus contains both RNA and DNA. A virus is a nucleoprotein and the genetic
material is infectious.
• Speaking in strictly general terms, viruses infecting plants have single- stranded
RNA.
• On the other hand, viruses that infect animals have either single or double-
stranded RNA or they might have double-stranded DNA
• Bacterial viruses or bacteriophages usually have a double-stranded DNA structure.
By bacteriophages, we mean viruses that infect the bacteria.
• The protein coat, capsid made of small subunits (capsomeres) protects the nucleic
acid.
• They have these capsomeres arranged in various geometric forms like helical or
polyhedral forms.
6. Virus Shapes
Early study with tobacco mosaic virus (TMV) strongly suggested that viruses were composed of
repeating subunits of protein which was later supported by crystallization of TMV. A major
advancement in determining the morphology of virus was the development of negative stain
electron microscopy. Another modification of classical electron microscopy is cryo-electron
microscopy where the virus containing samples were rapidly frozen and examined at a very low
temperature; this allows us to preserve the native structure of the viruses.
A virion is a complete virus particle that is surrounded by the capsid protein and encapsidates the
viral genome (DNA or RNA). Sometime structure without nucleic acid can be visible under the
electron microscope those structures are called as empty capsids. In some of the viruses like
paramyxoviruses the nucleic acid is surrounded by the capsid proteins and the composite structures
are referred as nucleocapsid. Some of the viruses contain the lipid envelope which surrounds the
nucleocapsids. The envelopes are derived from the host cell membrane during the budding process.
As the envelopes are derived from host cell membrane they contain many of the surface proteins
present in the host cells.
7. Viruses come in an amazing variety of shapes and sizes. They are very small and
are measured in nanometers, which is one-billionth of a meter. Viruses can range in
the size between 20 to 750nm, which is 45,000 times smaller than the width of a
human hair. The majority of viruses cannot be seen with a light microscope because
the resolution of a light microscope is limited to about 200nm, so a scanning
electron microscope is required to view most viruses.
The basic structure of a virus is made up of a genetic information molecule and a
protein layer that protects that information molecule. The arrangement of the
protein layer and the genetic information comes in a variety of presentations. The
core of the virus is made up of nucleic acids, which then make up the genetic
information in the form of RNA or DNA. The protein layer that surrounds and
protects the nucleic acids is called the capsid. When a single virus is in its complete
form and has reached full infectivity outside of the cell, it is known as a virion. A
virus structure can be one of the following: icosahedral, enveloped, complex or
helical.
8. Icosahedral:
These viruses appear spherical in shape,
but a closer look actually reveals they
are icosahedral. The icosahedron is
made up of equilateral triangles fused
together in a spherical shape. This is the
most optimal way of forming a closed
shell using identical protein sub-units.
The genetic material is fully enclosed
inside of the capsid. Viruses with
icosahedral structures are released into
the environment when the cell dies,
breaks down and lyses, thus releasing
the virions. Examples of viruses with an
icosahedral structure are the poliovirus,
rhinovirus, and adenovirus.
9. Envelope
This virus structure is a conventional
icosahedral or helical structure that is
surrounded by a lipid bilayer membrane,
meaning the virus is encased or
enveloped.
The envelope of the virus is formed when
the virus is exiting the cell via budding,
and the infectivity of these viruses is
mostly dependent on the envelope. The
most well known examples of enveloped
viruses are the influenza virus, Hepatitis C
and HIV.
Envelope
Hepatitis C
10. Helical
Tobacco Mosaic
Virus
Helical
This virus structure has a capsid with a central
cavity or hollow tube that is made by proteins
arranged in a circular fashion, creating a disc like
shape. The disc shapes are attached helically
(like a toy slinky) creating a tube with room for the
nucleic acid in the middle. All filamentous viruses
are helical in shape. They are
usually 15-19nm wide and range in length from
300 to 500nm depending on the genome size.
An example of a virus with a helical symmetry is
the tobacco mosaic virus.
11. Viroids
Viroids, the smallest known pathogens, are naked, circular, single- stranded RNA
molecules that do not encode protein yet replicate autonomously when introduced into
host plants. Potato spindle tuber viroid, discovered in 1971, is the prototype; 29 other
viroids have since been discovered ranging in length from 120 to 475 nucleotides.
Viroids only infect plants; some cause economically important diseases of crop plants,
while others appear to be benign. Two examples of economically important viroids are
coconut cadang- cadang viroid (which causes a lethal infection of coconut palms) and
apple scar skin viroid (which causes an infection that results in visually unappealing
apples).
The 30 known viroids have been classified in two families. Members of the
Pospiviroidae, named for potato spindle tuber viroid, have a rod- like secondary
structure with small single stranded regions, a central conserved region, and replicate in
the nucleus . The Avsunviroidae, named for avocado
sunblotch viroid, have both rod-like and branched regions, but lack a central conserved
region and replicate in chloroplasts. In contrast to the Pospiviroidae, the latter RNA
molecules are functional ribozymes, and this activity is essential for replication.
12. Viroids were first discovered and given this name by Theodor Otto Diener (1971), a
plant pathologist working at Agricultural Research Centre in Maryland. The first
viroid to be identified was the Potato spindle Tuber Viroid (PsTVd). At present-33
species have been identified.
. Structure of Viroids:
Structure of viroid was first shown directly by electron microscope, Viroid’s are small,
circular, single stranded RNA molecules. They consist a short stretch (a few hundred
nucleobase) of highly complementary circular single stranded RNA without protein
coat with molecular weight between 1,07,000 and 1,27,000. Viroid’s are 240 to 380
nucleotides long and all of them have dumb-bell
13.
14. Bacteriophage
Bacteriophage or phage for short are viruses that infect only bacteria. In contrast to cells that grow from
an increase in the number of their components and reproduce by division, viruses are assembled from
pre-made components. Viruses are nucleic acid molecules surrounded by a protective coating. They are not
capable of generating energy and reproduce inside of cells. The nucleic acid inside the coating, called the
phage genome in a bacteriophage, encodes most of the gene products needed for making more phage.
The phage genome can be made of either double- or single-stranded DNA or RNA, depending on the
bacteriophage in question. The genome can be circular or linear. The protective coating or capsid
surrounding the phage genome is composed of phage-encoded proteins.
All phage have a chromosome encased in a capsid that is composed of phage-encoded proteins. For many
phage types, the capsid is attached to a tail structure that is also made from phage-encoded proteins. T4
and P1 contain a linear double-stranded DNA genome enclosed in a capsid and attached to a tail