Evolution Practicals
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This document provides an overview of the key concepts and theories of evolution, including: 1. Evolution is defined as the gradual change in species over generations through natural selection acting on genetic variations. 2. There are two types of evolution - microevolution involving short-term changes and macroevolution involving large changes over long periods of time through fossil history. 3. Early theories of evolution included Lamarck's theory of the inheritance of acquired characteristics and Cuvier's catastrophism theory involving sudden extinctions and repopulation. 4. Darwin developed the theory of natural selection, where heritable traits better suited to the environment tend to be preferentially passed on, leading to evolution of species over generations.
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Origin and evolution of ostracoderms
Ostracoderms were early jawless vertebrates that lived from the Cambrian to the late Devonian period. They were covered in bony plates and resembled modern hagfish and lampreys. While some evidence suggests they lived in freshwater, their habitat is still debated. Later in the Devonian, jawed fish evolved from ostracoderms and outcompeted them, contributing to their extinction by the end of the period. Ostracoderms were divided into two main groups and played an important role in the early evolution of vertebrates.
The Origin of Vertebrates
This document summarizes the evolution of vertebrates from their earliest ancestors to modern forms. It describes the key traits that unite each major group, from non-vertebrate chordates like tunicates and lancelets, to the earliest jawless fish like hagfish and lampreys, to jawed fish groups like sharks and bony fish. It outlines the major transitions from marine to freshwater habitats and the evolutionary innovations in skeletal and sensory systems that occurred in the main vertebrate lineages over 500 million years.
Evolution of horse in paleontology
The document summarizes the evolution of the horse over 50 million years from Eohippus to modern Equus. Key stages included Mesohippus which lived 38 million years ago in North America and had 3 toes, with the middle toe larger. Merychippus originated 12-6 million years ago and was the first single-toed horse with strong legs to increase speed and power. Pliohippus resembled a pony and lived in the late Miocene period in North America, being considered a direct link to modern Equus horses.
Migration of fishes ppt
This document discusses the migration of fish species. It defines fish migration as the seasonal movement of large numbers of fish belonging to a species from one area to another in search of food or for breeding. It then describes different types of migration including for feeding (alimentary) and reproduction (gametic). The periodicity, methods, and patterns of migration are explained for various fish species. The causes of migration and influencing factors are outlined. Finally, advantages of migration are presented such as accessing abundant food sources and enhancing offspring survival.
Presentation on aquatic mammals
The document discusses the aquatic adaptation of mammals. It acknowledges those who helped with the seminar topic. The contents include introduction, adaptation of aquatic mammals, modification and loss of original structures, development of new structures, types of aquatic mammals, and conclusion. It describes various anatomical modifications that aquatic mammals undergo, such as streamlined bodies, flippers, valvular nostrils, large lungs, blubber, and tail flukes to adapt to aquatic living.
Parental care in fishes
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The evolution of parental care is beneficial as it facilitates offspring performance traits that are ultimately tied to offspring fitness.
Parental care is evolved in those organism which produce limited no. of eggs to ensure the continuity of their race.
Origin and evolution of reptiles
The document summarizes the evolution and history of reptiles. It states that reptiles arose from amphibians around 350 million years ago during the Carboniferous period. The earliest reptiles were small insect-eating lizards. Reptiles then diversified and became the dominant land vertebrates by the Permian period. During the Mesozoic era, various reptile groups flourished, especially dinosaurs which appeared in a wide variety of forms. However, most dinosaurs went extinct around 65 million years ago at the end of the Cretaceous period, likely due to an asteroid impact that caused climate change. Despite this mass extinction, modern reptile orders like turtles, lizards, snakes and crocodiles survived
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Origin and evolution of ostracoderms
Ostracoderms were early jawless vertebrates that lived from the Cambrian to the late Devonian period. They were covered in bony plates and resembled modern hagfish and lampreys. While some evidence suggests they lived in freshwater, their habitat is still debated. Later in the Devonian, jawed fish evolved from ostracoderms and outcompeted them, contributing to their extinction by the end of the period. Ostracoderms were divided into two main groups and played an important role in the early evolution of vertebrates.
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This document summarizes the evolution of vertebrates from their earliest ancestors to modern forms. It describes the key traits that unite each major group, from non-vertebrate chordates like tunicates and lancelets, to the earliest jawless fish like hagfish and lampreys, to jawed fish groups like sharks and bony fish. It outlines the major transitions from marine to freshwater habitats and the evolutionary innovations in skeletal and sensory systems that occurred in the main vertebrate lineages over 500 million years.
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The document summarizes the evolution of the horse over 50 million years from Eohippus to modern Equus. Key stages included Mesohippus which lived 38 million years ago in North America and had 3 toes, with the middle toe larger. Merychippus originated 12-6 million years ago and was the first single-toed horse with strong legs to increase speed and power. Pliohippus resembled a pony and lived in the late Miocene period in North America, being considered a direct link to modern Equus horses.
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Parental care in fishes
Parental care is any behavior pattern in which a parent invests time or energy in feeding and protecting its offspring.
Parental care is a form of altruism since this type of behaviour involves increasing the fitness of the offspring at the expense of the parents.
The evolution of parental care is beneficial as it facilitates offspring performance traits that are ultimately tied to offspring fitness.
Parental care is evolved in those organism which produce limited no. of eggs to ensure the continuity of their race.
Origin and evolution of reptiles
The document summarizes the evolution and history of reptiles. It states that reptiles arose from amphibians around 350 million years ago during the Carboniferous period. The earliest reptiles were small insect-eating lizards. Reptiles then diversified and became the dominant land vertebrates by the Permian period. During the Mesozoic era, various reptile groups flourished, especially dinosaurs which appeared in a wide variety of forms. However, most dinosaurs went extinct around 65 million years ago at the end of the Cretaceous period, likely due to an asteroid impact that caused climate change. Despite this mass extinction, modern reptile orders like turtles, lizards, snakes and crocodiles survived
Sexual selection
This ppt is on the sexual selection which includes the definition of sexual selection, its purpose, types and their explanation, and bibliography.
Parental care in mammals
Parental care involves investment from parents to increase offspring survival and fitness. In mammals, most care is maternal, involving lactation. Only 6% of mammals show biparental care where monogamous males and females provide care. Paternal care can involve protecting young from predators and helping with growth. For artiodactyls like deer and antelopes, females are the sole caregivers through lactation. They use hiding or following strategies to protect vulnerable young until independent.
Mollusca
This document provides an overview of the phylum Mollusca. It discusses that Mollusca is divided into 8 classes, with the most diversity found in Gastropoda and Bivalvia. The key characteristics of molluscs are described, including their versatile body plan, mantle, visceral mass, and shell. The general anatomy and functions of molluscan systems like respiration, circulation, feeding, and reproduction are also summarized. Details are then provided on the defining features of major molluscan classes, including Gastropoda, Bivalvia, and Cephalopoda.
K/T Extinction
The document discusses the Cretaceous-Tertiary (K-T) extinction event that occurred 65 million years ago. It notes that this was a mass extinction where over 50% of all species died, including non-flying dinosaurs, many marine invertebrates, flying pterosaurs, mosasaurs, and plesiosaurs. The main proposed cause is the Chicxulub impact crater, evidence for which includes the rare metal iridium and shocked quartz found in K-T boundary layers worldwide. The impact would have released huge amounts of energy, darkened skies for years with dust and ash, and caused global climate changes that disrupted ecosystems.
Early tetrapods and modern amphibians
The document discusses the evolution of tetrapods from aquatic fish to terrestrial vertebrates. It describes how amphibians like Tiktaalik were transitional forms that evolved traits like basic limbs that could be used to push through shallow water. Later tetrapods like Ichthyostega had limb morphology suggesting they could walk on land while retaining some aquatic traits. Modern amphibians are divided into three orders - caecilians, salamanders, and frogs. They generally reproduce via aquatic eggs and larvae but have diverse adaptations for terrestrial life as adults.
Types of fish scales
Fishes possess dermal scales on the body for protection. Each scale is made of dentine that is secreted by dermal papilla which is a group of specialized neighbouring tissues. The exposed
portion of scale is covered with a layer of hard enamel to minimise wear and tear. Ancient
fishes generally had thick bony scales while the modern fishes have evolved thin and flexible
scales for more agility.
block to polyspermy.pptx
Polyspermy describes an egg that has been fertilized by more than one sperm. Diploid organisms normally contain two copies of each chromosome, one from each parent. The cell resulting from polyspermy
The first issue that an egg and a sperm of any organism type face in successfully producing an embryo is the possibility of polyspermy. Polyspermy is the fertilization of an egg by multiple sperm, and the results of such unions are lethal.
If multiple sperm fertilize an egg, the embryo inherits multiple paternal centrioles. This causes competition for extra chromosomes and results in the disruption of the creation of the cleavage furrow, thus causing the zygote to die. As an important model organism in the study of fertilization and embryonic development, polyspermy in sea urchins has been studied in detail. The sea urchin’s methods of polyspermy prevention have been broken down into two main pathways. These two primary pathways are known as the fast block and the slow block to polyspermy
After the sperm’s receptors come into contact with the egg’s jelly layer and the acrosomal enzymes are released and break down the jelly layer, the sperm head comes into contact with the vitelline and plasma membranes of the egg. When the two plasma membranes contact one another, signals in the egg are initiated.
First, Na+ channels in the egg open, allowing Na+ to flood into the egg. This causes a depolarization of the egg from it’s normal resting potential of -70 mV.
While depolarization is occurring, the remainder of the jelly layer is dissolving. With the dissolution of the jelly layer and the depolarization of the plasma membrane, the first block to preventing fertilization by multiple sperm is put into place.
These two simple changes are part of the first block to polyspermy, known as the fast block. Within 1/10th of a second of contact, the fast block t
Adaptive Radiations
TO FOLLOW THESE SLIDES you will learn about the adaptive radiations involve in evolution .
yo will learn about the parallel adaptations and its types
speciation role in the evolution
factors
key innvations
to imrove the article involving examples
Founder events
Adaptive plasticity
process of adaptive radiation
Factors promote adaptive radiations
Factors underlying adaptive radiations
defined by 0.S OSBORN
ecological space
geological
climatological
Islands
examplrs: 1.Darwin Finches 2.Cichlid fish genome -adaptive evolution, Stanford scientists
3.Anolis Lizards
Factors promote adaptive radiations
1.Generally speaking, adaptive radiations occur when new, unoccupied ecological niches become accessible to a founder population.
This can happen after a mass extinction during which the previous occupiers of those niches died out.
t can also happen when a colonizing species arrives at an island. (For instance the ancestor of the honeycreepers in Hawaii, or of Darwin's "finches" in the Galapagos)
Honey creeper
Change feeding habitat
At least 56 species of Hawaiian honeycreepers known to have existed, although all but 18 of them are now extinct.
Lack of competition. When a species enters an adaptive zone, it is poorly equipped to compete with species that have become adapted to the same niche.
For example, mudskippers are fish that are making a living on land, but they are marine fish and they don't have to compete against frogs and salamanders, which are restricted to fresh water. That is why we don't see freshwater mudskippers.
process of adaptive radiation
Ecological Release Colonization of species.
Taxon cycle
Habitat varying as population expand- species dispersal.
Adaptive plasticity Phenotypic plasticity(behavior change)
Property of an individual or genotype that may be adaptive, maladaptive or neutral with regard to an individual's fitness.
The particular way an individual's (or genotype's) phenotype varies across environments can be described as a reaction norm (Single genotype-phenotypic expression)
Speciation in adaptive radiation Founder events
Adaptive radiation in mammals
This presentation describes the general basis of adaptive radiation and how adaptive radiation has occured in mammals.
Parental care in fishes By TANZEEBA AMIN
Parental care is an important behavior for perpetuating fish species. Many fish species care for their eggs and young in various ways. Some fish build different types of nests, such as circular, basin-shaped, or barrel-shaped nests to lay and care for eggs. Other fish deposit eggs in suitable locations or carry them in their mouths or pouches. Some fish are viviparous. Parental care benefits offspring survival but increases costs to parents. There is great diversity in parental care strategies among fish species.
Cephalopods
1. The document discusses the biodiversity and evolution of protists and animals, specifically focusing on cephalopods. It describes the key characteristics of cephalopods including their shells, bodies, senses, color changing abilities, and locomotion.
2. The reproduction processes of cephalopods are explained, involving internal fertilization and elaborate mating behaviors and color changes in some species.
3. Adaptive diversification of cephalopods is discussed, with the evolution of traits like chambered shells, advanced organ systems, and habitat/feeding adaptations leading to their diversity of forms.
Swim bladder
The document discusses the swim bladder, or air bladder, of fish. It is an internal gas-filled organ that contributes to a fish's ability to control buoyancy. There are two types - physostomous, which is directly connected to the digestive tract, and physoclistous, which is not connected. The basic structure includes a sac-like shape with two layers, an epidermis and endodermis. The swim bladder varies in shape and size between fish species and allows fish to rise and sink in water by increasing or decreasing the volume of gas inside without changing mass. Its key functions are to act as a hydrostatic organ, adjustable float, aid in respiration, produce sound, and maintain the fish's
Skull typpes
This document summarizes the different types of skulls found in reptiles:
- Anapsid skulls, found in primitive reptiles and turtles, have no temporal fenestrae.
- Euryapsid skulls, found in marine reptiles like plesiosaurs, have a single pair of fenestrae high on the skull.
- Parapsid skulls, seen in ichthyosaurs, are similar but with additional bones bordering the single fenestrae.
- Diapsid skulls, common in living reptiles and dinosaurs, contain two pairs of fenestrae on each side of the skull.
- Synapsid skulls, seen in early mammal-like reptiles
Lateral line system
Origin of the Lateral Line System
Lateral line is a canal along the side of a fish containing pores that open into tubes supplied with sense organs sensitive to low vibrations.
Robert H. Denison explained the origin of the lateral line system. He explained that early vertebrates had a pore-canal system in the dermis which functioned as a primitive sensory system in detecting water movement.
Through the evidences from fossils, embryology and comparative anatomy, Denison (1966) established that the inner ear is closely related to the lateral line system. He found a distinct relationship between the pore canal system and the lateral line in Osteotraci.
The inner ear and the lateral line are developed from ectodermal thickenings, called dorso-lateral placodes. These have a number of similarities, including receptors with sensory hairs, and are both innervated by fibers in the acoustico-lateral area of the brain.
The pore canal system is present and developed in Osteostraci (ostracoderm).
It is also present in Heterostraci which is another group of ostracoderms and includes early vertebrates such as lungfishes and crossopterygians.
As its presence is extensive, it is reasonable to suggest that the pore canal system was a primitive character in early vertebrates .
In transverse sections also , it is very difficult to differentiate the pore canal system from a lateral line canal.
Structure of the Lateral Line System
Epidermal structures called neuromasts form the peripheral area of the lateral line.
Neuromasts consist of two types of cells, hair cells and supporting cells.
Hair cells have an epidermal origin and each hair cell has one high kynocyle (5-10 μm) and 30 to 150 short stereocilia (2-3 μm).
The number of hair cells in each neuromast depends on its size, and they can range from dozens to thousands.
Hair cells can be oriented in two opposite directions with each hair cell surrounded by supporting cells.
At the basal part of each hair cell, there are synaptic contacts with afferent and efferent nerve fibers. Afferent fibers, transmit signals to the neural centres of the lateral line and expand at the neuromast base. The regulation of hair cells is achieved by the action of efferent fibers.
Stereocilia and kinocilium of hair cells are immersed into a cupula and are located above the surface of the sensory epithelium.
The cupula is created by a gel-like media, which is secreted by non-receptor cells of the neuromast.
evolution of mammals by davendran
Mammals evolved from synapsid ancestors during the Mesozoic era. The earliest mammals had specialized teeth, small bodies, and various skeletal adaptations including differentiated dentition. The three main modern mammal groups are monotremes, marsupials, and placentals. Key mammalian adaptations include hair, three middle ear bones derived from jaw bones, and a four-chambered heart and diaphragm. Mammals exhibit diverse diets, habitats, and locomotion across nearly 4000 living species.
Integument.pdf
The document discusses the structure and derivatives of the integumentary system. It begins by defining integument as the outer protective covering of vertebrates, consisting of skin and its derivatives. The skin proper is composed of epidermis and dermis layers, and contains glands and pigment cells. Skin derivatives include hair, feathers, scales, claws and more which develop from the keratinized outer layer. The document then examines these derivatives in more detail across different vertebrate groups, describing their structure, development and functions.
Neoteny
This document discusses the differences between neoteny and paedogenesis. Neoteny involves slowed somatic growth such that organisms remain in juvenile stages, while paedogenesis involves accelerated sexual maturity even as larvae. Neoteny can be seen in humans while paedogenesis is found in amphibians like salamanders. There are two types of neoteny - total neoteny where larvae become sexually mature but retain larval features, and partial neoteny which involves a postponed metamorphosis beyond normal periods due to environmental or physiological factors. Neoteny is viewed as an adaptive consequence of retaining larval features that may be advantageous in certain environments.
Orthogenesis, Allometry & Adaptive Radiations
Orthogenesis is the theory that organisms evolve in a definite direction due to some internal mechanism, rejecting natural selection. Allometry describes the relationship between an organism's size and its body parts, such as brain size increasing with body size. Adaptive radiations occur when environmental changes open new niches, causing rapid speciation and phenotypic adaptation in a relatively short time, as seen with Hawaiian honeycreepers adapting to different island environments.
Coloration in Fishes
This document discusses coloration in fishes. It begins by introducing the sources of color - chromatophores and iridiophores. Chromatophores contain pigment cells called melanophores, erythrophores, xanthophores, and iridiophores which produce black/brown, red/orange, yellow, and white colors respectively. Fishes obtain varied color patterns through mixing of these pigments. Chromatophores can respond physiologically through pigment redistribution or morphologically by changing cell number or pigment amount. Coloration allows for camouflage through concealment, disguise, and advertisement behaviors which aid communication, survival, and reproduction.
Types of Scales in Fishes
Scales are small rigid plates that grow out of a fish's skin to provide protection. There are four main types of scales: placoid, cosmoid, ganoid, and leptoid. Leptoid scales include cycloid scales, found on fish with soft fins, and ctenoid scales, found on fish with spiny fins. Placoid scales resemble teeth and are found on sharks. Ganoid scales are diamond-shaped and interconnected. Scales protect fish and allow flexibility during swimming. The type and structure of scales can provide information about a fish's species and behavior.
Practical 3 07
The document provides information about meiosis and gametogenesis:
1) It explains the stages of meiosis including prophase I, metaphase I, anaphase I etc. and discusses genetic recombination through crossing over.
2) It discusses sex determination and gives examples of sex chromosome abnormalities.
3) It compares spermatogenesis and oogenesis, noting their differences in producing haploid gametes.
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Parental care involves investment from parents to increase offspring survival and fitness. In mammals, most care is maternal, involving lactation. Only 6% of mammals show biparental care where monogamous males and females provide care. Paternal care can involve protecting young from predators and helping with growth. For artiodactyls like deer and antelopes, females are the sole caregivers through lactation. They use hiding or following strategies to protect vulnerable young until independent.
Mollusca
This document provides an overview of the phylum Mollusca. It discusses that Mollusca is divided into 8 classes, with the most diversity found in Gastropoda and Bivalvia. The key characteristics of molluscs are described, including their versatile body plan, mantle, visceral mass, and shell. The general anatomy and functions of molluscan systems like respiration, circulation, feeding, and reproduction are also summarized. Details are then provided on the defining features of major molluscan classes, including Gastropoda, Bivalvia, and Cephalopoda.
K/T Extinction
The document discusses the Cretaceous-Tertiary (K-T) extinction event that occurred 65 million years ago. It notes that this was a mass extinction where over 50% of all species died, including non-flying dinosaurs, many marine invertebrates, flying pterosaurs, mosasaurs, and plesiosaurs. The main proposed cause is the Chicxulub impact crater, evidence for which includes the rare metal iridium and shocked quartz found in K-T boundary layers worldwide. The impact would have released huge amounts of energy, darkened skies for years with dust and ash, and caused global climate changes that disrupted ecosystems.
Early tetrapods and modern amphibians
The document discusses the evolution of tetrapods from aquatic fish to terrestrial vertebrates. It describes how amphibians like Tiktaalik were transitional forms that evolved traits like basic limbs that could be used to push through shallow water. Later tetrapods like Ichthyostega had limb morphology suggesting they could walk on land while retaining some aquatic traits. Modern amphibians are divided into three orders - caecilians, salamanders, and frogs. They generally reproduce via aquatic eggs and larvae but have diverse adaptations for terrestrial life as adults.
Types of fish scales
Fishes possess dermal scales on the body for protection. Each scale is made of dentine that is secreted by dermal papilla which is a group of specialized neighbouring tissues. The exposed
portion of scale is covered with a layer of hard enamel to minimise wear and tear. Ancient
fishes generally had thick bony scales while the modern fishes have evolved thin and flexible
scales for more agility.
block to polyspermy.pptx
Polyspermy describes an egg that has been fertilized by more than one sperm. Diploid organisms normally contain two copies of each chromosome, one from each parent. The cell resulting from polyspermy
The first issue that an egg and a sperm of any organism type face in successfully producing an embryo is the possibility of polyspermy. Polyspermy is the fertilization of an egg by multiple sperm, and the results of such unions are lethal.
If multiple sperm fertilize an egg, the embryo inherits multiple paternal centrioles. This causes competition for extra chromosomes and results in the disruption of the creation of the cleavage furrow, thus causing the zygote to die. As an important model organism in the study of fertilization and embryonic development, polyspermy in sea urchins has been studied in detail. The sea urchin’s methods of polyspermy prevention have been broken down into two main pathways. These two primary pathways are known as the fast block and the slow block to polyspermy
After the sperm’s receptors come into contact with the egg’s jelly layer and the acrosomal enzymes are released and break down the jelly layer, the sperm head comes into contact with the vitelline and plasma membranes of the egg. When the two plasma membranes contact one another, signals in the egg are initiated.
First, Na+ channels in the egg open, allowing Na+ to flood into the egg. This causes a depolarization of the egg from it’s normal resting potential of -70 mV.
While depolarization is occurring, the remainder of the jelly layer is dissolving. With the dissolution of the jelly layer and the depolarization of the plasma membrane, the first block to preventing fertilization by multiple sperm is put into place.
These two simple changes are part of the first block to polyspermy, known as the fast block. Within 1/10th of a second of contact, the fast block t
Adaptive Radiations
TO FOLLOW THESE SLIDES you will learn about the adaptive radiations involve in evolution .
yo will learn about the parallel adaptations and its types
speciation role in the evolution
factors
key innvations
to imrove the article involving examples
Founder events
Adaptive plasticity
process of adaptive radiation
Factors promote adaptive radiations
Factors underlying adaptive radiations
defined by 0.S OSBORN
ecological space
geological
climatological
Islands
examplrs: 1.Darwin Finches 2.Cichlid fish genome -adaptive evolution, Stanford scientists
3.Anolis Lizards
Factors promote adaptive radiations
1.Generally speaking, adaptive radiations occur when new, unoccupied ecological niches become accessible to a founder population.
This can happen after a mass extinction during which the previous occupiers of those niches died out.
t can also happen when a colonizing species arrives at an island. (For instance the ancestor of the honeycreepers in Hawaii, or of Darwin's "finches" in the Galapagos)
Honey creeper
Change feeding habitat
At least 56 species of Hawaiian honeycreepers known to have existed, although all but 18 of them are now extinct.
Lack of competition. When a species enters an adaptive zone, it is poorly equipped to compete with species that have become adapted to the same niche.
For example, mudskippers are fish that are making a living on land, but they are marine fish and they don't have to compete against frogs and salamanders, which are restricted to fresh water. That is why we don't see freshwater mudskippers.
process of adaptive radiation
Ecological Release Colonization of species.
Taxon cycle
Habitat varying as population expand- species dispersal.
Adaptive plasticity Phenotypic plasticity(behavior change)
Property of an individual or genotype that may be adaptive, maladaptive or neutral with regard to an individual's fitness.
The particular way an individual's (or genotype's) phenotype varies across environments can be described as a reaction norm (Single genotype-phenotypic expression)
Speciation in adaptive radiation Founder events
Adaptive radiation in mammals
This presentation describes the general basis of adaptive radiation and how adaptive radiation has occured in mammals.
Parental care in fishes By TANZEEBA AMIN
Parental care is an important behavior for perpetuating fish species. Many fish species care for their eggs and young in various ways. Some fish build different types of nests, such as circular, basin-shaped, or barrel-shaped nests to lay and care for eggs. Other fish deposit eggs in suitable locations or carry them in their mouths or pouches. Some fish are viviparous. Parental care benefits offspring survival but increases costs to parents. There is great diversity in parental care strategies among fish species.
Cephalopods
1. The document discusses the biodiversity and evolution of protists and animals, specifically focusing on cephalopods. It describes the key characteristics of cephalopods including their shells, bodies, senses, color changing abilities, and locomotion.
2. The reproduction processes of cephalopods are explained, involving internal fertilization and elaborate mating behaviors and color changes in some species.
3. Adaptive diversification of cephalopods is discussed, with the evolution of traits like chambered shells, advanced organ systems, and habitat/feeding adaptations leading to their diversity of forms.
Swim bladder
The document discusses the swim bladder, or air bladder, of fish. It is an internal gas-filled organ that contributes to a fish's ability to control buoyancy. There are two types - physostomous, which is directly connected to the digestive tract, and physoclistous, which is not connected. The basic structure includes a sac-like shape with two layers, an epidermis and endodermis. The swim bladder varies in shape and size between fish species and allows fish to rise and sink in water by increasing or decreasing the volume of gas inside without changing mass. Its key functions are to act as a hydrostatic organ, adjustable float, aid in respiration, produce sound, and maintain the fish's
Skull typpes
This document summarizes the different types of skulls found in reptiles:
- Anapsid skulls, found in primitive reptiles and turtles, have no temporal fenestrae.
- Euryapsid skulls, found in marine reptiles like plesiosaurs, have a single pair of fenestrae high on the skull.
- Parapsid skulls, seen in ichthyosaurs, are similar but with additional bones bordering the single fenestrae.
- Diapsid skulls, common in living reptiles and dinosaurs, contain two pairs of fenestrae on each side of the skull.
- Synapsid skulls, seen in early mammal-like reptiles
Lateral line system
Origin of the Lateral Line System
Lateral line is a canal along the side of a fish containing pores that open into tubes supplied with sense organs sensitive to low vibrations.
Robert H. Denison explained the origin of the lateral line system. He explained that early vertebrates had a pore-canal system in the dermis which functioned as a primitive sensory system in detecting water movement.
Through the evidences from fossils, embryology and comparative anatomy, Denison (1966) established that the inner ear is closely related to the lateral line system. He found a distinct relationship between the pore canal system and the lateral line in Osteotraci.
The inner ear and the lateral line are developed from ectodermal thickenings, called dorso-lateral placodes. These have a number of similarities, including receptors with sensory hairs, and are both innervated by fibers in the acoustico-lateral area of the brain.
The pore canal system is present and developed in Osteostraci (ostracoderm).
It is also present in Heterostraci which is another group of ostracoderms and includes early vertebrates such as lungfishes and crossopterygians.
As its presence is extensive, it is reasonable to suggest that the pore canal system was a primitive character in early vertebrates .
In transverse sections also , it is very difficult to differentiate the pore canal system from a lateral line canal.
Structure of the Lateral Line System
Epidermal structures called neuromasts form the peripheral area of the lateral line.
Neuromasts consist of two types of cells, hair cells and supporting cells.
Hair cells have an epidermal origin and each hair cell has one high kynocyle (5-10 μm) and 30 to 150 short stereocilia (2-3 μm).
The number of hair cells in each neuromast depends on its size, and they can range from dozens to thousands.
Hair cells can be oriented in two opposite directions with each hair cell surrounded by supporting cells.
At the basal part of each hair cell, there are synaptic contacts with afferent and efferent nerve fibers. Afferent fibers, transmit signals to the neural centres of the lateral line and expand at the neuromast base. The regulation of hair cells is achieved by the action of efferent fibers.
Stereocilia and kinocilium of hair cells are immersed into a cupula and are located above the surface of the sensory epithelium.
The cupula is created by a gel-like media, which is secreted by non-receptor cells of the neuromast.
evolution of mammals by davendran
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Sbc174 evolution 2014 week2
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The document provides an overview of genetic drift, which is the random changes in gene frequencies of a population that are not due to adaptive selection. It discusses how genetic drift, especially bottleneck effects and founder effects, can reduce genetic variation in a population through random chance. A bottleneck effect occurs when a large population is drastically reduced in size, such as through a natural disaster. A founder effect happens during colonization of a new habitat by only a few individuals. Both of these effects reduce genetic variation and can lead to changes in a population over time through genetic drift alone rather than adaptive selection. Examples of both effects are provided.
Darwinism in Mind Mapping
Evolution of Mind Mapping. Mind Mapping --> Idea Mapping --> Information Mapping
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Notes genetic drift
Genetic drift is a change in allele frequencies in a population due to chance events, and is more likely to occur in small populations. Unlike natural selection, genetic drift is random and can cause changes in traits that are beneficial, detrimental, or neutral. Two types of genetic drift are founder effect, which occurs when a small group colonizes a new area, and population bottleneck, which is caused by a drastic reduction in population size, such as from a natural disaster.
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Evolution I 2007
The document summarizes key aspects of evolution including:
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Rough draft of Notes on evolution theories and concepts for AP Biology. Utilizing Campbell, Reece., Mitchell, Biology 4th Ed.
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The document provides an overview of Darwinism and evolution theory, discussing microevolution vs macroevolution, natural selection, issues with the fossil record, and challenges to Darwin's original theory. It notes discoveries have put "cracks" in the conventional theories and scientists have had to develop new explanations like punctuated equilibrium and hopeful monsters. Overall it questions whether Darwinism is proven fact or if issues remain unresolved.
Evolution notes #1
1. The document discusses the development of evolutionary thought from early geologists like Hutton and Lamarck to Darwin. It explains Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection and observations from the Galapagos Islands.
2. The theory of evolution proposes that populations change over generations through natural selection acting on inherited variation in traits. Mechanisms that produce variation include genetic drift and gene flow.
3. Evidence for evolution includes homologous structures, the fossil record showing gradual change over time, and patterns of evolution like adaptive radiation and convergent evolution.
Evolution
This document discusses the key concepts and theories of evolution, including:
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- Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection, which explained that heritable variations give some individuals an advantage to survive and reproduce, causing populations to change over generations.
- Evidence of evolution includes fossils showing anatomical changes over time, as well as comparisons within and across species.
- Microevolution occurs within populations, while macroevolution produces new species through mechanisms like natural selection and speciation.
History and Usefulness of Evolution.pptx
Evolution refers to the process of change over generations in organisms through descent with modification. Darwin proposed the theory of evolution by natural selection, where organisms with variations better suited to the environment are more likely to survive and pass on their traits. Evidence for evolution includes fossils showing changes over time, homologous and vestigial structures, biogeography, and molecular biology. Neo-Darwinism integrated genetics and population genetics into an evolutionary synthesis. Evolution explains the diversity of life and relationships between organisms.
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The document provides evidence for evolution through natural selection by discussing several key topics:
1. It outlines Charles Darwin's voyage on the HMS Beagle where he made detailed observations of organisms and fossils that led him to develop his theory of evolution by natural selection.
2. It describes key evidence that supports evolution such as the fossil record, comparative anatomy, biochemistry, and embryology that show life has changed over billions of years from common ancestors.
3. It discusses the development of early humans from australopithecines like Lucy to later hominins like Homo habilis, Homo erectus, Neanderthals, and Cro-Magnons, showing the evolution of biped
Evolution
This document discusses early theories of evolution and evidence that supports the theory of evolution through natural selection. It describes Lamarck's theory of acquired traits and Darwin's theory of natural selection. Darwin proposed that organisms with traits better suited to their environment are more likely to survive and reproduce, passing on these favorable traits. The document also discusses microevolution within species over short periods versus macroevolution leading to new species, and provides examples of fossil records, homologous structures, vestigial structures, and genetics as evidence supporting the theory of evolution through gradual change over long periods of time.
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This document provides a historical overview of ideas about evolution from ancient philosophers through Charles Darwin. It discusses early concepts of a "scale of nature" from Plato and Aristotle. It then covers the development of taxonomy by Linnaeus, early ideas about deep time and an ancient Earth from Buffon and Hutton. Lamarck proposed one of the first theories of evolution through the inheritance of acquired characteristics. Darwin's voyage on the Beagle influenced his development of the theory of evolution by natural selection, which he published along with evidence from biogeography, fossils, and selective breeding. The document also discusses evidence and mechanisms of evolution such as variation, inheritance, competition, and gradual change over generations.
Lecture 2 History and Evidence F2016.ppt
This document provides a historical overview of ideas about evolution from ancient philosophers through Charles Darwin. It discusses early concepts of a "scale of nature" from Plato and Aristotle. It then covers the development of taxonomy by Linnaeus, early ideas about deep time and gradual change from Buffon and Lamarck's early theory of evolution through acquired characteristics. It discusses evidence from geology, paleontology and biogeography that influenced Darwin. It outlines Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection and compares it to Wallace's independent conception. Finally, it reviews evidence supporting evolution such as homology, the fossil record, vestigial structures and molecular biology.
Lecture 2 History and Evidence F2016.ppt
This document provides a historical overview of ideas about evolution from ancient philosophers through Charles Darwin. It discusses early concepts of a "scale of nature" from Plato and Aristotle. It then covers the development of taxonomy by Linnaeus, early ideas about deep time and gradual change from Buffon and Lamarck's early theory of evolution through acquired characteristics. It discusses evidence from geology, paleontology and biogeography that influenced Darwin. It outlines Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection and compares it to Wallace's independent conception. Finally, it reviews evidence supporting evolution such as homology, the fossil record, vestigial structures and molecular biology.
The Theory of Evolution
Charles Darwin published evidence in 1859 that evolution occurs through natural selection. He observed that the plants and animals on the Galapagos Islands resembled those on the nearby coast of South America but were distinct species. Darwin proposed that individuals with traits better suited to their environment are more likely to survive and reproduce, passing on those advantageous traits and gradually changing populations over time through evolution. The fossil record and comparisons of anatomy and DNA provide evidence that all living things share common ancestry and have evolved from earlier life forms over billions of years. Examples of natural selection include the evolution of antibiotic resistant tuberculosis strains and Darwin's finches developing different beak sizes and shapes based on available food sources.
Bio 40s evolution
The document outlines 4 stages in the origin of life on Earth:
1) Abiotic synthesis of organic monomers like amino acids, sugars, lipids, and ATP.
2) Abiotic polymerization of monomers into proteins and other polymers.
3) Origin of self-replicating molecules like RNA that could fuel replication.
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Evolution (Lecture 1) a concept in biology.pptx
Charles Darwin proposed that evolution occurs through natural selection acting on genetic variation within populations over generations. Prior to Darwin, Jean-Baptiste Lamarck proposed that organisms can pass on traits acquired during their lifetime to offspring, while other scientists such as Charles Lyell promoted the idea that the Earth was extremely old. Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection combined his observations from the voyage of the HMS Beagle with Thomas Malthus' ideas about population growth and artificial selection of domesticated species by breeders. The modern synthesis combined Darwin's theory with genetics to explain genetic variation and how natural selection leads to adaptation.
Is macroevolution simply “microevolution over very long periods of t.pdf
Is macroevolution simply “microevolution over very long periods of time?” What processes or
events become very important at the macroevolutionary scale, where the fossil record gives
evidence of different species, genera, families, and higher taxa replacing others?
Solution
It is not macroevolution simply “microevolution over very long periods of time but
microevolution is leading to macroevolution and speciation over very long periods of time.
\"Gradualism and the primacy of natural selection followed by Speciation and genome
reorganization due to genetic drift\" are the processes or events that become very important at the
macroevolutionary scale, where the fossil record gives evidence of different species, genera,
families, and higher taxa replacing others. For example, micro-evolutionary changes that
accumulate within two organisms of opposite sex may cause macro-evolutionary changes in the
offspring produced by their mating. The offspring greatly varies genetically from their parents
and is special enough to result in speciation; this is called “macroevolution.”
In Darwin\'s theory, the microevolutionary changes observed in the phenotypic features of the
“finches”, beaks, tortoises and coral reefs that are observable during a scientist’s lifetime provide
support for Darwin’s view that all life is connected in a branching pattern of phylogenetic tree.
According to Darwin, natural selection including genetic variations is leading to “branching
pattern” in the origin of species. He concluded in his lifetime microevolutionay observation base
on gradualism of species evolution with “branching interrelationships” among all living beings
by meticulous “metaphor of branching pattern” as described below.
Darwin’s theory of gradualism and evolution:
Darwin uses Gradualsim and he proposed that the gradual changes associated with variations of a
species through evolution to get adapted to the present ecosystem with no much transitional
forms. Human evolution based on the gradualism and their adaptations are extremely complex.
Initially in the gradualism, natural selection operates to obtain specific traits according to biome,
ecosystem because of large-scale events followed by formation of rivers, water availability and
habitat formation. Humans did not evolve from primates until just 7 million years ago; while life
appeared on earth 3.5 billion years ago. Humans are well adapted for the environment and
developed their adaptation features as per interspecific and intraspecific genetic variations. If the
evolution time-line compressed to a calendar year, the first organism would appear around
March and Humans would not appear until December 31.
Darwin has developed a meticulous scientific theory about the exact biological evolution of a
species and he explained the evolution of modern species over a long period from a common
ancestor base on morphological convergent & divergent features as explained below.
Descent with modification from a common ance.
16 Chapter
The document discusses evolution and provides evidence from fossils, DNA, vestigial structures, and embryology. It describes how fossils provide a record of past organisms and clues about evolution over time. DNA comparisons also provide insights into how closely related different species are. Vestigial structures and similarities in embryo development further support the theory of evolution.
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AP Bio Evolution and Natural Selection and the History of Life: The Stories of Charles Darwin and Alfred Russell Wallace.
History of evolutionary thought
This document provides an overview of the history and development of evolutionary thought from ancient Greek philosophers to modern genetics. It describes key figures like Darwin who proposed natural selection as the mechanism of evolution, and Mendel who discovered the basic principles of heredity. Later scientists like Watson and Crick determined DNA is the genetic material and carrier of hereditary information between generations.
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The document discusses evidence that supports the theory of evolution through natural selection. It describes how Charles Darwin developed his theory of evolution after observing variations between species on his voyage on the HMS Beagle. Darwin proposed that organisms evolve over generations through natural selection of inheritable traits that increase an individual's chances of survival and reproduction. The document then provides examples of evidence that support evolution, including the fossil record, comparative anatomy and biochemistry, and experiments like the Miller-Urey experiment that show how basic organic molecules could have formed on early Earth.
Evolution, Natural Selection, Taxonomy, and Anthropology
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20240605 QFM017 Machine Intelligence Reading List May 2024
20240605 QFM017 Machine Intelligence Reading List May 2024
Let's Integrate MuleSoft RPA, COMPOSER, APM with AWS IDP along with Slack
Let's Integrate MuleSoft RPA, COMPOSER, APM with AWS IDP along with Slack
Building Production Ready Search Pipelines with Spark and Milvus
Building Production Ready Search Pipelines with Spark and Milvus
Cosa hanno in comune un mattoncino Lego e la backdoor XZ?
Cosa hanno in comune un mattoncino Lego e la backdoor XZ?
“Building and Scaling AI Applications with the Nx AI Manager,” a Presentation...
“Building and Scaling AI Applications with the Nx AI Manager,” a Presentation...
みなさんこんにちはこれ何文字まで入るの？40文字以下不可とか本当に意味わからないけどこれ限界文字数書いてないからマジでやばい文字数いけるんじゃないの？えこ...
みなさんこんにちはこれ何文字まで入るの？40文字以下不可とか本当に意味わからないけどこれ限界文字数書いてないからマジでやばい文字数いけるんじゃないの？えこ...
Infrastructure Challenges in Scaling RAG with Custom AI models
Infrastructure Challenges in Scaling RAG with Custom AI models
National Security Agency - NSA mobile device best practices
National Security Agency - NSA mobile device best practices
Presentation of the OECD Artificial Intelligence Review of Germany
Presentation of the OECD Artificial Intelligence Review of Germany
Evolution Practicals
- 2. http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/evolution/index.html Public Broadcasting Service – www section about evolution
- 6. Ediacara Hills - Australia Tribrachidium Charniodiscus Mawsonites Dickinsonia Fossils of precambrian soft-bodied organisms
- 7. Ediacaran (Vendian) organisms – possible reconstruction
- 9. Cambrian – beginning of Paleozoic
- 10. Pikaia – a fossil of the first chordate
- 11. Pikaia – reconstruction
- 12. Cambrian explosion (cambrian radiation)
- 13. At the end of Paleozoic first land vertebrates appeared reptile Dimetrodon
- 14. Mass extinction at the end of Permian 90% of species extinct
- 16. http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/evolution/extinction/dinosaurs/index.html What happened before 65 millions of year s ? K/T border (= cretaceous / tertiary) – extinction of dinosaurs and a lot of other species (approximately 75 % of species)
- 21. Charles Darwin stopover at the Galápagos Islands – Darwin described 13 species of finches resembled one another in the structure of their beaks, body forms, and plumage
- 23. The fate of the Darwin's theory
- 28. Theodosius Dobzhansky (1900 – 1975) "Nothing in biology makes sense except in the light of evolution."