This document summarizes the three main stages of cellular respiration: glycolysis, the Krebs cycle, and the electron transport chain.
[1] Glycolysis occurs in the cytoplasm and breaks down glucose into pyruvate, while the Krebs cycle in the mitochondrial matrix further breaks down pyruvate into carbon dioxide. [2] Several steps in glycolysis and the Krebs cycle pass electrons to NAD+, which is then used by the electron transport chain in the mitochondria. [3] The electron transport chain uses a series of electron carriers and pumps hydrogen ions across the inner mitochondrial membrane. This proton gradient is then used by ATP synthase to produce ATP through oxidative phosphorylation.
Cell signaling involves chemical signals binding to cell surface receptors and activating intracellular signal transduction pathways. There are two main ways signals work: by changing the activity of existing proteins or by changing the amount of proteins in the cell. Common types of signals include hormones, growth factors, and neurotransmitters. Signal transduction involves second messengers such as cAMP and IP3 that activate downstream effector proteins like protein kinases. G-protein coupled receptors are a major class of receptors that activate intracellular signaling pathways.
The document discusses nuclear structure and transport. Some key points:
- The nucleus is surrounded by a double membrane nuclear envelope containing pores that regulate transport of molecules and macromolecules.
- The nucleus contains subcompartments like the nucleolus and nuclear speckles that carry out processes like rRNA synthesis and mRNA splicing.
- Chromosomes occupy distinct territories within the nucleus and nuclear transport of proteins and RNA involves receptor-mediated passage through nuclear pore complexes, regulated by the Ran GTPase system.
Ribozymes are RNA molecules that exhibit enzymatic activity by catalyzing chemical reactions, including RNA splicing and cleavage, without the assistance of proteins. There are several types of ribozymes that differ based on their structure and catalytic mechanism, including hammerhead ribozymes, hairpin ribozymes, hepatitis delta virus ribozymes, and the ribosome - a large and complex ribozyme responsible for protein synthesis. Ribozymes have potential clinical applications as they can be designed to selectively cleave target RNA sequences, offering possibilities for developing therapies for genetic diseases and viral infections like HIV.
1. Protein trafficking is the mechanism by which cells transport proteins to appropriate positions through lysosomes and vesicular transport.
2. Lysosomes contain acid hydrolases that digest molecules and organelles, while vesicular transport uses coated vesicles like clathrin-coated vesicles to move proteins between organelles.
3. Vesicle formation is regulated by GTP-binding proteins and adaptor proteins, while vesicle fusion is mediated by interactions between v-SNAREs on vesicles and t-SNAREs on target membranes through a process called the SNARE hypothesis.
Contents - Definition of cytoplasmic inheritance
Mendelian inheritance , Non Mendelian inheritance, difference between Mendelian and non Mendelian inheritance, maternal effect - shell coiling , inheritance due to infective particle- kappa particle in paramecium
This document discusses different types of chaperone proteins. It begins by explaining that chaperones assist other proteins in folding correctly by interacting with unfolded or misfolded proteins. The main types discussed are molecular chaperones like Hsp70 and Hsp90, and chaperonins. Hsp70 binds to hydrophobic regions of unfolded proteins to prevent aggregation, while Hsp90 helps activate client proteins. Chaperonins form folding chambers and there are two groups - group 1 found in prokaryotes and organelles, and group 2 in eukaryotes and archaea. Specific examples of chaperone homologs in different organisms are also provided.
Cell signaling involves chemical signals binding to cell surface receptors and activating intracellular signal transduction pathways. There are two main ways signals work: by changing the activity of existing proteins or by changing the amount of proteins in the cell. Common types of signals include hormones, growth factors, and neurotransmitters. Signal transduction involves second messengers such as cAMP and IP3 that activate downstream effector proteins like protein kinases. G-protein coupled receptors are a major class of receptors that activate intracellular signaling pathways.
The document discusses nuclear structure and transport. Some key points:
- The nucleus is surrounded by a double membrane nuclear envelope containing pores that regulate transport of molecules and macromolecules.
- The nucleus contains subcompartments like the nucleolus and nuclear speckles that carry out processes like rRNA synthesis and mRNA splicing.
- Chromosomes occupy distinct territories within the nucleus and nuclear transport of proteins and RNA involves receptor-mediated passage through nuclear pore complexes, regulated by the Ran GTPase system.
Ribozymes are RNA molecules that exhibit enzymatic activity by catalyzing chemical reactions, including RNA splicing and cleavage, without the assistance of proteins. There are several types of ribozymes that differ based on their structure and catalytic mechanism, including hammerhead ribozymes, hairpin ribozymes, hepatitis delta virus ribozymes, and the ribosome - a large and complex ribozyme responsible for protein synthesis. Ribozymes have potential clinical applications as they can be designed to selectively cleave target RNA sequences, offering possibilities for developing therapies for genetic diseases and viral infections like HIV.
1. Protein trafficking is the mechanism by which cells transport proteins to appropriate positions through lysosomes and vesicular transport.
2. Lysosomes contain acid hydrolases that digest molecules and organelles, while vesicular transport uses coated vesicles like clathrin-coated vesicles to move proteins between organelles.
3. Vesicle formation is regulated by GTP-binding proteins and adaptor proteins, while vesicle fusion is mediated by interactions between v-SNAREs on vesicles and t-SNAREs on target membranes through a process called the SNARE hypothesis.
Contents - Definition of cytoplasmic inheritance
Mendelian inheritance , Non Mendelian inheritance, difference between Mendelian and non Mendelian inheritance, maternal effect - shell coiling , inheritance due to infective particle- kappa particle in paramecium
This document discusses different types of chaperone proteins. It begins by explaining that chaperones assist other proteins in folding correctly by interacting with unfolded or misfolded proteins. The main types discussed are molecular chaperones like Hsp70 and Hsp90, and chaperonins. Hsp70 binds to hydrophobic regions of unfolded proteins to prevent aggregation, while Hsp90 helps activate client proteins. Chaperonins form folding chambers and there are two groups - group 1 found in prokaryotes and organelles, and group 2 in eukaryotes and archaea. Specific examples of chaperone homologs in different organisms are also provided.
Cilia and flagella are hair-like organelles that project from the surface of eukaryotic cells. They are composed of microtubules arranged in a 9+2 pattern and powered by dynein motor proteins. Cilia are usually shorter and more numerous, while flagella are longer and occur singly or in pairs. Cilia create currents for functions like moving mucus and debris in the lungs. Flagella propel sperm and protists through fluid. Both undergo intracellular transport to assemble and are shed and regrown from basal bodies that anchor them.
Protein sorting and targeting involves transporting proteins to the appropriate locations within or outside the cell. There are several pathways for protein targeting, including vesicular transport between organelles like the ER and Golgi, as well as transport of proteins into organelles like mitochondria and peroxisomes. Targeting signals like presequences and internal targeting peptides direct cellular transport machinery to correctly position proteins. Lipidation is another method to target proteins to specific membranes through modifications like glycosyl phosphatidylinositol anchors or myristoylation.
Details of cytoskeleton element-microtubule. The Microtubule associated protein-type and function, Treadmilling and dynamic instability, Structure of cilia and flagella
The document summarizes key aspects of cell biomembranes. It describes how membranes are made up of a phospholipid bilayer with various embedded and peripheral proteins. The fluid mosaic model represents membranes as a fluid bilayer with proteins drifting within. Membranes are selectively permeable, using transport proteins and channels to regulate movement of molecules in and out of the cell. Both passive and active transport mechanisms move solutes across membranes, with active transport requiring energy to move substances against their concentration gradients.
Cell adhesion molecules are proteins located on cell surfaces that allow cells to adhere to each other and maintain tissue structure. The most important type are cadherins, which are calcium-dependent transmembrane proteins that connect to other cadherins on adjacent cells and link to the actin cytoskeleton. Cadherins help organize cell layers and tissues during development by promoting adhesion between similar cell types and separation between dissimilar ones. Other classes of cell adhesion molecules include integrins, IgCAMs, and selectins, which provide both calcium-dependent and calcium-independent adhesion between cells and the extracellular matrix.
This document summarizes lipid rafts, including what they are, their functions, and their roles in neurological diseases. Lipid rafts are cholesterol-enriched membrane microdomains that compartmentalize cellular processes. They influence protein sorting, signaling, trafficking, and more. Dysfunctions in lipid rafts and their associated proteins have been linked to neurological disorders like Alzheimer's, Huntington's, Parkinson's, and ALS by disrupting processes like amyloid protein processing, vesicle trafficking, and receptor signaling.
The document summarizes microtubules and microfilaments. It discusses the structure of microtubules, which are hollow tubes composed of tubulin protein. Microtubules function in cell division, forming the mitotic spindle, and in structures like cilia and flagella. Motor proteins like kinesin and dynein power movement along microtubules, transporting vesicles and organelles and driving cilia/flagella motion. Microfilaments are composed of actin and function in cell shape changes, muscle contraction through interacting with myosin, and cytokinesis.
Structure and functon of golgi apparatusICHHA PURAK
The Power point presentation consists of 77 slides including following heads
Introduction
Discovery
Distribution
Origin
Shape
Chemical composition
Structure
Common functions
Cell specific functions
Proteoglycans are assembled in G A
Lpid metabolism in G A
Protein sorting
Vesicular Tubular Clusters (VTCs)
Only properly folded and assembled protein can leave ER
Proteins leave ER in COPII coated transport vesicles
summary
questions
References
GPCRs are the largest and most diverse group of integral membrane proteins. These proteins are used by cells to convert extracellular signals into intracellular responses and mediate most of our physiological responses to hormones, neurotransmitters as well as responses to vision, olfaction and taste signal. They mediate most of our and environmental stimulants, and so have a great potential as therapeutic targets for a broad spectrum of diseases. At the most basic level, all GPCRS are characterized by the presence of seven membrane-spanning alpha helical segments separated by alternating intracellular and extracellular loop regions. Coupling with G proteins, they are called seven-transmembrane receptors because they pass through the cell membrane seven times.
This presentation gives an overview of Lipid Rafts, how it was discovered, its importance and the future research in this area,Feel free to comment and ask any questions
This document summarizes key concepts around the evolution of behavior through natural selection and genetic inheritance. It discusses how behaviors are co-adapted through evolution to maximize survival and reproduction. Behaviors can be culturally transmitted between individuals without genetic changes. Kin selection theory explains how behaviors that help reproduce relatives' genes can also be selected for, if the degree of relatedness and benefits are high enough. Examples of genetic studies of behaviors in insects and vertebrates are provided to show the interaction between genes, development and environment in determining behaviors.
Pyruvate Dehydrogenase complex and its significanceTRIDIP BORUAH
The pyruvate dehydrogenase complex (PDH) catalyzes the irreversible oxidative decarboxylation of pyruvate to form acetyl-CoA. PDH is an assembly of three individual enzymes - pyruvate dehydrogenase (E1), dihydrolipoyl transacetylase (E2), and dihydrolipoyl dehydrogenase (E3) - that work together to decarboxylate and oxidize pyruvate, transfer the acetyl group to CoA, and reoxidize dihydrolipoamide. PDH plays an important role in linking glycolysis to the citric acid cycle by converting pyruvate to acetyl-CoA in cells containing mitochondria.
The nuclear envelope encloses the DNA and defines the nuclear compartment. It is composed of an inner and outer nuclear membrane with nuclear pores that regulate transport between the nucleus and cytoplasm. The nuclear pores have a diameter between 10-100nm and their number, or pore density, correlates with a cell's transcriptional activity. Transport through the pores is regulated by signal proteins that open the pores to precisely the right extent to allow passage of molecules and particles between the nuclear and cytoplasmic compartments.
TGFβ is a diverse family of growth factors that controls proliferation and cellular differentiation. TGFβ exists in 3 subtypes - TGFβ1, TGFβ2, and TGFβ3. TGFβ is synthesized as a precursor molecule bound to latency associated peptide (LAP) forming the small latent complex, which then binds to latent TGFβ binding protein forming the large latent complex. The large latent complex is activated via proteases or integrins that cleave LAP, releasing active TGFβ to bind receptors and signal downstream. Upon receptor binding, TGFβ phosphorylates SMAD proteins that regulate transcription of target genes controlling various cellular processes.
Synthesis and targeting of mitochondrial proteinsPrachee Rajput
Mitochondrial proteins are essential for processes like oxidative phosphorylation and ATP synthesis. They are synthesized on cytosolic ribosomes and targeted to mitochondria. The precursor proteins contain an N-terminal targeting sequence that binds receptor proteins on the mitochondrial surface. The precursor proteins then pass through membrane channels into the mitochondrial matrix, where the targeting sequence is cleaved off and the proteins fold with the help of chaperones. This import process is tightly regulated and requires coordination between the nuclear and mitochondrial genomes.
The document discusses protein sorting in Golgi bodies. It describes how proteins are modified and sorted as they pass through the cis, medial, and trans faces of the Golgi apparatus. Proteins undergo processing like glycosylation and are targeted to their final destinations, such as organelles, vesicles, or secretion. The Golgi apparatus plays a key role in modifying and sorting proteins to their correct locations within and outside the cell.
MITOCHONDRIA ,STRUCTURE ,Mt DNA ,PROTEIN TRANSPORT,ETC,OXIDATIVE PHOSPHORYLATIONLIFE SCIENCES
introduction, structure , functions,how proteins are transported into mitochondria,functions,electron transport chain,oxidative phosphorylation with animated videos
The document discusses cellular respiration and how cells harvest chemical energy from food molecules like glucose. It describes the three main stages of cellular respiration - glycolysis, the citric acid cycle, and oxidative phosphorylation/electron transport chain. The summary provides an overview of how these stages break down glucose to produce ATP that cells can use as energy to power cellular functions.
Cilia and flagella are hair-like organelles that project from the surface of eukaryotic cells. They are composed of microtubules arranged in a 9+2 pattern and powered by dynein motor proteins. Cilia are usually shorter and more numerous, while flagella are longer and occur singly or in pairs. Cilia create currents for functions like moving mucus and debris in the lungs. Flagella propel sperm and protists through fluid. Both undergo intracellular transport to assemble and are shed and regrown from basal bodies that anchor them.
Protein sorting and targeting involves transporting proteins to the appropriate locations within or outside the cell. There are several pathways for protein targeting, including vesicular transport between organelles like the ER and Golgi, as well as transport of proteins into organelles like mitochondria and peroxisomes. Targeting signals like presequences and internal targeting peptides direct cellular transport machinery to correctly position proteins. Lipidation is another method to target proteins to specific membranes through modifications like glycosyl phosphatidylinositol anchors or myristoylation.
Details of cytoskeleton element-microtubule. The Microtubule associated protein-type and function, Treadmilling and dynamic instability, Structure of cilia and flagella
The document summarizes key aspects of cell biomembranes. It describes how membranes are made up of a phospholipid bilayer with various embedded and peripheral proteins. The fluid mosaic model represents membranes as a fluid bilayer with proteins drifting within. Membranes are selectively permeable, using transport proteins and channels to regulate movement of molecules in and out of the cell. Both passive and active transport mechanisms move solutes across membranes, with active transport requiring energy to move substances against their concentration gradients.
Cell adhesion molecules are proteins located on cell surfaces that allow cells to adhere to each other and maintain tissue structure. The most important type are cadherins, which are calcium-dependent transmembrane proteins that connect to other cadherins on adjacent cells and link to the actin cytoskeleton. Cadherins help organize cell layers and tissues during development by promoting adhesion between similar cell types and separation between dissimilar ones. Other classes of cell adhesion molecules include integrins, IgCAMs, and selectins, which provide both calcium-dependent and calcium-independent adhesion between cells and the extracellular matrix.
This document summarizes lipid rafts, including what they are, their functions, and their roles in neurological diseases. Lipid rafts are cholesterol-enriched membrane microdomains that compartmentalize cellular processes. They influence protein sorting, signaling, trafficking, and more. Dysfunctions in lipid rafts and their associated proteins have been linked to neurological disorders like Alzheimer's, Huntington's, Parkinson's, and ALS by disrupting processes like amyloid protein processing, vesicle trafficking, and receptor signaling.
The document summarizes microtubules and microfilaments. It discusses the structure of microtubules, which are hollow tubes composed of tubulin protein. Microtubules function in cell division, forming the mitotic spindle, and in structures like cilia and flagella. Motor proteins like kinesin and dynein power movement along microtubules, transporting vesicles and organelles and driving cilia/flagella motion. Microfilaments are composed of actin and function in cell shape changes, muscle contraction through interacting with myosin, and cytokinesis.
Structure and functon of golgi apparatusICHHA PURAK
The Power point presentation consists of 77 slides including following heads
Introduction
Discovery
Distribution
Origin
Shape
Chemical composition
Structure
Common functions
Cell specific functions
Proteoglycans are assembled in G A
Lpid metabolism in G A
Protein sorting
Vesicular Tubular Clusters (VTCs)
Only properly folded and assembled protein can leave ER
Proteins leave ER in COPII coated transport vesicles
summary
questions
References
GPCRs are the largest and most diverse group of integral membrane proteins. These proteins are used by cells to convert extracellular signals into intracellular responses and mediate most of our physiological responses to hormones, neurotransmitters as well as responses to vision, olfaction and taste signal. They mediate most of our and environmental stimulants, and so have a great potential as therapeutic targets for a broad spectrum of diseases. At the most basic level, all GPCRS are characterized by the presence of seven membrane-spanning alpha helical segments separated by alternating intracellular and extracellular loop regions. Coupling with G proteins, they are called seven-transmembrane receptors because they pass through the cell membrane seven times.
This presentation gives an overview of Lipid Rafts, how it was discovered, its importance and the future research in this area,Feel free to comment and ask any questions
This document summarizes key concepts around the evolution of behavior through natural selection and genetic inheritance. It discusses how behaviors are co-adapted through evolution to maximize survival and reproduction. Behaviors can be culturally transmitted between individuals without genetic changes. Kin selection theory explains how behaviors that help reproduce relatives' genes can also be selected for, if the degree of relatedness and benefits are high enough. Examples of genetic studies of behaviors in insects and vertebrates are provided to show the interaction between genes, development and environment in determining behaviors.
Pyruvate Dehydrogenase complex and its significanceTRIDIP BORUAH
The pyruvate dehydrogenase complex (PDH) catalyzes the irreversible oxidative decarboxylation of pyruvate to form acetyl-CoA. PDH is an assembly of three individual enzymes - pyruvate dehydrogenase (E1), dihydrolipoyl transacetylase (E2), and dihydrolipoyl dehydrogenase (E3) - that work together to decarboxylate and oxidize pyruvate, transfer the acetyl group to CoA, and reoxidize dihydrolipoamide. PDH plays an important role in linking glycolysis to the citric acid cycle by converting pyruvate to acetyl-CoA in cells containing mitochondria.
The nuclear envelope encloses the DNA and defines the nuclear compartment. It is composed of an inner and outer nuclear membrane with nuclear pores that regulate transport between the nucleus and cytoplasm. The nuclear pores have a diameter between 10-100nm and their number, or pore density, correlates with a cell's transcriptional activity. Transport through the pores is regulated by signal proteins that open the pores to precisely the right extent to allow passage of molecules and particles between the nuclear and cytoplasmic compartments.
TGFβ is a diverse family of growth factors that controls proliferation and cellular differentiation. TGFβ exists in 3 subtypes - TGFβ1, TGFβ2, and TGFβ3. TGFβ is synthesized as a precursor molecule bound to latency associated peptide (LAP) forming the small latent complex, which then binds to latent TGFβ binding protein forming the large latent complex. The large latent complex is activated via proteases or integrins that cleave LAP, releasing active TGFβ to bind receptors and signal downstream. Upon receptor binding, TGFβ phosphorylates SMAD proteins that regulate transcription of target genes controlling various cellular processes.
Synthesis and targeting of mitochondrial proteinsPrachee Rajput
Mitochondrial proteins are essential for processes like oxidative phosphorylation and ATP synthesis. They are synthesized on cytosolic ribosomes and targeted to mitochondria. The precursor proteins contain an N-terminal targeting sequence that binds receptor proteins on the mitochondrial surface. The precursor proteins then pass through membrane channels into the mitochondrial matrix, where the targeting sequence is cleaved off and the proteins fold with the help of chaperones. This import process is tightly regulated and requires coordination between the nuclear and mitochondrial genomes.
The document discusses protein sorting in Golgi bodies. It describes how proteins are modified and sorted as they pass through the cis, medial, and trans faces of the Golgi apparatus. Proteins undergo processing like glycosylation and are targeted to their final destinations, such as organelles, vesicles, or secretion. The Golgi apparatus plays a key role in modifying and sorting proteins to their correct locations within and outside the cell.
MITOCHONDRIA ,STRUCTURE ,Mt DNA ,PROTEIN TRANSPORT,ETC,OXIDATIVE PHOSPHORYLATIONLIFE SCIENCES
introduction, structure , functions,how proteins are transported into mitochondria,functions,electron transport chain,oxidative phosphorylation with animated videos
The document discusses cellular respiration and how cells harvest chemical energy from food molecules like glucose. It describes the three main stages of cellular respiration - glycolysis, the citric acid cycle, and oxidative phosphorylation/electron transport chain. The summary provides an overview of how these stages break down glucose to produce ATP that cells can use as energy to power cellular functions.
The document discusses the electron transport chain, which is the final stage of cellular respiration after the Krebs cycle. In the Krebs cycle, electrons are passed to NAD and FAD molecules from hydrogen atoms. NAD and FAD then pass the electrons to the electron transport chain. As electrons are passed along the chain, ATP is produced. Finally, the electrons recombine with hydrogen ions and oxygen to produce water.
Cellular respiration involves three main stages: glycolysis, the Krebs cycle, and the electron transport chain. [1] Glycolysis takes place in the cytosol and involves the breakdown of glucose into pyruvate, producing a small amount of ATP. [2] Pyruvate then enters the mitochondrion, where it is further oxidized in the Krebs cycle. [3] Electrons are transferred in the electron transport chain to produce most of the cell's ATP through oxidative phosphorylation.
The Krebs cycle, also known as the citric acid cycle or tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle, is the second step of cellular respiration after glycolysis. In the Krebs cycle, acetyl groups from pyruvate are oxidized and carbon dioxide is released, producing NADH and FADH2 to fuel the electron transport chain. Each turn of the cycle generates three NADH, one FADH2, and one ATP through substrate-level phosphorylation by succinyl-CoA synthetase. The Krebs cycle occurs in the mitochondrial matrix and is crucial for producing the reduced coenzymes NADH and FADH2 that drive oxidative phosphorylation to produce large amounts of
Aerobic respiration occurs in four major steps: glycolysis, acetyl CoA production, the Krebs cycle, and the electron transport chain. Glycolysis breaks down glucose into pyruvate. Pyruvate then forms acetyl CoA which enters the Krebs cycle to produce ATP, NADH, and FADH2. These electron carriers then feed into the electron transport chain to produce more ATP through oxidative phosphorylation. Anaerobic respiration involves glycolysis followed by either alcohol fermentation, where pyruvate forms ethanol and CO2, or lactic acid fermentation, where pyruvate forms lactate.
The electron transport chain occurs in the inner mitochondrial membrane and involves a series of protein complexes that pass high-energy electrons from electron carriers NADH and FADH2 down the chain. As electrons are passed along, hydrogen ions are pumped from the matrix side to the intermembrane space, building up a proton gradient. When the hydrogen ions diffuse back through ATP synthase, their movement causes ATP synthase to produce ATP from ADP and inorganic phosphate. This chemiosmotic mechanism of using the proton gradient to power ATP synthesis is how the electron transport chain generates the majority of the cell's ATP through oxidative phosphorylation.
Metabolic pathways can be catabolic, involving the breakdown of complexes, or anabolic, involving synthesis. Glycolysis is the catabolic pathway that breaks down glucose into pyruvate, producing a net yield of 2 ATP per glucose molecule. It occurs in two phases: the preparatory phase requires 2 ATP to phosphorylate and cleave glucose, while the payoff phase generates 4 ATP from substrate-level phosphorylation as the intermediates are oxidized to pyruvate. Overall, glycolysis oxidizes glucose to pyruvate, reduces NAD+ to NADH, and generates a small amount of ATP through substrate-level phosphorylation.
Glycolysis and gluconeogenesis are reciprocally regulated pathways that break down and synthesize glucose, respectively. Key enzymes in each pathway are regulated by allosteric effectors and hormones to ensure the pathways do not operate simultaneously. Insulin promotes glycolysis by activating phosphofructokinase and pyruvate kinase, while glucagon stimulates gluconeogenesis by inducing phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase and fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase. Substrate cycles like the Cori cycle couple the pathways and allow for signal amplification between tissues like muscle and liver.
Hans Adolf Krebs discovered the Krebs cycle in 1937. The Krebs cycle is a series of chemical reactions that produce carbon dioxide, ATP, and electron carriers to be used in cellular respiration. It occurs in the mitochondria of cells and consists of eight steps where molecules like citrate, isocitrate, and oxaloacetate undergo oxidation reactions, producing molecules like alpha-ketoglutarate, succinyl-CoA, fumarate, and malate. The cycle generates molecules like NADH, FADH2, and one ATP that supply energy to the electron transport chain.
1. Cell membranes form fluid barriers that regulate what moves in and out of cells using transport mechanisms like passive diffusion and active transport.
2. Passive transport relies on concentration gradients and includes diffusion and osmosis, while active transport uses membrane proteins and ATP to move molecules against a gradient.
3. Transport proteins like channels and carriers help move molecules across membranes selectively and regulate homeostasis of ions and molecules in different fluid compartments inside and outside cells.
This document summarizes cellular respiration, which is the process by which glucose and oxygen are used to produce energy in the form of ATP. It occurs in three main phases: glycolysis, the Krebs cycle, and the electron transport chain. Glycolysis occurs in the cytoplasm and produces 2 ATP and 2 NADH molecules. The Krebs cycle takes place in the mitochondrial matrix and produces no net ATP but generates 2 NADH and 2 FADH2 molecules. The electron transport chain on the inner mitochondrial membrane uses the NADH and FADH2 to produce ATP through oxidative phosphorylation. Overall, cellular respiration is about 40% efficient and yields approximately 30-32 molecules of ATP per glucose molecule.
Cellular respiration is a metabolic process that cells use to produce energy. It occurs in three main stages: glycolysis, the Krebs cycle, and the electron transport chain. These stages break down glucose and use it to produce ATP, the cell's energy currency. The process uses oxygen and releases carbon dioxide and water as waste products. Cellular respiration allows cells to extract energy from food that is then used to power other cellular processes and activities.
1) The electron transport chain is the final stage of cellular respiration that occurs in the mitochondria.
2) It involves a series of protein complexes in the inner mitochondrial membrane that transport electrons and pump hydrogen ions across the membrane, building up a proton gradient.
3) The flow of hydrogen ions back through ATP synthase uses the energy from the proton gradient to synthesize approximately 34 molecules of ATP from each glucose molecule.
This document discusses the electron transport chain (ETC) and its components. It notes that the ETC is located in the inner mitochondrial membrane and utilizes electrons derived from nutrients to generate ATP through a series of oxidation-reduction reactions. It describes the five complexes of the ETC (Complexes I-IV which transport electrons and Complex V which synthesizes ATP) as well as the mobile carriers involved in electron transport, including NADH, Coenzyme Q, cytochrome c, and oxygen. The ETC functions to transfer electrons from substrates to oxygen and harness the energy to produce ATP, making mitochondria the powerhouse of the cell.
The document summarizes electron transport and oxidative phosphorylation. It describes how electrons from NADH and FADH2 are transported via carriers in the mitochondrial electron transport system to oxygen, with energy released used to synthesize ATP. Protons are pumped from the mitochondrial matrix to the intermembrane space, building a proton gradient that drives ATP synthesis by ATP synthase as protons flow back into the matrix. This chemiosmotic coupling allows efficient conversion of electron potential energy to chemical energy in the form of ATP.
Electron transport chain and Oxidative phosphorylationmeghna91
The document summarizes electron transport chain (ETC) and oxidative phosphorylation. It describes that NADH and FADH2 produced during metabolism are oxidized via ETC complexes I-IV to create a proton gradient, then ATP synthase uses this gradient to synthesize ATP. The ETC consists of Complexes I-V located in the inner mitochondrial membrane, with Complexes I, III, and IV pumping protons from the matrix to the intermembrane space during electron transfer, building up proton motive force used by Complex V to drive ATP synthesis from ADP and phosphate.
The citric acid cycle (TCA cycle) occurs in the mitochondria and involves a series of reactions that oxidize acetyl groups from acetyl-CoA derived from carbohydrates, fats, and proteins, releasing carbon dioxide and reducing equivalents (NADH and FADH2) that are used to generate ATP through oxidative phosphorylation. The TCA cycle produces two GTP/ATP molecules per acetyl-CoA molecule oxidized and feeds reduced electron carriers into the electron transport chain to produce additional ATP. It is also an amphibolic pathway that generates precursors for various biosynthetic pathways.
- The organization's Q2 reconciliation was completed and an advance of 40,000 INR was paid for Q3 reconciliation.
- Receivables are due from various programs and clients. The current bank balance is 51,160 INR and fixed deposits total 8.09 lakhs.
- Updates on alumni relations, office matters, and financial procedures are provided. The document shares the organization's bank details and preferred payment methods.
This document discusses nutrient roles in bioenergetics. It explains that bioenergetics refers to the flow of energy within living systems through aerobic and anaerobic reactions. The main energy pathways discussed are glycolysis, the citric acid cycle, and oxidative phosphorylation in the mitochondria. These pathways break down carbohydrates, fats, and proteins to generate ATP through substrate-level and oxidative phosphorylation.
1) Three-dimensional electrode technology shows potential for wastewater treatment. Optimization of feeder electrodes and development of novel particle electrodes, such as carbon materials and metal oxides, are research focuses.
2) Pollutants are degraded through direct and indirect oxidation near the electrode. However, high operation costs, feeder electrode corrosion, and particle electrode inactivation are challenges.
3) Potential solutions have been proposed, including the use of materials like titanium coated with ruthenium oxide, antimony-doped tin oxide, or boron-doped diamond to address electrode corrosion and inactivation issues.
This document provides an overview of oxidative phosphorylation and electron transport chain in mitochondria. It discusses:
1) The chemiosmotic theory proposed by Peter Mitchell which explains how the transport of electrons through the respiratory chain is utilized to produce ATP from ADP and Pi. Proton pumping by Complexes I, III, and IV generates an electrochemical gradient used by ATP synthase.
2) The components of the electron transport chain, including NADH dehydrogenase, succinate dehydrogenase, ubiquinone, cytochromes, and oxygen, arranged in order of increasing redox potential.
3) The four complexes of the electron transport chain - Complexes I-IV - and their roles in proton pumping and
James Rohan - Electric vehicle battery systemsKeith Nolan
This document discusses materials used in lithium ion batteries. It describes how lithium is a good material for batteries due to its light weight and ability to provide large voltage gains. It also discusses various cathode and anode materials used in lithium ion batteries like lithium cobalt oxide, lithium iron phosphate, and carbon. The document outlines challenges for lithium ion batteries like improving energy density, power output, cycle life, safety and cost and suggests that addressing these challenges will require new materials and structuring.
1) Electrolysis of molten compounds involves passing an electric current through a molten compound, causing its ions to migrate to the electrodes.
2) During electrolysis of molten lead(II) bromide (PbBr2), the Pb2+ ions migrate to the cathode, where they gain electrons and deposit as metallic lead. Meanwhile, the Br- ions migrate to the anode, where they lose electrons and form a bromine gas product.
3) The overall reaction is the decomposition of PbBr2 into lead metal and bromine gas.
Mechanistic aspects of C-C cross coupling reactionRashmi Gaur
The document discusses palladium-catalyzed cross-coupling reactions, which were awarded the 2010 Nobel Prize in Chemistry. It summarizes the key reactions including Suzuki, Negishi, Stille, Sonogashira, and Heck reactions. These reactions involve the coupling of organic electrophiles and nucleophiles through oxidative addition, transmetallation, migratory insertion, and reductive elimination steps using a palladium catalyst. The document also discusses the mechanisms and factors influencing these important C-C bond forming reactions.
The document discusses body fluids, cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), and distinguishing between transudates and exudates. Key points include:
- CSF is produced by the choroid plexus at a rate of 500 ml per day and acts as a cushion and lubricant for the brain. Analysis of CSF provides information about infections and CNS disorders.
- Transudates have a low protein content and occur due to decreased plasma proteins or increased venous pressure. Exudates have a high protein content and occur due to inflammation or tissue damage.
- CSF analysis involves examination of appearance, chemical properties like glucose and protein levels, cell counts, and microbiological tests to identify infections. Abnormal results can indicate conditions
Enzymes are protein catalysts found in cells and tissues. They are responsible for chemical reactions in the body and can be detected in serum to diagnose diseases. Increased enzyme levels in serum may indicate tissue damage or certain disease states. Common enzymes measured include alkaline phosphatase, acid phosphatase, amylase, lipase, SGPT and SGOT which can help diagnose diseases of the bones, prostate, pancreas and liver. Enzymes function as biological catalysts by lowering the activation energy of reactions and increasing their rates without being consumed in the process. They are highly specific and their activity can be affected by factors like pH, temperature, substrate and inhibitor concentrations.
The document discusses the basic structures and properties of amino acids and proteins. It provides details on the 20 standard amino acids, including their abbreviations and the characteristics of their R-groups. The amino acids are classified as neutral, acidic, basic, or polar based on the properties of their side chains. Essential amino acids cannot be synthesized by the human body and must be obtained through diet.
The document discusses abnormalities of white blood cells, including quantitative abnormalities like leukocytosis and leukopenia as well as qualitative abnormalities involving the nucleus or cytoplasm of white blood cells. Some examples of qualitative abnormalities discussed include Pelger-Huet anomaly, Chediak-Steinbrinck-Higashi syndrome, and Auer rods. The types of white blood cells are described along with causes of conditions like neutrophilia, eosinophilia, lymphocytosis, and monocytosis. Inherited and acquired morphological and functional abnormalities of white blood cells are also summarized.
This document provides information on methods for performing a complete blood count (CBC), including white blood cell (WBC) count, corrected WBC count, and differential leukocyte count (DLC). The WBC count involves using a counting chamber, pipettes, and diluting fluids to count WBCs under a microscope. The DLC involves making a blood smear, staining it, counting different types of WBCs, and reporting results as relative or absolute counts. Normal ranges are provided for WBC subtype percentages and counts.
The document discusses various methodologies for analyzing red blood cells (RBCs). It describes the erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR) test, which measures how quickly RBCs settle in plasma, and lists several methods for performing the test including the Wintrobe and Westergren methods. It also covers the osmotic fragility test, which examines RBC stability in hypotonic solutions, and erythrocyte indices, which provide information about average RBC size, hemoglobin content, and concentration by calculating mean corpuscular volume, hemoglobin, and hemoglobin concentration.
The MHC encodes antigen presenting molecules that display peptide fragments to T cells to initiate immune responses. It contains three regions - Class I MHC presents intracellular peptides to CD8+ T cells, Class II MHC presents extracellular peptides to CD4+ T cells, and Class III MHC encodes complement proteins. MHC molecules are highly polymorphic and individuals inherit multiple alleles from each parent. This polymorphism allows presentation of a wide range of peptides and enhances immune responses against pathogens. MHC matching is important for transplantation, as mismatch can lead to graft rejection through T cell recognition of foreign MHC.
Brucella species are small, gram-negative bacteria that can cause brucellosis in humans and animals. They infect a variety of animal hosts and are transmitted to humans through contact with infected animals or consumption of unpasteurized dairy. In humans, Brucella bacteria localize in tissues like lymph nodes, liver, and bone, causing non-specific symptoms like fever, sweats, and joint pain. Diagnosis involves culture of the bacteria from blood or tissues or detection of antibodies in serum. Treatment requires a combination of antibiotics for an extended duration.
This document discusses Treponema pallidum, the spirochete bacteria that causes syphilis. It describes the morphology and pathogenic species of Treponema, focusing on T. pallidum. The stages of syphilis and correlation with test results are outlined. Antibodies produced during syphilis infection and their development are explained. Treatment of syphilis and its effects on test results are also summarized. Related diseases caused by other Treponema species like yaws are briefly mentioned.
This document describes various abnormalities that can be seen in red blood cells during a blood smear examination. It defines different types of anisocytosis (variation in red blood cell size), anisochromia (variation in hemoglobin concentration), and abnormal red blood cell shapes that may indicate underlying hematological disorders. Various intracellular inclusions and remnants such as Howell-Jolly bodies, Heinz bodies, and Pappenheimer bodies are also described.
Strategies for Effective Upskilling is a presentation by Chinwendu Peace in a Your Skill Boost Masterclass organisation by the Excellence Foundation for South Sudan on 08th and 09th June 2024 from 1 PM to 3 PM on each day.
How to Make a Field Mandatory in Odoo 17Celine George
In Odoo, making a field required can be done through both Python code and XML views. When you set the required attribute to True in Python code, it makes the field required across all views where it's used. Conversely, when you set the required attribute in XML views, it makes the field required only in the context of that particular view.
This presentation includes basic of PCOS their pathology and treatment and also Ayurveda correlation of PCOS and Ayurvedic line of treatment mentioned in classics.
Chapter wise All Notes of First year Basic Civil Engineering.pptxDenish Jangid
Chapter wise All Notes of First year Basic Civil Engineering
Syllabus
Chapter-1
Introduction to objective, scope and outcome the subject
Chapter 2
Introduction: Scope and Specialization of Civil Engineering, Role of civil Engineer in Society, Impact of infrastructural development on economy of country.
Chapter 3
Surveying: Object Principles & Types of Surveying; Site Plans, Plans & Maps; Scales & Unit of different Measurements.
Linear Measurements: Instruments used. Linear Measurement by Tape, Ranging out Survey Lines and overcoming Obstructions; Measurements on sloping ground; Tape corrections, conventional symbols. Angular Measurements: Instruments used; Introduction to Compass Surveying, Bearings and Longitude & Latitude of a Line, Introduction to total station.
Levelling: Instrument used Object of levelling, Methods of levelling in brief, and Contour maps.
Chapter 4
Buildings: Selection of site for Buildings, Layout of Building Plan, Types of buildings, Plinth area, carpet area, floor space index, Introduction to building byelaws, concept of sun light & ventilation. Components of Buildings & their functions, Basic concept of R.C.C., Introduction to types of foundation
Chapter 5
Transportation: Introduction to Transportation Engineering; Traffic and Road Safety: Types and Characteristics of Various Modes of Transportation; Various Road Traffic Signs, Causes of Accidents and Road Safety Measures.
Chapter 6
Environmental Engineering: Environmental Pollution, Environmental Acts and Regulations, Functional Concepts of Ecology, Basics of Species, Biodiversity, Ecosystem, Hydrological Cycle; Chemical Cycles: Carbon, Nitrogen & Phosphorus; Energy Flow in Ecosystems.
Water Pollution: Water Quality standards, Introduction to Treatment & Disposal of Waste Water. Reuse and Saving of Water, Rain Water Harvesting. Solid Waste Management: Classification of Solid Waste, Collection, Transportation and Disposal of Solid. Recycling of Solid Waste: Energy Recovery, Sanitary Landfill, On-Site Sanitation. Air & Noise Pollution: Primary and Secondary air pollutants, Harmful effects of Air Pollution, Control of Air Pollution. . Noise Pollution Harmful Effects of noise pollution, control of noise pollution, Global warming & Climate Change, Ozone depletion, Greenhouse effect
Text Books:
1. Palancharmy, Basic Civil Engineering, McGraw Hill publishers.
2. Satheesh Gopi, Basic Civil Engineering, Pearson Publishers.
3. Ketki Rangwala Dalal, Essentials of Civil Engineering, Charotar Publishing House.
4. BCP, Surveying volume 1
বাংলাদেশের অর্থনৈতিক সমীক্ষা ২০২৪ [Bangladesh Economic Review 2024 Bangla.pdf] কম্পিউটার , ট্যাব ও স্মার্ট ফোন ভার্সন সহ সম্পূর্ণ বাংলা ই-বুক বা pdf বই " সুচিপত্র ...বুকমার্ক মেনু 🔖 ও হাইপার লিংক মেনু 📝👆 যুক্ত ..
আমাদের সবার জন্য খুব খুব গুরুত্বপূর্ণ একটি বই ..বিসিএস, ব্যাংক, ইউনিভার্সিটি ভর্তি ও যে কোন প্রতিযোগিতা মূলক পরীক্ষার জন্য এর খুব ইম্পরট্যান্ট একটি বিষয় ...তাছাড়া বাংলাদেশের সাম্প্রতিক যে কোন ডাটা বা তথ্য এই বইতে পাবেন ...
তাই একজন নাগরিক হিসাবে এই তথ্য গুলো আপনার জানা প্রয়োজন ...।
বিসিএস ও ব্যাংক এর লিখিত পরীক্ষা ...+এছাড়া মাধ্যমিক ও উচ্চমাধ্যমিকের স্টুডেন্টদের জন্য অনেক কাজে আসবে ...
How to Add Chatter in the odoo 17 ERP ModuleCeline George
In Odoo, the chatter is like a chat tool that helps you work together on records. You can leave notes and track things, making it easier to talk with your team and partners. Inside chatter, all communication history, activity, and changes will be displayed.
Walmart Business+ and Spark Good for Nonprofits.pdfTechSoup
"Learn about all the ways Walmart supports nonprofit organizations.
You will hear from Liz Willett, the Head of Nonprofits, and hear about what Walmart is doing to help nonprofits, including Walmart Business and Spark Good. Walmart Business+ is a new offer for nonprofits that offers discounts and also streamlines nonprofits order and expense tracking, saving time and money.
The webinar may also give some examples on how nonprofits can best leverage Walmart Business+.
The event will cover the following::
Walmart Business + (https://business.walmart.com/plus) is a new shopping experience for nonprofits, schools, and local business customers that connects an exclusive online shopping experience to stores. Benefits include free delivery and shipping, a 'Spend Analytics” feature, special discounts, deals and tax-exempt shopping.
Special TechSoup offer for a free 180 days membership, and up to $150 in discounts on eligible orders.
Spark Good (walmart.com/sparkgood) is a charitable platform that enables nonprofits to receive donations directly from customers and associates.
Answers about how you can do more with Walmart!"
A workshop hosted by the South African Journal of Science aimed at postgraduate students and early career researchers with little or no experience in writing and publishing journal articles.
ISO/IEC 27001, ISO/IEC 42001, and GDPR: Best Practices for Implementation and...PECB
Denis is a dynamic and results-driven Chief Information Officer (CIO) with a distinguished career spanning information systems analysis and technical project management. With a proven track record of spearheading the design and delivery of cutting-edge Information Management solutions, he has consistently elevated business operations, streamlined reporting functions, and maximized process efficiency.
Certified as an ISO/IEC 27001: Information Security Management Systems (ISMS) Lead Implementer, Data Protection Officer, and Cyber Risks Analyst, Denis brings a heightened focus on data security, privacy, and cyber resilience to every endeavor.
His expertise extends across a diverse spectrum of reporting, database, and web development applications, underpinned by an exceptional grasp of data storage and virtualization technologies. His proficiency in application testing, database administration, and data cleansing ensures seamless execution of complex projects.
What sets Denis apart is his comprehensive understanding of Business and Systems Analysis technologies, honed through involvement in all phases of the Software Development Lifecycle (SDLC). From meticulous requirements gathering to precise analysis, innovative design, rigorous development, thorough testing, and successful implementation, he has consistently delivered exceptional results.
Throughout his career, he has taken on multifaceted roles, from leading technical project management teams to owning solutions that drive operational excellence. His conscientious and proactive approach is unwavering, whether he is working independently or collaboratively within a team. His ability to connect with colleagues on a personal level underscores his commitment to fostering a harmonious and productive workplace environment.
Date: May 29, 2024
Tags: Information Security, ISO/IEC 27001, ISO/IEC 42001, Artificial Intelligence, GDPR
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Find out more about ISO training and certification services
Training: ISO/IEC 27001 Information Security Management System - EN | PECB
ISO/IEC 42001 Artificial Intelligence Management System - EN | PECB
General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) - Training Courses - EN | PECB
Webinars: https://pecb.com/webinars
Article: https://pecb.com/article
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This presentation was provided by Steph Pollock of The American Psychological Association’s Journals Program, and Damita Snow, of The American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE), for the initial session of NISO's 2024 Training Series "DEIA in the Scholarly Landscape." Session One: 'Setting Expectations: a DEIA Primer,' was held June 6, 2024.
This slide is special for master students (MIBS & MIFB) in UUM. Also useful for readers who are interested in the topic of contemporary Islamic banking.
2. Respiration
Respiration Involves :
Glycolysis,
Krebs cycle,
Electron transport and Oxidative
Phosphorylation
3. INTRODUCTION
Glycolysis :
Occurs in the cytoplasm.
Breaks glucose into two molecules of pyruvate.
Krebs cycle :
occurs in the mitochondrial matrix.
degrades pyruvate to carbon dioxide.
Several steps in glycolysis and the Krebs cycle
transfer electrons from substrates to NAD+, forming
NADH.
NADH passes these electrons to the electron
transport chain.
5. Mitochondria
Outer membrane- permeable to
small molecules
Inner membrane-
electron transport
ATP synthase
Cristae increase area
Integrity required for
coupling ETS to ATP
synthesis
6. Mitochondria
outer membrane relatively permeable
inner membrane permeable only to those
things with specific transporters
◦ Impermeable to NADH and FADH2
◦ Permeable to pyruvate
Compartmentalization
◦ Kreb's and β-oxidation in matrix
◦ Glycolysis in cytosol
7. Electron Transport System
Electron Transport Chain – is a collection
of molecules embedded in the inner
membrane of the mitochondria
◦ Most components are proteins
8. Electron Transport System
Mechanism the cell that converts the energy in
NADH and FADH2 into ATP.
Electrons flow along an energy gradient via carriers
in one direction from a higher reducing potential to a
lower reducing potential
The ultimate acceptor is molecular oxygen.
At the end of the chain electrons are passed to
oxygen forming water.
9. Electron Transport System
An NADH molecule begins the
process by “dropping off” its
electron at the first electron
carrier molecule
10. ETS
Remember: each
component will be 50
NADH
reduced when it accepts 40 I
FADH2
FAD
Multiprotein
FMN complexes
Free energy (G) relative to O2 (kcl/mol)
the electron and oxidized Fe•S
O
Fe•S
Cyt b
II
III
when it passes the 30 Fe•S
Cyt c1
Cyt c IV
electron down to the more 20
Cyt a
Cyt a3
electronegative carrier
molecule in the chain
10
0 2 H ++ 12 O2
H2 O
11. Finally the electron is passed to
oxygen, which is very electronegative. NADH
50
FADH2
I Multiprotein
40 FAD
Free energy (G) relative to O2 (kcl/mol)
FMN complexes
Fe•S II
The oxygen also picks Fe•S
O
Cyt b
III
Fe•S
up 2 H+ ions from the
30
Cyt c1
Cyt c IV
Cyt a
aqueous solution and 20
Cyt a3
forms water 10
0 2 H ++ 12 O2
H2 O
12. ETS
FADH goes through 50
NADH
mostly the same FADH2
Multiprotein
Free energy (G) relative to O2 (kcl/mol)
40 I FAD
processes, except it
FMN complexes
Fe•S Fe•S II
O
III
Cyt b
drops off its electron 30 Fe•S
Cyt c1
Cyt c IV
at a lower point on
Cyt a
Cyt a3
20
the ETC 10
0 2 H ++ 12 O2
H2O
13. The ETC makes no ATP directly!
The ETC releases energy in a step-
wise series of reactions
It powers ATP synthesis via oxidative
phosphorylation.
But it needs to be coupled with
chemiosmosis to actually make ATP.
14. Oxidative Phosphorylation
Production of ATP using
transfer of electrons for energy
Some ATP is produced by substrate-level
phosphorylation during glycolysis and the
Krebs cycle, but most comes from
oxidative phosphorylation
15. Oxidative phosphorylation
CONCEPT :
During oxidative phosphorylation,
chemiosmosis couples electron transport to
ATP synthesis
16. Chemiosmosis
The Energy-Coupling Mechanism
Inner membrane of mitochondria has many
protein complexes called ATP synthase
◦ ATP synthase – enzyme that makes ATP from
ADP and inorganic phosphate
It uses the energy of an existing gradient to
do this.
17. The existing gradient is the difference in
H+ ion concentration on opposite sides of
the inner membrane of the mitochondria
Inner
Mitochondrial
Oxidative
Glycolysis phosphorylation. membrane
electron transport
and chemiosmosis
ATP ATP ATP
H+
H+
H+
H+
Protein complex Cyt c
Intermembrane
of electron
space
carners
Q IV
I III
ATP
Inner II synthase
mitochondrial FADH2
FAD+ 2 H+ + 1/2 O2
H2O
membrane
NADH+
NAD+ ADP + Pi ATP
(Carrying electrons
from, food) H+
Mitochondrial Electron transport chain Chemiosmosis
matrix Electron transport and pumping of protons (H +), ATP synthesis powered by the flow
which create an H+ gradient across the membrane Of H+ back across the membrane
Oxidative phosphorylation
18. Chemiosmosis
Chemiosmosis – the process in which
energy stored in the form of a hydrogen ion
gradient across a membrane is used to
drive cellular work (like the synthesis of
ATP)
19. It is the job of the ETC to create this H+
ion gradient
Inner
Mitochondrial
Oxidative
Glycolysis phosphorylation. membrane
electron transport
and chemiosmosis
ATP ATP ATP
H+
H+
H+
H+
Protein complex Cyt c
Intermembrane of electron
space carners
Q IV
I III
ATP
Inner II synthase
mitochondrial FADH2
FAD+ 2 H+ + 1/2 O2
H2O
membrane
NADH+
NAD+ ADP + Pi ATP
(Carrying electrons
from, food) H+
Mitochondrial Electron transport chain Chemiosmosis
matrix Electron transport and pumping of protons (H+), ATP synthesis powered by the flow
which create an H+ gradient across the membraneOf H+ back across the membrane
Oxidative phosphorylation
20. H+ ions are pumped into the
intermembrane space by the ETC
The H+ ions want to drift back into the
matrix.
But they can only come into the matrix
easily through ATP synthase channels
21. A protein complex, ATP
synthase, in the cristae
actually makes ATP from
ADP and Pi.
ATP used the energy of
an existing proton gradient
to power ATP synthesis.
proton gradient
develops between the
intermembrane space
and the matrix.
23. 4 Complexes
proteins in specific order
Transfers 2 electrons in specific order
◦ Proteins localized in complexes
Embedded in membrane
Ease of electron transfer
◦ Electrons ultimately reduce oxygen to
water
2 H+ + 2 e- + ½ O2 -- H2O
24. Complex I
Has NADH binding site
◦ NADH reductase activity
NADH - NAD+
◦ transfers to electron carriers
◦ NADH (nicotinamide adenine
dinucleotide )
25. Passes them to coenzyme Q ( Ubiquinone )
Also receive electron from complex II
26. Complex II
succinate ---FAD—ubiquinone
◦ Contains coenzyme Q
◦ FADH2 binding site
FAD reductase activity
FADH2 -- FAD
conversion of succinate to fumerate
28. Complex III
ubiquinone - ubiquinone
while cytochrome C gets reduced
Also contains cytochromes b
NADH generates more energy than
FADH2
29. Complex IV
reduction of oxygen
cytochrome oxidase
oxygen ---> water
◦ 2 H+ + 2 e- + ½ O2 -- 2 H2O
◦ transfers e- one at a time to oxygen
30. ATP Produced
◦ The NADH from glycolysis may also
yield 3ATP.
Krebs cycle can be used to generate
about 2ATP.
Electron transport chain yield 32 ATP.
31. ATP Produced
About 40% of energy glucose molecule
transferred to ATP during cellular respiration
Makes approximately 38 ATP.