ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT STUDIES OF THE
POLLUTED WATER AT PATANCHERU INDUSTRIAL
AREA, HYDERABAD, A.P.
N. SAI BHASKAR REDDY
M.Sc. (App. Geol.), M.Sc. (Geog.)
THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE KAKATIYA UNIVERSITY
FOR THE AWARD OF THE DEGREE OF
Doctor of Philosophy
IN GEOLOGY
1999

iii
DECLARATION
I hereby declare that the research work of this thesis entitled “Environmental
Impact Assessment Studies of the Polluted Water at Patancheru Industrial Area,
Hyderabad, A.P.”, has been originally carried out by me in the Department of
Geology, Kakatiya University, Warangal, Andhra Pradesh, India, and it has not
been submitted either in full or in part for the award of any degree or diploma
to any other Institution / University.
N. SAI BHASKAR REDDY
Department of Geology
Kakatiya University,
Warangal - 506 009 (A.P.)

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CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
ABSTRACT 1- 8
CHAPTER – I INTRODUCTION
1.1 GENERAL 9
1.2 LOCATION AND EXTENT OF THE AREA 12
1.3 INDUSTRIAL SCENARIO IN MEDAK DISTRICT 12
1.4 BACKGROUND 22
1.5 SCOPE OF THE PROBLEM 23
1.6 METHODOLOGY 26
C H A P T E R - II PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT
2.1 INTRODUCTION 32
2.2 GEOLOGY 32
2.3 TOPOGRAPHY 36
2.4 SOILS 36
2.5 CLIMATE AND METEOROLOGY 45
2.5.1 TEMPERATURE 46
2.5.2 EVAPORATION 47
2.5.3 RAINFALL 48
2.5.4 WIND SPEED AND DIRECTION 48
2.6 AMBIENT AIR QUALITY 56
C H A P T E R - I I I BIOLOGICAL ENVIRONMENT
3.1 INTRODUCTION 59
3.2 FLORA 59
3.3 FAUNA 66
3.4 FLORA AND FAUNA OF SURFACE WATER 67

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CHAPTER-IV SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND CULTURAL ENVIRONMENT
4.1 INTRODUCTION 71
4.2 POPULATION 71
4.3 EDUCATION 74
4.4 HEALTH 77
4.5 LAND-USE 79
4.6 AGRICULTURE 82
4.7 EMPLOYMENT 87
4.8 POPULATION STRUCTURE OF MOST POLLUTED VILLAGES 89
4.9 CULTURAL PROPERTIES 92
CHAPTER-V WATER ENVIRONMENT
5.1 INTRODUCTION 95
5.2 NAKKAVAGU BASIN 97
5.2.1 DRAINAGE SYSTEM 99
5.2.2 TANKS 100
5.3 INDUSTRIAL POLLUTION IN NAKKAVAGU BASIN 103
5.3.1 COMMON EFFLUENT TREATMENT PLANTS 109
5.3.1.1 CETP-PATANCHERU 109
5.3.1.2 CETP-BOLLARAM 111
5.4 SURFACE WATER 114
5.4.1 FLOWING WATERS 120
5.4.1.1 SURFACE WATERS ANALYTICAL RESULTS 122
5.4.1.1.1 SUMMER DATA OF STREAMS (S - DATA) 122
5.4.1.1.2 RAINY SEASON DATA OF STREAMS (R - DATA) 128
5.4.1.1.3 WINTER DATA OF STREAMS (W - DATA) 136
5.4.1.2 QUALITY OF STREAMS 136
5.4.2 TANKS 138

vii
5.4.2.1 TANKS ANALYTICAL RESULTS 138
5.5 GROUNDWATER
5.5.1 GROUNDWATER IN GRANITES 141
5.5.2 GROUNDWATER ANALYTICAL RESULTS 149
5.5.2.1 SUMMER DATA (S - DATA) 149
5.5.2.2 G1 AND G2-DATA 154
CHAPTER-VI DISCUSSIONS
6.1 INTRODUCTION 172
6.2 ECOSPHERE 172
6.3 HYDROSPHERE 174
6.4 ROLE OF HUMAN ACTIVITIES ON ENVIRONMENT 174
6.5 WATER CONTAMINATION 175
6.6 INDUSTRIES AND POLLUTION 176
6.7 INDUSTRIES AND MICRO-CLIMATE 179
6.7.1 SMOG 179
6.7.2 ACID RAINS 180
6.7.3 HEAT ISLAND 180
6.8 TOXICITY 181
6.8.1 TOXICS FOUND IN NAKKAVAGU BASIN 183
6.9 PEOPLE 194
6.10 SOCIO-ECONOMIC ISSUES 195
6.11 LANDSCAPE 196
6.12 CONCEPTS OF EIA AND SEA 199
CHAPTER-VII ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS
7.1 INTRODUCTION 206
7.2 PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT 206
7.2.1 GEOLOGY 206

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7.2.2 TOPOGRAPHY 207
7.2.3 SOILS 207
7.2.4 CLIMATE AND METEOROLOGY 210
7.3 BIOLOGICAL ENVIRONMENT 211
7.3.1 FLORA 211
7.3.2 FAUNA 211
7.3.3 FLORA AND FAUNA OF SURFACE WATERS 214
7.4 SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND CULTURAL ENVIRONMENT 214
7.4.1 POPULATION 214
7.4.2 EDUCATION 215
7.4.3 HEALTH 215
7.4.4 LAND-USE 216
7.4.5 AGRICULTURE 216
7.4.6 EMPLOYMENT 216
7.4.7 CULTURAL PROPERTIES 217
7.5 WATER ENVIRONMENT ' 217
7.5.1 NAKKAVAGU BASIN 217
7.5.2 INDUSTRIAL POLLUTION IN NAKKAVAGU BASIN 218
7.5.3 SURFACE WATER 220
7.5.4 GROUNDWATER 223
7.6 ASSESSMENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS ON NAKKAVAGU BASIN
WITH AND WITHOUT INDUSTRIES 223
CHAPTER- VIII CONCLUSIONS AND MITIGATIONS
8.1 CONCLUSIONS 230
8.2 MITIGATIONS 232
REFERENCES 235

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I wish the deep sense of gratitude to Dr. K. Narender Reddy. Chairman. Board of
Studies. Department of Geology. Kakatiya University (K.U.), Warangal, for his
continued encouragement, guidance, and freedom during the progress of work.
It was a great pleasure to work under such a warm and ever helpful Guide.
I express thanks to Prof. V. Madhavan, Head, Department of Geology, K.U., Prof.
Padmanabha Rao, Dean, Faculty of Science, K.U. and Dr. K. Niranjan Kumar and
Dr. K. David, Asst. Professors, Dept. of Geology, K.U., for their co-operation
during the study.
I am very much thankful to Prof. K. Purushotham Reddy. Head, Department of
Political Science, O.U., for motivating me to work on environmental problems
and also for all the help rendered by him during the research work. I am
grateful to Late Shri V.R Reddy, Director, DDS. Hyderabad for getting me
involved in National Environmental Awareness Campaign (NEAC), and on other
various environmental issues, the participation helped me in understanding the
intricacies of the environment.
I express my deep sense of gratitude to Dr. S.D. Bhadrinath. Senior Deputy
Director (Retd.), NEERI, for his valuable suggestions and comments during the
final stages of the thesis. I express my thanks to Dr. U.V. Bhaskar Reddy, Dept.
of Geochemistry. O.U., for providing me with a statistical package (SYSTAT) and
for all the help during the work. Thanks to Dr. P. Venkat Reddy, Professor of
Zoology and Dr. V.S. Raju, Associate Professor of Botany, of K.U. for their helpful
discussion and comments on Biological Environment. Thanks are also to Dr.
Biksham G. Manager. Fresh Water. WWF (Geneva); Prof. Y. Anjaneyulu. JNTU,
Hyderabad; Dr. Nagi Reddy, Archaeology and Museums. Hyderabad; and Dr.
Kishan Rao of Patancheru, received their help at various stages of my thesis

x
work. With Shri. K. Ashok Reddy, Advocate. I had the pleasure of sharing and
learning the legal aspects of environmental issues for which I am grateful to
him.
1 am thankful to Dr. D.D. Basu. Senior Scientist. Dr. R.C. Trivedi. Senior Scientist
and Mr. N.S. Babu. Asst. Env. Engineer of CPCB, New Delhi, during the Impact
assessment and performance evaluation of Bollaram and Patancheru industrial
area (Jan 18-24. 1998). As part of the study team, in their company I could learn
and share several things on the environment. Thanks are also to Mr. Surendra
Raj, Senior Engineer. Mr. N. B. Ramesh, Scientist, Mr. Ramesh Chandra, Mr.
Prasad, Mr. Veeranna and other staff members of APPCB, with them, collected
the samples (August '97) and for all the information provided by them.
I am grateful to my friends Dr. Satish C. Jayanthi, Scientist, NRSA, Mr. G. Santosh
Reddy, Yegna Envirochem Labs, Mr. D. Narasimha Reddy, Center for Resource
Education and Mr. Navneeth Reddy for their valuable suggestions and criticism
during the final stages of writing the thesis.
I wish to say special thanks to my friends M. Prashanth (for his help throughout
the research work), and to D.V.M. Prabhakara Rao, Poorna, Sudhir, Kalyan,
Srisailam, Yugesh, Giridhar and Uma for all their help at various stages of my
research work.
I acknowledge the blessings of Prof. K. V. Subba Rao, Dept. of Earth Sciences,
IIT, Bombay. I am thankful to Jagga Reddy, Carmen, Vikram, and A.M. for their
best wishes and encouragement.
I express my love and thanks to those thousands of indigenous population who
are victims of environmental pollution, residing in Nakkavagu basin, as their
cause was my problem for the thesis. I also express my indebtedness to many

xi
of them unknown to me personally, who first spoke on reckless and
irresponsible poisoning of this fragile planet a home for millions of species
including man.
Without these friends, my work would have been difficult, thanks to Sashidhar
Reddy for getting me a good Computer, K. Venkateshwar Rao and Balram for
their excellent Xeroxing. Thanks to the staff of Kakatiya University, Venu, Rajitha,
Upender, Sarangapani, Ameer and Saraiah for all the help during the research
period.
Good and latest books are important especially when the subject is new, The
British Library. Hyderabad had been a great source for most of the literature on
Environmental Sciences, for which I am grateful to the management and staff of
The British Library.
I acknowledge C.S.LR, New Delhi, for all the financial assistance under JRF
(1995-97) and SRF (1997-99) and a contingency fund for research in Earth
Sciences.
Finally, I express my thanks to my parents who gave all the freedom in my life
and also for their support, encouragement and their belief in me. 1 am grateful
to my other family members Sisters, Brothers-in-law and Nieces (Dolly and
Bunny) for all the encouragement during my research work.
(N. Sai Bhaskar Reddy)
Date:18-02-1999

Abstract
1
ABSTRACT
Industrial activities including infrastructure and other associated developmental
activities, which are concentrated in certain zones especially to the south-
eastern quadrant of Nakkavagu basin. Consequently, physical, chemical and
biological nature of surface environment was altered. In this work it has been
tried to assess the impacts of such developmental activities on physical,
biological, socio-economic and cultural, and water environments in Nakkavagu
basin. Mainly based on the principles of Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA)
and broadly on Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA).
The Patancheru township and the main industrial area lies around 78 0
15’ East
longitude and 17 0
32’ North latitude in Medak District of Andhra Pradesh.
Patancheru industrial area in this context implies Patancheru, Bollaram,
Pashamylaram, Khazipalli, Gaddapotharam, Bonthapalli and Chitkul industrial
clusters, which are located in Nakkavagu basin. Nakkavagu basin extending
over 734 sq. kms, lies between the longitudes 78 deg. 05 min. and 78 deg. 25
min. East and the latitudes 17 deg. 25 min. and 17 deg. 45 min. North.
Nakkavagu (a stream) and its tributaries drain Nakkavagu basin. Nakkavagu
basin is the sub-basin of Manjira River basin, which in turn is the sub-basin of
Godavari River basin. Industrialisation in Patancheru area has devastated the
environment of Nakkavagu basin, which has about 300 industries. The present
work is an integrated and multidisciplinary approach towards assessing the
impact of water pollution and to some extent other kinds of pollution on
Nakkavagu basin.
Environmental impact may be defined as any changes of environmental
conditions or creation of a new set of environmental conditions, adverse or
beneficial, caused or induced by the action or set of actions under

Abstract
2
considerations. Environmental impacts can be of three types primary, secondary
and tertiary. Primary impacts are the result of direct actions and, secondary and
tertiary impacts are indirectly induced and typically include the associated
investment and changed patterns of social and economic activities by the
proposed action.
In the physical environment geology, topography, soils, climate and
meteorology, and air of a region influences the mobility, dispersion and
concentration of pollutants.
Granitic terrain of Nakkavagu basin being acidic in nature does not buffer the
acidic waters directly released by industries. Joints and fractures in the Granites
act as conduits for wider dispersion. Deep well disposal practice in Nakkavagu
basin is not recommendable. As Nakkavagu basin is located over hard rock area
(Peninsular granites and gneisses), effluents do not have any chance to
penetrate deep into the ground, and get restricted to shallow zones. With the
result, groundwater of the area gets polluted. It is possible that some of the
pollutants identified in water and soil samples are contributed by the geology
of the area.
Effluents flow all the way across the basin, which increases the residence time
for the toxicants; therefore, residence time of pollutants is more in the basin.
Slope of the basin is in the NW direction, while most of the industries are
located in the south-east quarter of the basin. The establishment of industries
and other ancillary structures have also resulted in change in the topography of
Nakkavagu basin.
The black cotton soils are polluted as they adsorb large amounts of hazardous
elements. Salt incrustations in the soils adjacent to Nakkavagu are common

Abstract
3
which effect the growth of flora. The mining of sand along Nakkavagu also
results in easy movement of pollutants further into new areas along Nakkavagu.
The high temperature conditions and evaporation rates resulted in increase of
concentration of the pollutants in the effluents. The problem of formation of
salt incrustations increases in areas with high temperature and less rainfall. And
also the residence time of pollutants would have been less in case of areas with
high rainfall, as the pollutants would be flushed out with the rainwater.
The gases such as methyl mercaptan released from industries in Nakkavagu
basin was detected recently in the heart of the city. This indicates that other
harmful gases also do reach the City, which would add up to the existing air
pollution problems. The use of several tonnes of volatile organic compounds
(VOCs) such as like Benzene, Toluene etc. are also hazardous to the people.
Pollution in the region had drastically reduced the incidence of natural species
and are restricted to few pockets. The species such as prosopis juliflora is seen
in more numbers in all the highly polluted parts of the basin. Pollution also
affected the agricultural sector in parts of Nakkavagu basin.
There is no appreciable wild fauna in the region, as the percentage of forest
cover is very less. Many domestic animals were effected by diseases and many
died this led to direct economic losses to the farmers. Appearance of birds,
resident and migratory, is decreasing drastically. Aerial fauna got effected the
most due to pollution of water bodies such as streams and tanks. Manjira wild
life sanctuary an ecologically sensitive area is well within 25 to 30 kms of the
industrial area.
The socio-economic and cultural environment of Nakkavagu basin would get
effected the most covered in Patancheru, R.C.Puram, Jinnaram and Sangareddy
Mandals. Patancheru is less developed in comparison to R.C.Puram because of

Abstract
4
water pollution and obnoxious smell. Female ratio per 1000 males is less for
Patancheru and other three Mandals as bachelors immigrated from elsewhere,
for working in the industries at the cost of local population.
The villages considered as highly affected are located close to the industrial
areas and the polluted streams, are Ismailkhanpet, Arutla, Chidruppa, Bythole,
Eardanoor, Indrakaran, Lakdaram, Chinnakanjerla, Peddakanjerla, Sultanpur,
Krishnareddipet, Indresham, Inole, Bachuguda, Chitkul, Isnapur, Kardanoor,
Muttangi, Pocharam, Khazipalli and Bollaram. The percentage of rural
population is around 80 in most of these villages, which means not many
people are taken in jobs in spite of industrialisation. Only around 20% of the
population is literate that reduces the job opportunities. Around 20% of the
population being below 6 years of age are sensitive to pollution. As literacy and
the educated local population is small in comparison to the large number of
educated people in a city like Hyderabad which is located in the suburbs, local
people are getting less employment opportunities.
Many of the polluted villages in Nakkavagu basin have no safe drinking water
and in some villages inadequate water supply is available. The domestic animals
such as cattle and sheep, upon drinking the polluted waters either got effected
or died. Moreover, the crops grown in such a polluted environment could be
phyto-toxic. Therefore, the polluted water, air and food would have an adverse
impact on the lives of people and other life in Nakkavagu basin. The present
Public Health Centers and Veterinary services provided by Government are
inadequate.
Increase in the fallow lands and less percentage of net sown area in Patancheru,
Sangareddy, Jinnaram and R.C.Puram Mandals can be related to the
developmental activities and the pollution of environment by industries. Many

Abstract
5
farmers have shifted to dryland farming where the surface and groundwater
sources are polluted. Some of the farmers are leaving their fields fallow even up
to 20% as in case of Pocharam and Bachuguda villages.
In the south-east and southern part of the basin the irrigated crops are yielding
low and or the whole crop dyeing due to pollution of tanks and wells. The
pollution of water and soil has an adverse impact on the majority of local
population still dependent on agriculture especially would affect the majority of
marginal farmers.
Industrialisation did not help the local people in getting alternative
employment opportunities because of the more competitive people in
Hyderabad. Therefore, there is a large-scale migration of `skilled’ people into
this region. As the residential areas are located towards Hyderabad away from
the industrial area because of polluted environment in Patancheru area and
other disadvantages of services. As a result, the indirect employment
opportunities are less therefore the multiplier economic benefits are also less.
The relicts of cultural and other heritage sites existing in and around
Patancheru area were neglected due to industrialisation. Innumerable ancient
sculptures, engravings etc., found in the region have been abandoned and are
never taken care of nor reported to the Archaeology department.
The drainage system of Nakkavagu was altered through many centuries by the
interference of human activities, like the construction of tanks and channels etc.,
and also with the recent developmental activities especially in the south-eastern
quadrant of the basin. The drainage system is altered and obstructed, therefore
these kinds of activities will act against the free flow of pollutants, and hence
the residence time of pollutants in the basin increases.

Abstract
6
The presence of tanks such as Isnapur tank, Peddacheruvu, Saka cheruvu,
Krishnareddipet tank etc., in the south and south-eastern part of the basin
which receives highly polluted water are acting as solar evaporation ponds
thereby increasing the residence time of the pollutants in the basin.
Majority of the industries located in Nakkavagu basin are the bulk-drug or
pharmaceutical industries. Some of the chemical compounds which are used as
raw material in the production of drugs are Acetone, Acetyl chloride, Ammonia,
Aniline, Benzene, Bromine, Chlorine, Chlorosulphonic acid, Dimethylcaromyl,
Dioxane, Ethylene dichloride, Formaldehyde, Hexane, Hydrochloric acid, Maleic
anhydride, Methylene chloride, Nitrobenzene, Nitrogen dioxide, Nitrogen
oxides, Phenol, Phenyl glycidal ether, Sodium cyanide, Sulphuric acid, Thionyl
chloride, Toluene, Triethylamine etc. The use of tonnes of such chemicals in the
production is hazardous. In a case study of 10 such industries on an average
about 4.3 times of hazardous raw material is utilised for every unit of the
product produced. These industries are using organic and inorganic hazardous
chemicals release of such chemicals during the process are hazardous to the life
in Nakkavagu basin.
The two CETPs, which were established in Patancheru and Bollaram, to treat the
effluents of member industries, are in fact became major contributors for water
pollution in Nakkavagu basin. The effluents released by CETP-Patancheru are
toxic and hazardous, as the effluents are only partially treated. The sludge that
is derived as waste product in the treatment process of both the CETPs has no
place for secure disposal, which is again a potential source for water
contamination. Therefore, CETPs which are industries by themselves are the
major contributors of water pollution in Nakkavagu basin.

Abstract
7
In general, the quality of effluents in Nakkavagu are deteriorating as observed
over a period of time. TDS, TH, TSS, COD, BOD, SO4, Pb, Hg, As and Se are
found to be high in the samples collected from Nakkavagu, Pamulavagu and
CETP. CETP is releasing the effluents with high concentration of all the above
parameters and including Cd, Zn, Cu, B, Mn, Cr and Fe. These waters are not fit
for releasing into the inland surface waters.
TDS, COD, and BOD of the effluents of Nakkavagu are only partially reduced
over a distance of about 22kms. As the chances of dilution in Nakkavagu is less
as the rainfall in this region is about 80cms only. Therefore, Nakkavagu mainly
acts as an influent stream, which contaminates the groundwater on either side
of the stream.
Leachets from solid waste dumps enter into Nakkavagu stream. Salts from salt
incrustations in the soil and or other precipitates would directly or indirectly
reach Nakkavagu. Some of the pollutants may enter Nakkavagu by accident or
illegal release of effluents from `solar evaporation ponds’. Nowhere and at no
time of the year Nakkavagu is fit for irrigation right from Kardanoor village to
the confluence point at Gaudcherla (about 25 kms stretch).
Groundwater is polluted on either side of the Nakkavagu and the waters are not
useful for drinking. TDS, COD, BOD, Cl, and Hg are found to be high in the
groundwater samples collected at Pocharam, Ganapathiguda and Bachuguda
villages. Openwells, which are close to Nakkavagu, are highly contaminated in
comparison to the borewells. The pollutants also entering into the drinking
water sources of the following villages: Baithole, Baithole Tanda, Lakdaram,
Sultanpur, Inole, Chitkul, Arutla, Chidruppa, Ismailkhanpet, Peddakanjerla,
Kardanoor, Eardanoor and Eardanoor Tanda. Some of the pollutants such as F,
Mn could have been partially entered into borewells through deep fractures
and also the pollutants such as NO2 and NO3 could have been the result of use

Abstract
8
of nitrogen fertilisers by farmers. Overall the groundwater is contaminated, up
to a distance of 500 to 1000 meters on either side of Nakkavagu, from
Kardanoor to Ismailkhanpet.
Evaluation of the impacts with and without industries is done finally choosing
36 parameters. Parameter importance weights (PIW) were given were given to
represent the value of importance of each environmental parameter. In the
absence of industries too there ought to be changes in the environment, mainly
because of four factors: The growing population in Nakkavagu basin and
associated developmental activities like housing, road networks and other
services. The modernisation of agriculture (increasing use of chemical pesticides
and fertilisers). Influence of growing Hyderabad City and the expansion of the
city along NH-9 axis. Impact of NH-9, pollution by vehicles, increase in number
of vehicles, etc.
The impact assessment studies of this area indicate that there is considerable
adverse impact on the environment. There is a two-fold increase when
compared to the ratios to ‘No industries’. When viewed for ‘No industries’ it
would have retained 80% of the environment unaffected. Whereas with
industries, it is observed that the loss to the environment is to the extent of
60%. The differences show that there is a limited advantage for human interest.
Finally, the results produced using this modified methodology is an exercise to
quantify the environmental degradation. The results should be viewed seriously
otherwise the basin would further becomes unsuitable for any kind of activities.

Introduction
9
INTRODUCTION
1.1 GENERAL
Water is an essential resource for the sustenance of life on earth. It is needed
for many human activities, including agriculture, domestic and industrial use,
transport and recreation. The pollution of water resources from industrial
sources is the point of concern. Earth is an eternal source of life-giving water
and therefore there is a need for protection of the water from pollution and
judicious use of the precious water resource.
The use of aquatic ecosystems as a sink for the effluvia of civilisation is by no
means new. Even in Greek mythology, one of the tasks of Hercules was to
cleanse the Augean stables within a single day. These stables contained a great
wealth of cattle and had never been cleansed. Hercules harnessed the River
Alpheus and ran it through the stables and washed them out quickly. Aristotle
noticed white filamentous threadlike organisms in polluted water 2,400 years
ago. We know these today as the sewage fungus complex. Imperial Rome in
Augustine times had a population over one million people. The high population
densities required some means of dealing with their domestic wastes; therefore
they developed very high degree of household water carriage system (Clapham
Jr. 1981). The classic example from Indian sub-continent is the sewerage system
developed about five thousand years ago, during the Harappa and Mohenjo-
Daro civilisations. These systems are prerequisite for the health and hygiene.
A concern for nature and natural resources and its management is not at all a
new concept for Indians. Admiration of nature and the urge to concern and
protect it has been part of our civilisation. India’s wealth of literature, scriptures
and folklore are replete with examples which show that our ancestors were
environmentally conscious and advocated concepts of sustained usage of
resources through many social customs, myths, taboos, traditions and religion.

Introduction
10
The rock edicts of emperor Asoka (273-232 BC) are probably the first ever
governmental directive towards environmental protection in recorded history.
But in spite of such an impressive beginning, the conservation movement in
India is less than two decades old. (Singh and Subramanian, 1990).
Until the Industrial Revolution population densities were low enough that the
traditional methods of composting, earth closets, and so on, were adequate to
solve most waste disposal problems. But so much waste was being generated in
industrial countries such as England by the eighteenth century that the old
methods simply could not keep up with the production. Garbage and
excrement accumulated in the streets, and industries that had grown up along
rivers to tap readily available power sources were dumping their by-products
into the same rivers. Early in the nineteenth-century sewers were introduced
into industrialised countries and quickly became the norm (Hynes, 1960; Tarr
and McMichael, 1977). The dumping of pollutants into the environment has
increased because of the intense industrial development to cater the demands
of the ever growing population.
The stress imposed upon the environment by civilisation becomes primarily
reflected in the water environment. The total water used per person is
increasing with the development of man. All uses of water result in an increase
of dissolved components, all used water, has to be disposed of somewhere, and
all disposed water reaches the existing water reservoirs, lakes, rivers,
groundwater and the ocean. Hence, and intrinsic part of water use is water
contamination, i.e. addition of components that were not there before (Mazor
E, 1991). Data on the behaviour of heavy metals and other inorganic and
organic pollutants in a water environment and their ultimate distribution is
important.

Introduction
11
Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) is a structured and useful planning tool
to identify and evaluate the potential impacts (beneficial and adverse) of
developmental projects on the environmental system. It is a useful aid for
decision making based on an understanding of the environmental implications
including social, cultural and aesthetic concerns which could be integrated with
analysis of the project costs and benefits (Harjit et al. 1994). The government of
India through a notification on Environment Impact Assessment gazetted in
January 1994. Environment Impact Assessment of certain identified activities
whether the public or private sector has been made a statutory requirement.
Impact assessment originated with a desire for strong change in both
philosophy and the methodology of resource management. It is assumed that a
systematic, focussed, interdisciplinary use of science may improve the quality of
planning and decision-making (Caldwell, 1988). Environmental Impact
Assessment methodology is selected for the research work to assess the
multidimensional impacts of industrial pollutants especially from the effluents
released into Nakkavagu basin.
Water interacts with all other components of the ecosystem, i.e., geology, soils,
weather and climate, flora, and fauna. The pollution of water causes impact not
only on the above but also on the socio-economic and cultural environment.
Industries cause pollution of natural resources, through the indiscriminate
release of effluents. In one such case, effluents released by industries into the
environment in Nakkavagu basin devastated the environment of the basin.
Industrialisation had an adverse impact on the lives of people in Nakkavagu
basin.
Nakkavagu is a tributary of Manjira River, which drains the water of highly
industrialised zone of Patancheru area. The Manjira River finally joins with the
river Godavari.

Introduction
12
1.2 LOCATION AND EXTENT OF THE AREA
Patancheru the town and one of the main industrial areas is located 30 kms to
the north-west of Hyderabad, Capital City of Andhra Pradesh, on National
Highway No. 9 (NH-9). It lies around 78 0 15’ East longitude and 17 0 32’ North
latitude and it is part of Medak District in Andhra Pradesh. Patancheru industrial
area in this context implies Patancheru, Bollaram, Pashamylaram, Khazipalli,
Gaddapotharam, Bonthapalli and Chitkul industrial clusters, which are located in
and around Patancheru town and in Nakkavagu basin. Nakkavagu basin lies
between the longitudes 78 deg. 5 min. and 78 deg 25 min East and the
latitudes 17 deg 25 min and 17 deg 45 min North. The basin extends over 734
sq. kms area (Figure 1.1 (a) and 1.1 (b)). Nakkavagu basin is covered in
Patancheru, Ramachandrapuram, Jinnaram and Sangareddy Mandals of Medak
District and to a lesser extent in Rangareddy District (Figure 1.2), and found in
‘Survey of India’, toposheet numbers – 56K/2, 56K/3, 56K/6 and 56K/7.
Patancheru is easily accessible as it is located on one of the busy National
Highway’s (NH-9) and many bus services are available from Hyderabad and
Secunderabad.
1.3 INDUSTRIAL SCENARIO IN MEDAK DISTRICT
Andhra Pradesh with 173 most polluting industries stood fourth in India after,
Maharashtra (335), Uttar Pradesh (224) and Gujarat (177) (CII, 1996). In India
maximum amount of pollution comes from pharmaceutical and sugar
industries, Andhra Pradesh is the leading state in India in the production of
pharmaceutical products and majority of them are located in Medak District.
Medak District is one of the most industrialised districts in the country and has
the largest number of industries in the State (Figure 1.3 (a) and 1.3 (b)). The
type of industries includes bulk drugs, pesticides, pharmaceutical, plastics,
ceramics, boilers, industrial alloys, industrial chemicals, electronic goods and

Introduction
13
computers. There are 3905 small-scale industries and about 192 medium to
large-scale industries in the District (Chandra, 1997). Within the District,
Patancheru Mandal is having a maximum number of industries.
In Medak District, under the scheme of encouraging industries in backward
districts, Central Government gave 20% concession to units on electricity bills
and allowed changing their sales tax dues into loans. These were made interest
free for 10 years. This facility continued until December 1989. State Government
also introduced subsidies for promoting industries in the District. The Andhra
Pradesh Industrial Infrastructure Corporation (APIIC) had set up industrial
estates at Bonthapally, Bollaram and Patancheru.
Patancheru industrial area which includes Patancheru, Bollaram, Pashamylaram,
Khazipalli, Gaddapotharam, Bonthapalli and Chitkul industrial clusters, the
changes in physicochemical and biological properties of water brought about
by the release of effluents by those industries resulted in pollution of the water
environment. There are about 118 industries in Patancheru IDA and 110
industries in Bollaram IDA, which are working presently, in addition to other
satellite industries in Nakkavagu basin. There are two Common Effluent
Treatment Plants (CETPs) located in Nakkavagu basin at Patancheru and
Bollaram. The pollution in Nakkavagu basin is the sum result of the direct or
indirect contribution of all the industries located in Nakkavagu basin.
Among the industrial areas, one of the most important industrial areas in
Medak District is Patancheru Industrial Development Area (IDA). Starting from
Ramachandrapuram village boundary, opposite to International Crop Research
Institute for Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT), Patancheru industrial area spreads
over a vast stretch of land in and around Patancheru. Measuring about 56.176
acres, this industrial area is divided into 576 plots and was developed in five
phases. Many of the polluting industries are in the Phases I, II, and IV. Phases III

Introduction
14
and V house only non-polluting small-scale engineering industries. Now there
are about 300 industries in Patancheru and its surrounding Mandals
(Ramachandrapuram (R.C.Puram), Jinnaram and Sangareddy). Patancheru
industrial area development and related issues are given in Table 1.1.
Table 1.1 Landmark events of industrial development and related issues in
Patancheru.
1962 – Industrialisation started in Patancheru.
1974 – Creation of Andhra Pradesh Industrial Infrastructure Corporation
(APIIC).
1975 – Patancheru industrial estate established.
1976 – Acceleration of the growth of the industries.
1980 – Indira Gandhi wins MP seat from Medak constituency and became
Prime Minister, encouraged the industrial development in this
constituency (Patancheru, Ramachandrapuram, Narsapur,
Gummadidala and Sadashivapet.)
1983-84 – The impact of pollution on the local residents noticed, as reported
largely in press.
1986 – An incident led to agitation against industrial pollution – A 75-
year-old man’s legs got burnt when he accidentally stepped into
the chemicals dumped along the roadside. The subsequent
incidents are: On 10th June and 16th July – people protested
through hunger strikes, on 16th of August- A Public rally was
organised - for seeking immediate redress of the grievance, on
21st August-road blocking or ‘Rasta Roko’ was organised at
Patancheru on NH-9 to highlight the gravity of the problem of
pollution – State cabinet passed a resolution to alleviate the
problem of farmers.

Introduction
15
1987 – 12th September- another road blocking or ‘Rasta Roko’ agitation
took place in which 10,000 farmers participated to protest against
pollution by industries in Patancheru.
1991 – National Environmental Engineering Research Institute (NEERI)
submitted a report to Supreme Court and recommended about
32.2 crores as compensation to the suffering farmers.
1993 – ‘Scientific evaluation of pollution around Patancheru and Bollaram
industrial areas’, a report published by DDS (an NGO), Hyderabad.
1994 – Common Effluent Treatment Plant (CETP), started functioning.
1996 – State government declares a ban on new industries in the region.
1998 – ‘Effluent Management in Nakkavagu drainage Basin’, CPCB, report
on pollution.

Introduction
16
Photo1.1: Polluted waters of Nakkavagu at N.H.9, Bridge near Patancheru
Photo1.2: Discussions with Villagers of Ganapathiguda

Introduction
17
Figure 1.1 Location Map of Nakkavagu Basin

Introduction
19
Figure 1.3 Political and Culture map of Nakkavagu basin and its surroundings

Introduction
20
Figure 1.4 Industrial Map of Medak District, A.P.

Introduction
22
1.4 BACKGROUND
Environmental problems in the area forced the Government, Non-
Governmental Institutions, and individuals to carry out studies on various
aspects of pollution for the past more than two decades. Many articles were
published in various newspapers and non-scientific magazines till now. As per
the directions of the judiciary, some reports were produced and submitted from
time to time, based on cases filed for relief from environmental pollution by
farmers and environmental action groups. Some of the most important studies
are discussed below.
National Environmental Engineering Research Institute (NEERI), Nagpur,
prepared a report titled - ‘Report on Environmental Pollution caused by
Patancheru and Bollaram industrial estates in nearby villages of Medak District,
Andhra Pradesh’, (1991), based on studies and observations of five scientists.
This report concentrated mainly on human health and mortality, and their
economic losses due to crop failures and death of domestic animals (cattle,
sheep, etc.,) due to industrial pollution (NEERI report, 1991).
‘Scientific evaluation of pollution around Patancheru and Bollaram industrial
areas’, Medak District, Andhra Pradesh (Biksham, Shiva Kumar and Mohan
Reddy, Deccan Development Society (DDS) report, 1993). This report covered
all the major and traced elemental concentrations in the water environment of
parts of Nakkavagu basin. Data evaluation is done using statistical techniques;
the mobility of elements in the hydrogeological system is presented in contour
diagrams. It also covered the social aspects.
Honourable Mr. Justice J. Jeevan Reddy, while disposing of writ petitions,
appointed a Committee of Experts comprising, Prof. O.S. Reddy, Retired
Professor, Osmania University, Shri P. Ramayya Naidu, Retired Chief Engineer

Introduction
23
(PH) and former Member Secretary, APPCB, and Prof. N. Sreeramulu of JNTU.
They have visited fifteen industries in Patancheru to verify whether the modified
directions given by the Government of Andhra Pradesh are complied with or
not in respect of each of them (O.S.Reddy Committee report, 1990).
Report of Shri D. Appa Rao, District Judge, Medak at Sangareddy, Andhra
Pradesh, submitted a report to the Supreme Court of India pursuant to the
direction in I.A.2 in WP (Civil) no. 1056 of 1990 (Appa Rao D. report, 1996).
Sri P. Lakshma Reddy, District Judge, Medak District, at Sangareddy, submitted
a report to the Supreme Court of India (Lakshma Reddy report, 1996).
A group of scientists from CPCB prepared a comprehensive report on effluent
management in Nakkavagu drainage basin in four phases and submitted it to
the Supreme Court of India (CPCB report, 1998).
It is reported that some of the industries mainly release arsenic through their
untreated industrial effluents at Common Effluent Treatment Plant. The
discharge from CETP shows very high values of Arsenic, which is directly
released in Peddavagu (Isukavagu), joining the Nakkavagu, and finally, meets
Manjira River. (Govil et al 1998).
1.5 SCOPE OF THE PROBLEM
Patancheru industrial area in this context is defined as all those industries
located in Nakkavagu basin covering mainly Patancheru and other Mandals
(R.C.Puram, Jinnaram, and Sangareddy), that are letting their effluents directly
or indirectly into the Nakkavagu basin. Present research work mainly assesses
the impact of polluted waters from industries on Nakkavagu basin area, based
on Environmental Impact Assessment studies of the polluted waters of
Patancheru industrial area (Figure 1.4).

Introduction
24
This research work is predominantly based on the principles of Environmental
Impact Assessment (EIA) and to some extent confirms to the broad principles of
Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA).
The present environmental situation is the result of the activity of existing
industries and also of those that were closed. Studies of some of the industries
were considered which use the hazardous raw material in the production, as it
is not possible to evaluate the impact of pollution caused by each industry.
All the existing parameters to assess environmental impact, physical, biological,
socio-economic and cultural and water environments were considered for the
Nakkavagu basin area, which gives an insight into the present carrying capacity
of Nakkavagu basin (i.e. the sustainable development of the region). The
present research work is an integrated approach to assess the impact of water
pollution and to some extent other kinds of pollution on Nakkavagu basin.

Introduction
25
Figure 1.6 Industrial Development in Nakkavagu basin and integrated view of
research

Introduction
26
This kind of assessment might help in taking a decision for further
industrialisation, or closure of some of the most polluting industries, to curtail
the further deterioration of the Nakkavagu basin environment.
1.6 METHODOLOGY
Research work was done between August 1995 and August 1998, covering
various parts of Nakkavagu basin. This study included literature survey,
reconnaissance survey, secondary data collection, informal discussions, and
fieldwork, involving geology, soils, tanks and bio-diversity, and collection of
water samples for analysis, and interpretation.
Physical, chemical and biological nature of the environment was assessed
through primary and secondary sources of information. It includes water
sample collection during Pre-Monsoon or Summer (S-Data), Monsoon or Rainy
(R-Data) and Post-Monsoon or Winter (W-Data) periods for studying various
aspects of chemical pollution in surface and groundwater samples
The sample locations were selected in three phases according to their
importance. These selected locations are useful in the characterisation of the
surface water and groundwater pollution of Nakkavagu basin. Among the
sample locations selected in three phases except for few locations, all other
locations are discrete.
A reconnaissance survey was followed by extensive and intensive fieldwork.
During the fieldwork, water samples were collected from Nakkavagu and its
tributaries and dug wells and borewells. General water quality parameters are
analysed as per the standards of American Public Health Association (APHA),
American Water Works Association (AWWA) and American Pollution Control
Federation (APCF). Trace metals are estimated by ICP-MS (Jopiom Yvon 24
(JY24) model) using 18mega-ohm conductance water as an internal standard.

Introduction
27
The fieldwork includes the study of streams and tanks, and their ecology,
geology, soils, and topography of the basin, including cropping pattern and
bio-diversity of the region.
The primary and secondary water sample analysis data is subjected to
multivariate data analysis was processed using the software ‘SYSTAT for
Windows, 1995’. Basic statistical data such as minimum value, maximum value,
range, median, mean and standard deviation, etc. were also generated using
the same software.
A Pearson correlation of zero indicates that neither of two variables can be
predicted from the other by using a linear equation. A Pearson correlation of
+1 indicates that one variable can be predicted perfectly by a positive linear
function of sample analysis data, between the sample cases gives the
relationship between the sample locations with a similar degree of pollution
and the dendrogram between the elements gives a degree of association of
elements in their occurrence. Factor analysis provides principal component
analysis (maximum likelihood and iterand principal axis). Factor analysis data
includes Eigen values, Component loadings, Variance explained by components
and Percentage of total Variance. The analysis data between factors is
presented in Factor Loadings Plot and between Number of Factors and
Eigenvalue is presented as Scree Plot. Factor analysis helps in identifying the
groups of elements from common sources.
To characterise the pollution of Nakkavagu basin, primary and secondary data
is used. Sample analysis data pertaining to summer, rainy and winter seasons
are utilised. In the month of May, seventeen samples were collected from
Nakkavagu stream, Pamulavagu Isukavagu, dug well, bore wells, and effluents
of Common Effluent Treatment Plant (CETP). A total of nineteen samples were

Introduction
28
collected in August, 1997, with the team of Andhra Pradesh Pollution Control
Board, from Nakkavagu, Manjira River, Nizamsagar, Godavari River and other
three tanks. Analysis of data from nineteen samples presented subsequently in
the report is used for rainy season period. Analysis of water samples from tanks,
Nakkavagu and Isukavagu streams and Manjira River, and flow studies of
Nakkavagu and quality of water in tanks was done during January 1998. This
study was done with Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) team, New Delhi.
Data generated by the study, which was included in the report ‘Effluent
Management in Nakkavagu Drainage Basin’, (CPCB, 1998), was considered for
the winter period.
For a comprehensive evaluation of pollution in Nakkavagu basin, other primary
data was also considered. Data of Panchayat Raj Internal Water Quality
Monitoring Laboratory, Uppal, Hyderabad, of forty-one groundwater samples
collected in 1991, and of about twenty-six groundwater samples collected by
Andhra Pradesh Pollution Control Board (APPCB) in the year 1991. Although the
data is seven years old, the analysis data of groundwater samples was
considered because of their extensive coverage of the Nakkavagu basin area
that helps in identifying the movement of pollutants in the ground. All the data
is subjected to environmental data analysis. Secondary information from the
recent works and papers published on Nakkavagu basin area is also considered.
The following types of methods have been used to perform the tasks of impact
identification and summarisation:
Descriptive methods have been used based on the facts and information
collected during discussions with local people and from secondary sources.

Introduction
29
To explain the complex nature of the pollutants and the relations between
various factors simple and three-dimensional figures are used. The data is
processed, simplified and presented in appropriate graphs.
Network diagrams are also used which link secondary and tertiary impacts to
primary impacts; networks are directional diagrams designed to trace in two
dimensions the higher-order linkages between project actions and
environmental factors.
Finally, checklist developed by the Environmental Evaluation System (EES) at the
Batelle Columbus Laboratories, USA (Dee et al, 1973) is used with some
modifications, for final evaluation of impacts with and without industries. In this
assessment, 36 parameters are selected (Figure 1.5). Parameter importance
weights (PIW) represent the value of importance of each environmental
parameter. The weights have been given to the 36 environmental parameters
based on the degree of the impact caused by the establishment of industries
and associated developmental activities over the last 40 years (industrialisation
started in Nakkavagu basin about 40 years back). Similarly, the weights were
given assessing the degree of alteration of environmental parameters that
would have happened over the last 40 years, even without industries in
Nakkavagu basin.

Introduction
30
Figure 1.7 Assigned weights for environmental parameters

Introduction
31
Parameter importance weights (PIW) are given to each of the 36 selected
parameters. The total weight of the parameters is assumed as 1000 points. They
are broadly classified into four categories namely, Ecology, Environmental
Pollution, Aesthetics and Human interest. The weights are initially distributed to
the four basic parameters, according to their importance. Most important -
environmental pollution is given a value of 1 and next Human interest and
Ecology are considered as half-important in comparison to environmental
pollution so they take the value 0.5 each. Aesthetics are considered as only
one-fourth important, that as compared to environmental pollution, therefore
aesthetics takes the value of 0.25. Total weight being 1000 points; accordingly,
they take values as such 444.44, 222.22, 222.22 and 111.11. The values are
rounded to 450, 250, 200 and 100. Human interest is considered more
important than ecology, so human interest is rounded to a higher value (250)
and so the ecology to a lower value (200). These weights are distributed to the
parameters under each sub-class as per personal judgement and upon similar
lines as above, depending upon their importance.

Physical Environment
32
PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT
2.1 INTRODUCTION
This chapter is aimed to study the impact of pollution by the industries in and
around Patancheru upon the physical environment of Nakkavagu basin. The
physical environment plays a major role in the mobilisation, dispersion, dilution
or concentration of the pollutants in the environment. Physical environment
studies help in understanding the present status of pollution and also the
carrying capacities of the study area on pollution. The geology, topography,
drainage basin, water bodies, soils, climate, meteorology and air quality are the
parameters considered in this chapter for describing the physical environment
of Nakkavagu basin.
2.2 GEOLOGY
The geology of the area plays a major role in the mobility and concentration of
pollutants released into the environment. The composition and the type of
rocks (Igneous or Sedimentary or Metamorphic) and the structures in them
such as joints, fractures, fissures, etc. are important in understanding the
behaviour of pollutants.
In the Nakkavagu basin and the surrounding areas, the Archaean Peninsular
granites and gneisses form the basement, which is overlaid by the Deccan
basalt, is the basic geology of the area (Table 2.1).

33
Table 2.1 The Geological Succession
Age Description
1
2
3
Sub-recent to recent
Upper Cretaceous to
Lower Eocene
Archaean
Alluvium, Colluvium, Laterites and Basalts.
Deccan Traps, Laterites, and Basalts.
Peninsular Gneissic Complex, diorite, coarse-
grained granite with dolerite dyke intrusions.
The grey and pink granite outcrops are seen around Patancheru, on the western
and south-western parts, they are overlaid by isolated cappings of basalt and
laterite. Dyke outcrops are not seen along the Nakkavagu stream, although
dolerite dykes and quartz veins are observed in adjacent areas, because of thick
alluvium deposited along the stream. The flood plains of the streams are
occupied by recent and older alluvium, mainly consisting of sand silt and clay in
different proportions and thickness varying from 25 to 30 feet. The lateral
extent of alluvium along Nakkavagu is about 250 to 500 meters. Alluvium is
mainly found along Nakkavagu near these villages; they are Pocharam,
Ganapathigudem, Bachuguda, Arutla, Peddakanjerla and Inole. Black cotton
soils derived from the basalt occupy the lower reaches, mainly to the western
and north-western parts of Patancheru. The percentage of outcrop exposure is
less around Patancheru and at higher contour levels granite outcrops are
exposed in the form of kopjes, tors and sheet rocks.
The outcrops are largely exposed to the north-western parts of Patancheru
which are studied in detail by Sarvotham and Leelanandam (1987), reveals the
nature of Peninsular granite and gneisses and other lithological units. The
Peninsular granites and gneisses studied in this region is classified as
granodiorite, granite, adamellite (quartz-monzonite), monzodiorite and alkali
feldspar granite, which are emplaced as discrete plutons; they form part of a
composite batholith and contain inclusions of tonalite quartz-diorite and

34
amphibolite. Alkali feldspar granite intrudes and truncates all the above litho-
units, and represents the youngest of the granitic emplacements. A swarm of
dolerite and gabbro dykes intruding into the granites and gneisses. At least two
sets of dykes are discernable; one set is pre-alkali feldspar granite and the other
of post- alkali feldspar granite ages. The older set of dykes are metamorphosed
and intruded by alkali feldspar granite veins, while the younger dykes are
unaffected. (Sarvotham and Leelanandam, 1987). Petrographic and
petrochemical studies indicate that the Medak area (along with the adjoining
terrain) is dominated by potassic granites, (Bhaskar Rao et al., 1983; Naqvi et al.,
1983).
The structures have a control on the local topography and hydrogeology of the
area. Fractures and joints in granites are responsible for the formation of
massive boulders and other geomorphic structures such as tors. The width of
the joints varies, at places, they are 1 to 2 meters wide. The joints filled with the
weathered material are important, as they are good aquifers. These granitoids
show a prominent two to three sets of joints in NNW-SSE, N-S, and NE-SW
directions. The lineaments of the region are in NNE-SSW, NE-SW, and NW-SE
directions mainly and very few are in E-W and N-S directions, which are
represented by the flow of streams and the dykes and shear zones. The quartz
reefs have the trend of NNE-SSW, NE-SW, N-S and a few are in the E-W
directions. Dolerite dykes are emplaced in the trend of NW-SE, NE-SW, E-W and
N-S. Gabbro intrusions show the trend of NE-SW and E-W. Pyroxenes have the
trend of - NNE-SSW and NE-SW.

35
Photo2.1: Granite outcrops in Nakkavagu stream-bed near Bachuguda
Photo2.2: Recent sand and gravel deposited along the banks of Nakkavagu
near Bachuguda
Photo2.3: Black cotton soil on the floodplain of Nakkavagu near Chitkul
Showing typical wedge-like cracks

36
2.3 TOPOGRAPHY
The topography of an area also influences the drainage system and the
groundwater movement. The Nakkavagu basin forms a peneplain surface of the
ancient Deccan Peninsula that had undergone several cycles of erosion,
deposition, and upliftment. Sporadic granitic tors, kopjes, and sheets of bedrock
are seen in the region. The lands are rolling plains interspersed with stony
wastes and open scrubs. Isukavagu, Pamulavagu and Nakkavagu mainly drain
the basin. The slope is from east to west up to Nakkavagu and it is south to
north and north-west up to Manjira river. The land has a slope of 0.5
percentage. The relief of the basin is about 140 meters. The lowest contour is
500 meters above mean sea level (msl) lies near Gaudcherla at the confluence
point with Manjira River. The highest contour passing through the Nakkavagu
basin is 640 meters above mean sea level. The highest point 648 meters above
mean sea level lies to the North of Gumadidala village, located to the eastern
part of Nakkavagu basin.
2.4 SOILS
Table 2.2 The soils (Source: EIA report on the proposed Thermal power
plant by National Thermal Power Corporation (NTPC) at Shankarpalli, M/s
Kirloskar Consultants Limited, Pune, 1996-97)
S.No. Type of series Description
1 Lingampalli
series
Soils are members of fine loamy mixed inohyperthermic
family of Lithic Rhodustalfs.
Typifying Pedon: Lingampally sandy loam-cultivated.
Setting: Occurs on gently undulating gneiss pediments in the
region of domes and tors.
Drainage: well drained with moderately rapid permeability.
Use and Vegetation: Cultivated to sorghum.
Distribution: extensive soil.

37
2 Manmool series Soils are of fine, mixed isoperthermic family of fluventic
Ustropepts.
Typifying pedon: Manmool sand clay-cultivated.
Setting: Occurs on low lands covered with weathered basalt.
Drainage: Poorly drained with poor to very.
Permeability: Poor permeability.
Use and Vegetation: mainly cultivated to rice.
Distribution and extent: Limited in extent.
3 Patancheru
series
Soils are members of clayey-skeletal, mixed, isohyperthermic
family of Udic Rhodustalfs.
Typifying pedon: Patancheru sandy loams culturable fallow.
Setting: Occurs on gently sloping pediment of coarse-grained
granite-gneiss basement complex.
Drainage: Well drained.
Permeability: Moderate.
Use and Vegetation: Mainly cultivated to sorghum and
pulses.
Distribution: Extensive soil.
4. Rudravaram
series
Soils are members of fine-loamy, mixed, inohyperthermic
family of udic ustropepts.
Typifying pedon: Rudravaram sandy clay-cultivated.
Setting: Low-lying level to very gently sloping pediment
covered by Basaltic outwash.
Drainage: Moderately well drained.
Permeability: Moderate.
Use and Vegetation: Mainly cultivated to rice.
Distribution: Extensive soil.

38
5 Lakdaram series Soils are members of fine loamy mixed, isohyperthermic
family of Udic Haplustafts.
Typifying pedon: Lakdaram sandy clay loam-cultivated.
Setting Occurs on the granite-gneiss complex.
Permeability: moderate permeability.
Use and Vegetation: Mainly cultivated to sorghum and
sunflower - natural vegetation.
Distribution: Limited in extent.
6 Jolkal series Soils are members of very fine, montmorillonite,
isohyperthermic family of typic Chromusterts.
Typifying pedon: Jolkal silty clay-cultivated.
Setting: Occurs on the lower basalt pediment in conjunction
with gently sloping weathered granite gneiss basement
complex.
Permeability: Slow permeability.
7 Isnapuram
series
Soils are members of the fine-loamy, mixed, isohyperthermic
family of udic Rhodustalfs.
Typifying pedon: Isnapuram sand-cultivated.
Setting: Occurs on gently sloping pediment of granite-gneiss
basement complex.
Drainage: Well-drained
Permeability: Moderate
Use & Vegetation: Mainly cultivated to sorghum and pulses.
Distribution: Extensive soil
8 Icri series Soils are members of the fine, montmorillonite,
isohyperthermic family of paralithic Vertic Ustropepts.
Typifying pedon: Icri gravelly clay – grassland.
Setting: Occurs on weathered basalt over granite-gneiss
pediment surface.
Drainage: Moderately well drained
Permeability: Slow permeability.
Use and Vegetation: Grassland

39
9 Kasireddipalli
series
Soils are members of very fine, montmorillonitic,
isohyperthermic family of Typic Pellusterts.
Typifying pedon: Kashireddipalli clay-cultivated fallow.
Setting: Occurs in valleys and troughs.
Drainage: Moderately to imperfectly drained.
Permeability: Slow to very slow permeability.
Use and Vegetation: Cultivated to chickpea, pigeonpea,
sorghum and sunflower, natural vegetation.
Distribution and extent: Extensive soil.
10 Yamakunta
series
Soils are members of fine, montmorillonitic, isohyperthermic
family of Vertic Halaquepta.
Typifying pedon: Yamakunta clay fallow.
Setting: Occurs in filled valley.
Drainage: Imperfectly drained.
Permeability: Very slow permeability.
Use and Vegetation: Lying fallow due to frequent inundation,
strong salinity, and alkalinity.
11 Singapur series Soils are members of fine, montmorillionitic, isohyperthermic
family of paralithic Vertic Ustropepts.
Typifying pedon: Singapur clay-cultivated.
Setting: Occurs on nearly level basalt plateau and basalt
pediment.
Permeability: Moderate permeability.
Use and vegetation: Mainly cultivated to pulses, sorghum and
sunflower.

40
12 Shankarpalli
series
Soils are members of fine-loamy, mixed, isohyperthermic
family of Udic Ustrothents.
Typifying pedon: Shankarpalli clay-cultivated.
Setting: Occurs on very gently sloping plateau and basalt
pediment.
Permeability: Moderately slow permeability.
Use and Vegetation: mainly cultivated to pulses.
13 Pamulavagu
series
Soils are members of mixed, isohyperthermic family of typic
ustipsamments.
Typifying Pedon: Pamulavagu sand-fallow
Setting: Floodplain
Drainage: Extensively well drained
Permeability: Rapid
Use and Vegetation: Fallow land with local grasses.
Distribution: Narrow patches along stream.
14 Nakkavagu
series
Soils are members of coarse-loamy, mined, isohyperthermic
family of typic Ucstifluvents.
Typifying pedon: Nakkavagu gravelly sand-fallow
Setting: Floodplain
Drainage: Well-drained
Permeability: Moderately and Moderately Permeability
Use & Vegetation: Fallow land with local grasses.
Distribution & extent: Narrow patches along stream.
Source: ICRISAT, Medak District.
To sum up, Nakkavagu basin has rich, diverse and fertile soils (Figure 2.2 and
Table 2.2). The black soils comprising of clay loam’s, clays and silty clays are
found in the low-lying areas and along river-banks. Alluvial black cotton soils
are found along most stream flood plains, while secondary black cotton soils
are present in the upland areas in basaltic terrain. The upland areas mainly
comprise of red soils, loamy sands, and sandy clay loams. The soils in
Sangareddy, Patancheru and Ramachandrapuram mandals of Medak mainly

41
comprises of clayey loams, clays, and silty clay. They are moderate to well
drained and are suitable for cultivation by irrigation.
Black cotton soils are locally known as ‘Regadi matti’. These types of soils
develop deep wedge-shaped open cracks, helps in tapping the atmospheric
nitrogen too. They have the moisture retaining capacity and are best suitable
for dry land farming. Black cotton soils are inherently more fertile then red soils.
Black soils are slightly saline to alkaline, whereas red soils are neutral. Black
cotton soils are suitable for crops like cotton, rice, sugarcane, and other Kharif
and Rabi crops. Red soils are suitable for horticultural crops. Alluvium is mainly
suitable for paddy.

42
Figure 2.1 Soils and Geology of Nakkavagu Basin and its Surroundings

43
Salts dissolved and deposited in the valleys will increase soluble salt content in
the soils in low-lying areas. Soils are slightly calcareous in areas immediately
adjacent to Nakkavagu and more calcareous in the upper reaches of the soil
profile, forming salt incrustations. Saline soils lead to relatively poor
germination and leads to physiological drought, thereby effecting the growth
of the plants. The industrial effluents caused phytotoxicity to the crops and also
total crop failures. The analysis data of the soils along Nakkavagu are presented
in Table 2.3.
Table 2.3 Soil analysis of the fields along Nakkavagu area.
S.No. Village Survey
No.
pH EC Organic
Carbon
Available
P205
Available K20
micromhos /
cm
Kgs / hect. Kgs / hect.
1 Bachuguda 265 8.24 0.13 low 6 314
2 Bachuguda 113 8.34 0.14 low 3 258
3 Inole 318 7.8 0.11 low 1 272
4 Pedda Kanjerla 403 7.75 5.2 high 4 >336
5 Pedda Kanjerla 403 8 6.5 high 4 >336
8 Inole 109 7.7 2.14 high 1 >336
9 Ganapathiguda 109 7.7 7.34 medium 14 >336
10 Ganapathiguda 109 7.6 4.78 high 13 >336
11 Chitkul 8.35 0.16 medium 5 >336
12 Baithole 202 8.2 2.25 low 6 >336
13 Chidruppa 449 8.5 0.41 medium 1 >336
14 Arutla 278 8.1 0.3 medium 5 >336
Source: Agriculture department, Sangareddy (1989).

44
Photo 2.4: Salt incrustation as seen in soil profile near Bachuguda
Photo 2.5: Patch of salt incrustation in soil along the banks of Nakkavagu near
Bachuguda

45
Ranges of soil reaction to pH
S.No. Rating Light soils Heavy soils
1 Acidic Up to 6.00 Up to 6.00
2 Normal above 6 to 7.6 6 to 7.6
3 Weakly alkaline 7.7 to 8 7.7 to 8.5
4 Tending to become Alkaline above 8 to 8.5 8.5 to 9
5 Alkali more than 8.5 more than 9
Ranges of soil reaction to Electrical Conductivity (in micromhos / cm)
S.No Rating Sandy Loamy Clayey
1 Normal up to 1 up to 1.5 up to 2.00
2 Critical for germination above 1 to 2 above 1.5 to 8 above 2 to 4
3 Critical for growth
of salt sensitive crops
above 2
to 3
above 3
to 4.5
above 4
to 6
4 Injurious to most crops above 3 above 4.5 above 6
2.5 CLIMATE AND METEOROLOGY
The meteorological data is important in interpreting the air quality and
dispersion pattern of pollution. Analysis of recorded historical meteorological
data is important in predicting the likely climatic scenario of the region. The
climate of the region is broadly divided into four seasons.
 Pre-monsoon season: March to Mid of June
 Monsoon season: Mid of June to end of September
 Post-monsoon season: October to Mid December
 Winter season: Mid of December to end of February
The data is obtained from the Indian Meteorological Department (IMD), a
meteorological station located at Begumpet 25 kilometers to the east of
Patancheru. It is equipped to observe Pressure, Temperature, relative humidity,
rainfall, evaporation, wind speed and direction, duration of cloud cover, etc. It is

46
in operation since 1891. The synthesized data is about the period between 1985
and 1994. Rainfall data, for the study area, was collected from local recording
stations at Patancheru, Jinnaram and Ramachandrapuram Mandals, rainfall and
temperature data of Sangareddy Mandal was also collected.
2.5.1 Temperature
Temperature conditions of the region has an influence on the movement of air,
precipitation, formation of fog, evaporation rate, atmospheric pressure, etc.,
therefore temperature influences directly or indirectly the dispersion,
concentration or dilution of pollutants released into the environment.
The data presented was recorded at Indian Meteorological Department (IMD)
at Hyderabad, this is the nearest meteorological recording station. January is
the coldest season with the mean daily minimum temperature at 10.3 0
C.
Between March and May is the hottest season with increasing day and night
temperatures till the onset of Monsoon. The highest pre-monsoon (May) mean
maximum temperature is observed at 43.9 0
C and mean minimum temperature
observed is 20.3 0
C. Onset of monsoon results in sudden drop in mean
maximum temperature, for June it is 39.9 0
C. During post-monsoon season
there is slight increase in mean maximum temperature and it is 36.3 0
C in
October. The climate appears enervating during the daytime, with relative
moisture being high. An appreciable drop in minimum temperatures are
observed in nights during the post-monsoon season between 10.9 0
C and 14.5
0
C compared to temperatures during monsoon season 19.6 0
C and 20.3 0
C.
Average monthly maximum and minimum temperature recordings at
Sangareddy (1991-94) are presented in Figure 2.3.

47
Figure 2.2 Maximum and Minimum Temperature at Sangareddy (1991-1994)
2.5.2 Evaporation
The concentration of the pollutants in the effluents increases with increase in
evaporation rate. The concentrated effluents are more toxic then diluted
effluents. In the tropical areas, one of the extensively used methods of
treatment of effluents is by letting of effluents into solar - evaporation ponds,
where the water gets evaporated under intense tropical sunlight, leaving
behind sludge which is dried and disposed of in the secure landfill sites. Such a
treatment process is effective where evaporation rates are high. The
evaporation rate also depends on the solar radiation, cloud cover, the wind, etc.
Evaporation rate increases from February through June. A steep fall in
evaporation rate is observed during the first half of south-west monsoon
season. Maximum evaporation rate is observed in May at 16.2 mm with the
minimum occurring in November at 7.6 mm. Evaporation rate does not change
much in all other seasons.
MAXIMUM AND MINIMUM TEMPERATURES AT
SANGAREDDY (1991- 1994)
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
MONTHS FROM JANUARY TO DECEMBER
TEMPERATUREINCENTIGRADE
MAXIMUM
MINIMUM

48
The total solar radiation levels direct and diffuse are between 15.2 MJm-2
day-1
and 24.3 MJm-2
day-1
. Minimum radiation levels are recorded in the month of
July and Maximum levels recorded in the month of May.
During winter season clear bright weather prevails with clear to lightly clouded
skies. During the onset of south-west monsoon, sky appears moderately to
heavily clouded.
2.5.3 Rainfall
Dilution is a major factor in lessening the adverse impacts of pollution.
Precipitation is one of the natural diluting factors of the polluted waters. The
problems of salt incrustations in the soils would not exist in areas with heavy
rainfall. The residence time of the pollutants in a basin would be less with heavy
rainfall.
The average annual rainfall for the 10years period is 802.8 mm as recorded at
IMD, Hyderabad. About 85 % of the rainfall is received during south-west
monsoon season. Maximum rainy days occur in the month of July.
The seasonal and annual rainfall for Patancheru, Ramachandrapuram, Jinnaram
and Sangareddy Mandals and also Medak District average rainfall is presented
in Figure 2.4. District average rainfall from 1981-82 to 1993-94 and actual and
normal rainfall season wise for the year 1993-94 is presented in Figure 2.5 (a) &
(b).
2.5.4 Wind Speed and Direction
Wind speed and direction are very much important in the case of air pollution
studies and its impact on the residential population around the industrial areas.
High-speed winds disperse suspended particulate matter and other pollutants
to far off places, thereby lessening the pollution in the immediate surroundings.

49
Light to moderate winds prevail throughout the year, during early monsoon
slightly stronger winds are observed. Seasonal and annual wind directions are
presented in Figures 2.6 - (a), (b), (c), (d) & (e). Pre-monsoon winds travel north-
west in the mornings, reversal of the wind takes places in the evenings, and
they travel in the south-east direction (Figure 2.6). These winds in the peak of
summer carrying dust and polluted gases are a threat to the residents of
Hyderabad, which is located to the south-east of Patancheru. Monsoon winds
are predominantly in the west and west-north-west direction at 0830 and 1730
hours (Figure 2.7). The post-monsoon winds travel between north and east
directions (Figure 2.8). Winter winds mainly move in the eastern and south-
eastern directions and in the northern direction for few days especially in the
mornings (Figure 2.9). The annual wind patterns at 0830 hours recordings are in
between west and north-west direction and also in the northern direction, 1730
hours recordings are in eastern, western and northern directions (Figure 2.10).
The winds in the southern and south-western directions are rare. Wind speeds
are presented in Table 2.4.
To the south-east quadrant of Patancheru Hyderabad is located. The other
three quadrants have rural population. Overall the people residing in the south-
western quadrant of Patancheru are safe from air pollution.

50
Figure 2.3 District average rainfall year wise (in mm) from 1981-1982 to 1993-
1994

51
Figure 2.4

52
Figure 2.5

53
Figure 2.6

54
Figure 2.7

55
Figure 2.8

56
Table 2.4 Most probable wind speed class.
Wind speed
(km/h)
Seasons
Annual Pre-monsoon Monsoon Post-monsoon Winter
Data recorded at IMD Hyderabad Airport (0830 hrs)
0.00-1.6 0.42 0.22 0.17 1.00 0.57
1.61-5.0 40.29 36.15 10.99 71.31 63.56
5.01-10 33.32 50.66 23.88 22.89 35.53
10.01-15.0 16.18 10.33 38.60 3.15 0.34
>15.01 9.79 2.64 26.36 1.66 0.00
Data recorded at IMD Hyderabad Airport (1730 hrs)
0.00-1.6 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
1.61-5.0 4.16 5.40 0.91 4.16 7.31
5.01-10 44.99 57.38 11.27 54.24 71.88
10.01-15 23.50 25.77 18.48 35.44 19.91
>15.01 27.35 11.45 69.35 6.16 0.90
Source: IMD, Hyderabad
2.6 AMBIENT AIR QUALITY
As man consumes more air in a day then the quantity of water and food, and
unlike water and food he has little choice regarding the quality of air he
breaths. The quality of air is important to all the living things on earth.
The air quality data of various locations in and around Patancheru town and
Bonthapally areas are presented in Table 2.5 and average air quality data
recorded for three months period recorded at Patancheru and Lakdaram are
presented in Table 2.6. The Suspended Particulate Matter (SPM) is high in
Patancheru beyond the permissible limit of CPCB; this could be the resultant
effect of industries and the movement of vehicles on the busiest National
Highway-9. SO2 and NOX values are well within limits at all locations prescribed
by CPCB. Patancheru is showing the relatively higher concentration of all the
parameters. Carbondioxide and other gases released by the vehicular

57
movement and the industrial activity may contribute for acid rains and smog in
the area.
Table 2.5 Ambient air quality (random)
Near NH9 bridge over Nakkavagu, Patancheru
Mandal
Date: 18-11-97 Time: 12pm to 6pm
Near Pocharam Junction at NH-9
Date: 11-11-97 Day time 6 hours
Sample1 Sample 2 Average Sample 1 Sample 2 Average
SPM(200)
SO2 (80)
NOX (80)
229
38
26
364
59
78
296.5
48.5
52
SPM
(200)
SO2 (80)
NOX (80)
398
15
16
286
10
19
342
12.5
17.5
Near Kardanoor Village, Patancheru Mandal
Isnapur, Patancheru Mandal
Sample1 Sample 2 Average Sample 1 Sample 2 Average
SPM(200)
SO2 (80)
NOX (80)
386
18
22
223
12
17
304.5
15
19.5
SPM
(200)
SO2 (80)
NOX (80)
342
23
26
253
21
36
297.5
22
31
Near petrol pump, Patancheru
Bonthapally, Jinnaram Mandal
Date: 5-1-98 Time: 11am to 5pm
Sample1 Sample 1 Sample 2 Average
SPM(200)
SO2 (80)
NOX (80)
256
11
16
SPM (200)
SO2 (80)
NOX (80)
223
31
26
196
49
18
210
40
22
Note: Units in microgram per cubic meter of air.
CPCB standard for residential and rural areas given in brackets.
Source: Yegna Envirochem labs, Hyderabad. (1997-1998)

58
Table 2.6 Ambient air quality (December 1994 to February 1995)
SPM (200) SO2 (80) NOX (80)
Patancheru
No. of samples
Min.
Max
Arithmetic Mean
95 percentile
Standard deviation
59
21.77
629.34
320.59
595.59
169.67
118
0.28
22.65
4.98
12.15
4.16
119
9.11
29.56
15.84
26.44
5.96
Lakdaram
No. of samples
Min.
Max
Arithmetic Mean
95 percentile
Standard deviation
56
6.41
484.94
244.8
418.19
112.77
115
0.31
19.95
4.93
17.43
5.79
119
9.20
43.22
14.99
22.52
6.46
Note: Units in microgram per cubic meter of air. (CPCB standard for
residential and rural areas given in brackets.)
Source: EPTRI, Hyderabad. (1995)

Biological Environment
59
BIOLOGICAL ENVIRONMENT
3.1 INTRODUCTION
The present study is to characterise the environmental components of flora and
fauna, to assess the biological diversity of the region. Flora and fauna can be
used for biological surveillance in assessing the environmental status (Figure
3.1). The ecological interpretation of Nakkavagu basin is based on
reconnaissance survey and from secondary sources of information.
Water is the basic and essential resource for the survival of flora and fauna. The
flora being the primary producer influences the fauna of the region. The
characteristic flora existing in a region depends up on the existing conditions
such as intensity of sunlight, type of soil, quality of air, including the quality and
quantity of water available, etc. In Nakkavagu basin the Industrialisation led to
pollution of surface and groundwater resources, soil, air, etc., this will have
impact on the biodiversity of the region.
Nakkavagu basin area supports diverse fauna because of the presence of water
bodies in and around the basin. The Manjira wildlife sanctuary located to the
north-west of Nakkavagu basin about 30kms from Patancheru lies in between
the Manjira and Singoor barrages. This Sanctuary is the abode for a number of
resident and migratory birds in addition to being the home for the Marsh
crocodile. On the whole the rivers, streams, reservoirs, tanks, ponds, and lakes
present in this part of Medak District, supporting diverse aquatic flora and
fauna, is the sensitive region to be protected.
3.2 FLORA
The flora in this region is tropical deciduous, as the monsoons are very much
short lived in this District. The shedding of leaves starts around January and the
trees remain leafless till June. The flora that is found in Nakkavagu basin is
presented in (Table 3.1).

60
Figure 3.1 Effect of Development activities on plants and animals
(Ramaswamy et al. 1990)

61
Table 3.1 Indigenous plant species of Nakkavagu basin.
Botanical Name Common Name Local Name Uses
1. Acacia arabica Babul Tumma Timber, fodder, fuel-wood,
fencing,
2. Acacia auriculoformis Nakka Thoka Timber, fuel-wood
3. Acacia concinna Shikakai Fencing, shampoo
4. Acacia ferrugen Tella Thumma Timber, fuel-wood, fodder
5. Acacia instia Seema Korinda Fencing,
6. Acacia mangium Budidaaku Chettu Fuel-wood
7. Acassia catechu Tella Thumma Timber, fuel-wood, fodder
8. Achras zapota Sapota Sapota Fruit
9. Adathoda vasica Addasaram Fencing, medicinal, biopesticide
10. Adenanthera pavonina Erra Goli Timber, fuel-wood, fodder
11. Aegle marmelos Bale Maredu Fruit, dye, cultural
12. Agave angustifolia Agave Sagaramatta Fencing, fiber
13. Alebizzia lebback Dirishanam Fodder, timber, fuel-wood
14. Amaranthus spinosus Amaranthus Totakura Greens
15. Annona squamosa Custard Apple Seetahapal Fruit, medicinal, biopesticide.
16. Artocarpus heterophyllus Jack Fruit Panasa Fruit, timber
17. Azadirachta indica Neem Vepa Timber, fuel-wood, fodder, oil,
medicinal, biopesticide
18. Bambusa arundinacea Bamboo Veduru Timber, basket making
19. Bauhinia purpurea Kanchanam Timber, fodder, fuel-wood
20. Bauhinia racemosa Are Fuel-wood, timber, fodder
21. Bixa orellana Annota Dye
22. Buchannia lanzan Chiranj Morri Fruit, fodder, fuel-wood
23. Butea monosperma Flame of Forest Modugu Dye, fuel-wood, leaf plate,
green manure, medicinal
24. Caesalpinia crista Gachhakaya Fencing, medicinal
25. Calotropis gigantia Jilledu Medicinal, fodder, green
manure, biopesticide
26. Canavalia enciformis Swork Bean Chammakaya Vegetable, green cover, fodder
27. Carica papaya Papaya Fruit, medicinal
28. Cassia auriculata Nela Tangedu Fuel-wood, medicinal, manure
29. Cassia fistula Rela Fuel-wood, fodder, timber
30. Cassia siamea Adavi Tangedu Green Manure, medicinal, fuel-
wood, timber

62
31. Cassia spectabilis Pachha Tangedu Fuel-wood, green manure,
medicinal, timber
32. Centrocema pubescens Katte teega Fodder, green cover
33. Cibea pentandra Adavi Patthi Cotton, medicinal, fodder
34. Citrus auruntium Citrus Nimma Fruit, medicinal, biopesticide.
35. Clerodendron phlomidis Takkali Medicinal
36. Clitoria ternatea Blue Bell Shanku pushpam Fodder, green cover
37. Coleus aromaticus Vaamaku Medicinal, biopesticide,
38. Coriandrum sativum Coriandar Daniyalu Greens, biopesticide
39. Crotalaria juncea Sun Hemp Janumu Fiber, green manure, medicine
40. Cucurbita moschata Pumpkin Gummadi Vegetables
41. Diospyros chloroxylon Illinta Fencing, fodder, timber, fuel-
wood, fruit
42. Dodonaea viscosa Pulaili Fuel-wood, fencing, fodder
43. Dolichos biflorus Horsegram Uluvalu Fodder, green manure,
Medicinal
44. Dolichos lab-lab Bean Kuranupa Vegetables, green cover
45. Emblica officinalis Gooseberry Usiri Fruit, medicinal
46. Erithrina indica Tellarjam Fodder, fuel-wood
47. Euphorbia antiquorum Pudaka Jemadi Fencing, medicinal
48. Feronia elephantum Wood apple Veluga Fruit, fuel-wood, fodder.
49. Ficus bengalensis Bhad Marri Fuel-wood, medicinal
50. Ficus glomerata Fig Medi Fodder, fuel-wood, timber
51. Ficus religiosa Peepul Ragi Fruit, fuel-wood, cultural
52. Gardinia gummifera Chitimiti Fruit, fencing, fodder, fuel-wood
53. Gossypium herbaceum Nalla Patti Cotton, Medicinal
54. Grewia tilliaefolia Palsa Fruit
55. Guizoltia abyasinica Niger Gaddinuvulu Oil, Green manure, medicinal,
fodder
56. Gymnosporia montana Danta Fencing, fuel-wood
57. Hardwickia binnata Yepi Timber, fuel-wood, fodder,
58. Hibiscus cannabinus Punti Fiber, fodder
59. Ipomoea fistulosa Tuti poraka Fencing, weaving
60. Jeatropha curacas Adavi amudam Oil, medicinal, biopesticide
61. Lagenaria leucantha Bottle Gourd Sorakaya Vegetable
62. lagerstroemia parviflora Chennagi Food, medicinal, fodder
63. Lantana camera Lantana Kakipandu Fencing, fruit, thatch
64. Luffa acutangula Ridge Gourd Beera Vegetable

63
65. Madhuka indica Mohua Ippa Fuel-wood, fodder, medicinal,
timber, food
66. Mangifera indica Mango Mamidi Fruit, timber, fuel-wood.
67. Melia azadirachta Persian Lilac Turka Vepa Timber fodder
68. Momordica charantia Bitter Gourd Kaakara Vegetable, medicinal
69. Morinda tomentosa Maddi Timber, fodder, medicinal, fuel-
wood
70. Morus alba Mulberry Bontha Pandlu Fruit, fodder, fuel-wood
71. Mucuna cochinchinensis Velvet bean Doolkaya Fodder, green cover
72. Murraya koenigi Curry leaf Karivepaku Medicinal, biopesticide
73. Occimum basilicum Sanctum Tulisi Medicinal, biopesticide, cultural
74. Ougeinia oojeinensis Tella Motuku Firewood, timber
75. Parkiasonia aculeata Cheema tumma Fencing, fuel-wood
76. Passiflora edulis Passion fruit Pacha Pundu Fruit, medicinal,
77. Peltophoram pterocarpum Pachha Pulu Fuel-wood, timber
78. Phaseolus trilobus Pilli Pesara Fodder, green manure,
medicinal
79. Phoenix sylvestris Palm Eetha Fruit, basket making, fencing
80. Pithecellobium dulce Inga dulce Seema Chinta Fruit, timber, fodder,
81. Plantago ovata Mehandi Gorinta Fencing, dye
82. Pongamia pinnata Kharanj Kanuga Green manure, medicinal, fuel-
wood, oil, timber.
83. Premna integrifolia Takkali Fodder, fencing, medicinal,
timber, biopesticide
84. Prosopis cineraria Jambi chettu Timber, fodder, cultural
85. Prosopis juliflora Sarkar Tumma Fodder, fuel-wood, fencing,
86. Psidium gujava Guava Jama Fruit, furniture, medicinal
87. Punica granatum Pomegranate Danimma Fruit, medicinal
88. Ricinus communis Castor Amudam Oil, fodder, timber
89. Rumex pesicarius Chukkakura Greens
90. Samaea saman Rain tree Nidra ganneru Fuel-wood, timber, fodder
91. Sapindus mukorossi Soapnut Kunkudu Shampoo, fuel-wood
92. Sasbania aculeata Tagarancha Green manure, medicinal, green
cover
93. Sesbania grandiflora Avisha Food, fuel-wood, fodder,
94. Sesbania species Jiluga Fodder, green manure,
medicinal
95. Sesbania species Barputam Fodder, green cover, green

64
96. Spinacea oleracea Palak Palak Greens
97. Strychnos nux-vomica Vishamushti Timber, medicinal, fuel-wood
98. Strychnos potatorum Chilla Fuel-wood, timber, fodder
99. Stylosanthes guyanensis Stylo Fodder, green cover, green
manure, medicinal
100. Syzyphus cumini Kala Jamun Allaneradu Timber, fodder, medicinal, fruit
101. Tagetes erecta Marigold Banthi Medicinal, biopesticide, flower
102. Tamarindus indica Tamarind Chinta Fruit, fuel-wood, fodder
103. Tectona grandis Teak Teak Timber, fodder,
104. Tephrosia purpurea Vempali Green manure, dye
105. Terminalia alata Tanni Timber, medicinal, fuel-wood.
106. Terminalia catappa Indian Almond Baadam Fruit
107. Terminalia chebula Hulda Karka Medicinal, fuel-wood
108. Thevetia peruviana Ganneru Fencing,
109. Trigonella foenum graecum Fenugreek Menti Greens
110. Vigna sinensis Cow Pea Alasandalu Fodder, green cover
111. Vitex negundo Vaili Fencing, medicinal, fuel-wood,
biopesticide
112. Vitis setosa Pulla bachhali Greens,
113. Ziziphus mauritiana Ber Reni Fruit, fencing, timber, fodder,
medicinal
114. Ziziphus oenoplia Sparrow Berry Pariki Fruit, fencing, fodder
These lists of species identified are indigenous to this region, many of them
were once found abundantly in these parts of Nakkavagu basin. These species
listed are within the knowledge of older generation, their opinion is considered
before finalising the list. The diverse species identified meet the various
requirements of local people and their domestic animals. They also play an
important role in the local ecosystem of the area. Many tree species are
reduced to few numbers and are limited to few scattered pockets. As per the
villagers, with the industrial development many species are not found any more
or are seen in reduced numbers. As these species are indigenous some of these
listed species can be selected for afforestation and greening of the industrial
areas for lessening the impacts of pollution.

65
Photo 3.1: Prosopis juliflora along the banks of Nakkavagu at N.H. - 9
Photo 3.2: Prosopis juliflora at the confluence of Nakkavagu and
Pamulavagu near Bachuguda

66
Agro-forestry is still a practice in many villages; the fields are dotted with
species like Mangifera indica, Tamarindus indica, Psidium guajava, Accacia
arabica, etc.
Prosopis juliflora and Parthenium hysterophorus are the invading species, which
are recent introductions. Prosopis juliflora growing luxuriantly in saline and
polluted soils, all along the polluted streams of Nakkavagu basin. Parthenium
hysterophorus is the major weed found everywhere.
3.3 FAUNA
Two of the major streams in Nakkavagu basin are named after a mammal and
reptile, ‘Nakka’ means fox, ‘Pamula’ means ‘of snakes’ and ‘vagu’ means stream
in Telugu. ‘Nakkavagu’ – ‘fox-stream’ as per the villagers this stream was habitat
for foxes in the past. Similarly, ‘Pamulavagu’ – ‘Stream of snakes’ was the
natural habitat for snakes. Whenever Pamulavagu was is in spate, large
numbers of snakes were seen everywhere, even in the nearby villages. The
irrigation facilities led to growing crops like paddy, which attracts pests like rats;
they in turn could have attracted snakes in large numbers, which helped in
control of rats.
In the past the forests in the District were active with wild life. The fox, wolf and
Jackal are not seen presently in Nakkavagu basin, as aquatic habitat and forest
areas are devastated by industrial pollution in Nakkavagu basin. As per the local
people’s observation the species like birds, reptiles, amphibians, Pisces, insects
and mammals etc. are drastically reduced or migrated elsewhere. The sparrows
are seen less in numbers nowadays and their numbers have drastically reduced
with increasing pollution. There is complete absence of aquatic life in the
Nakkavagu. The tanks in the past might have attracted a large number and
variety of migratory birds from higher latitudes in winter. Birds are an integral
part of the agricultural system. Birds play an important role in the control of
pests by helping the farmers from crop losses and also their excreta nourishes

67
the fields with natural fertiliser. The fauna seen in parts of Nakkavagu basin and
in the adjacent Manjira wildlife sanctuary is presented in (Table 3.2 (a) & (b)).
Table 3.2 (a)
FISHES REPTILES
- Catla
- Rohu
- Murrel
- Eel
- Paten
- Kaarugu
- Chidwa
- Monitor Lizard
- Fresh water turtles
- Cobra
- Marsh Crocodiles (exclusively found in Manjira
Wildlife Sanctuary)
Table 3.2 (b) Birds observed in parts of Nakkavagu basin and in the Manjira Wildlife
Sanctuary.
Important Resident Birds
- Grey Herons
- Night Herons
- Pond Herons
- Purple Herons
- Purple Moor Hen
- Little Egrets
- Cattle Egrets
- Cormorants
- Coots
- King Fishers
- Green bee eater
- Red watlled lapwing
- Shriek
- Hoopoe
- Doves
- Sparrows
Important Migratory Birds
- Painted Storks
- Open billed Storks
- Spoon bills
- Comb ducks
- Cotton teals
- Whistling teals
- Red crested pochards
- Common pochards
- Brahminy ducks
- Grey Pelicans
- Brown headed Gulls
- Barheaded geese
- Osprey
- Marsh Harrier
- Demoisselle Cranes
- Swallows
Local Migratory Birds
- Oriental Darters
- Black Ibis
- White Ibis
- Glossy Ibis
3.4 FLORA AND FAUNA OF SURFACE WATER
In the polluted environment of streams and tanks, pisces, amphibians, reptiles,
invertebrates, zooplankton and larva of many insects would be under severe
stress, similarly there will be reduction in the wetland species along the banks -

68
emergent macrophytes, floating macrophytes, submerged macrophytes and
phytoplankton. May also lead to extinction and change in the species diversity
and numbers. With the loss of aquatic life due to pollution, the birds'
dependent on streams and tanks for food also get affected.
Streams and tanks of Nakkavagu basin support a wide range of natural
communities. Streams and tanks are important wildlife habitats and they can
have economic value of fisheries too. Tanks support rich and / or characteristic
plant communities, invertebrates, amphibians and birds and may even support
rare species, the seasonal tanks are less important in this regard. Habitat
diversity studies are useful in measuring the quality of whole ecosystem, it is
less time consuming and inexpensive.
The problems of freshwater habitats are, pollution, changes in flow regime,
water depth, catchment area and reduction of habitat size. The pollution of
water is the major cause of loss of biodiversity in streams and lakes. Because of
industrial effluents entering into these water bodies, Nakkavagu does not
support any significant life; many tanks have become dead, supporting only
anaerobic life, exceptionally in some cases. Some of the tanks whose catchment
area is free from industrial activity are supporting vibrant life. The relationship
between diversity of species and the degree of water pollution is vice versa.
The biodiversity of some streams and tanks of Nakkavagu basin is given in
(table 3.3).

69
Table 3.3 Biodiversity of streams and tanks.
S.No. Name 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22
MACROPHYTES
1 Ceratophyllum demersum A A A A P P A A A A A A P A A A A A A A A A
2 Ipomoea aquatica A A P A P P A A P A A A P A P A P A A P A A
3 Carex species A A P A A P A A A P A A P A P A A A A P P A
4 Cyperus species A P P A A P A P A P P P P A P A P A A P P A
5 Hydrialla veritcillate A A P A P P A P A P A A P A A A A A A P A A
6 Ottella alismoides A A A A A P A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A
7 Vallisneria spiralis A A A A P P A A A P A A P A A A A A A A A A
8 Iris pseudocorus A A P A A P A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A
9 Juncus heterophylla A A A A A P A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A
10 Lemna minor A A P A P P A A A P P A A A A A A A A A A A
11 Spirodela polyrhyza A A A A P P A P A P P A A A P A P A A A A A
12 Nelumbo leutea A A P A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A
13 Agrostis species A A P A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A
14 Agrostis A A A A A A A A A A A A P A P A P A A P P A
15 Eichhornia crassipes A A P A P A A A P P P P P A A A P A A A A A
16 Potamogeton perfoliatus A A A A A P A A A P A A P A A A A A A P A A
17 Potamogeton penctinatus A A P A A P A A A A A A A A A A A A A P A A
18 Potamogeton crispus A A A A A P A A A P A A A A A A A A A P A A
19 Ipomoea species A A P A P A A P P P P P P A P A A A A P P A
S.No. Name 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22
20 Nymphaea species A A P A A A A A A A A A A A A A P A A A A A
21 Scirpus species A A P A A P A A A A A A P A A A A A A P P A
Algae
22 Chara vulgaris A A P A A P A A A A A A P A A A A A A P A A
23 Nitella gracillis A A A A A P A A A A A A A A A A A A A P A A
24 Cladophora glomerati A A P A A P A P P P P A P A P A P A A P P A
25 Spirogyra communia A A P A P P A P P P P A P A P A P A A P P A
26 Spyrogyra varians A A P A P P A P A P A P P A P A A A A P A A
27 Oscillatoria formosa A A P A P P A P P P A A P A P A P A A P P A
28 Oscillatoria limosa A A P A A A A P P P A P P A P A P A A A P A
29 Oscillatoria putrida A A P A A A A P P P P P P A P A P A A A P A
30 Hydrodictyon reticulata A A P A A P A A A P A P A A A A A A A P A A
31 Zygema species A A P A A P A A A P A A P A A A A A A P A A
FISH AND OTHER ANIMALS
32 Heteropterans A P P P P P A P P P P P P A P A P A A P P A
33 Coleopterans A A P A P P A P P P P A P A A A P A A P P A
34 Cladocerans A P P A P P A A P P P A P A P A P A A P P A
35 Gastropods A A A A A P A A A P A A P A A A A A A P A A
36 Bivalves A A A A A P A A A P A A P A A A A A A P A A
37 Cyprinus carpeo A A P A A P A A A A A A P A A A A A A P A A
38 Labeo rohita A A A A P P A A A P A A P A A A A A A P A A
39 Labeo bata A A A A A P A A A A A A A A A A A A A P A A
40 Clarias species A A A A A P A A A A A A A A A A A A A P A A
41 Channa punctatus A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A P A A
Biological Score(Species Present) 0 3 26 1 15 32 0 12 11 24 11 8 26 0 14 0 14 0 0 28 13 0
Biological Score (%) 0 7 63 2.5 37 78 0 29 27 59 27 20 63 0 34 0 34 0 0 68 32 0
(Source: CPCB report (1998))
A – Absent, P – Present

70
Index
Lakes River or stream
1 Khazipally cheru 14 Bollaram near Sultanpur
2 Gandigudem cheru 15 Isukavagu U/s CETP
3 Nagula cheru 16 Isukavagu D/s outfall near Pocharam
4 Krishnareddipet cheru 17 Isukavagu at bridge
5 Mukta kunta 18 Nakkavagu at Bachuguda after confluence with Pamulavagu
6 Aminpur cheru 19 Nakkavagu at Sultanpur bridge
7 Bollaram cheru 20 Manjira U/s Nakkavagu confluence
8 Khazipalli village cheru 21 Manjira D/s Nakkavagu confluence
9 Saka cheru 22 Nakkavagu before Manjira confluence
10 Mutangi cheru
11 Isnapur cheru
12 Chitkul cheru
13 Lakdaram cheru
(Note: The biological score in percentage is directly related to the degree of toxicity of the
surface waters. Zero score percentage indicates highly toxic and almost devoid of any life.)

Socio-Economic and Cultural Environment
71
SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND CULTURAL ENVIRONMENT
4.1 INTRODUCTION
The socio-economic and cultural environment studies are necessary in
assessing the impacts of developmental activities on human beings.
Environmental pollution by the industries also influences directly or indirectly
the social and economic environment.
The developmental activities in a region are meaningless unless such activities
help in the socio-economic development of the region. The creation of
employment opportunities for the local people is the direct impact. The
changes in population composition of the region, multiplier benefits, education
and health status of the local people, changes in the land-use pattern
(agricultural and industrial) and impacts on the cultural properties of the area
are the indirect impacts. This chapter aims to evaluate pros and cons of the
direct and indirect impacts of the industries located mainly in Patancheru and
other Mandals (R.C.Puram, Jinnaram, and Sangareddy) covered in Nakkavagu
basin.
4.2 POPULATION
The population growth and urbanisation of the area can be attributed to the
industrialisation, infrastructure development, and proximity to Hyderabad
(Mega-city). National Highway No.9 (NH-9) that passes through Patancheru
connects Hyderabad and Pune. Secunderabad - Wadi railway line passes
through the south-eastern parts of Patancheru. Industrialisation led to the
growth of Patancheru and Ramachandrapuram as urban towns. With the
accessibility of transportation facilities, Hyderabad is expanding in the north-
west axis along NH-9 too. For the composition of the population of urban
areas, Mandals and Medak District is shown in Tables 4.1, 4.2 and 4.3.

72
Percentage of rural and urban population and density of persons per square
kilometer are shown in Figures 4.1 and 4.2 respectively.
66.25
84.66
100
52.82
85.53
33.75
15.34
0
47.18
14.47
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
90%
100%
1 2 3 4 5
Percentage of rural and urban population
Figure 4.1 Percentage of rural and urban population
1 2 3 4 5
351
1062
237
479
234
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
persons
Figure 4.2 Density of persons per square kilometre
Legend : 1 – Patancheru, 2 – R C Puram, 3 – Jinnaram, 4- Sangareddy,
5- Medak District

73
Table 4.1 Urban area Population
Place Area (sq. km.) Population Density
(pp.sq.km)
Patancheru
R.C.Puram
BHEL township
14.97
2
25.88
26,862
46,129
17,707
1,794
23,064
684
(Source: Population Census, 1991, in Handbook of Mandal Statistics, Medak District (1995)).
Table 4.2 Population of Patancheru and Sangareddy - 1981 and 1991 census
Place Status Population % of (+) increase.
1981 1991
Patancheru
Sangareddy
Panchayat
Municipality
11,975
31,360
26,862
50,123
+124.3
+59.8
(Source: Population Census, 1991, in Handbook of Mandal Statistics, Medak District (1995)).
In Ramachandrapuram (R.C.Puram) the density of population is very high, this is
due to its proximity to Bharat Heavy Electricals Limited (BHEL)-a public sector
company, the availability of all kinds of services and being an area less polluted,
developed as a major town. BHEL Township built for its employees is well
planned, having wide roads, parks and open spaces, which explains the low
density. Patancheru in spite of being a major industrial area is less developed in
comparison to Ramachandrapuram mainly because of obnoxious smell and
water pollution. Overall Patancheru had shown a very significant growth rate of
the population between 1981 to 1991, because of the growth and
establishment of some industries during that period, in and around Patancheru.
Sangareddy being administrative headquarter of Medak District is also shows a
higher growth rate of population may be because of immigrations.

74
Table 4.3 Area, No. of Villages, Towns, Males and Females and total population
Name of the
Mandal
The
area in
sq.kms.
Total
inhabited
villages
No. of
towns
Males Females Populatio
n
(Persons)
Patancheru
R.C.Puram
Jinnaram
Sangareddy
227
71
203
222
24
5
28
27
1
1
0
1
41,948
39,349
25,148
54,572
37,634
36,054
23,042
51,656
79,582
75,403
48,190
1,06,228
Medak dist. 9,702 1,223 10 11,52,079 11,17,721 22,69,800
(Source: Population Census 1991, in Handbook of Mandal Statistics, Medak District (1995)).
Ramachandrapuram Mandal is small in the area having few villages. Patancheru,
Jinnaram, and Sangareddy Mandals are comparable in size and have some
villages in them. Jinnaram Mandal is not having any town, while rest of the
Mandals are having one town each. Females per 1000 males are abnormally low
for Patancheru and less in other three Mandals too, in comparison with the
District ratio (Figure 4.3). In industrial areas working bachelors are usually found
in large numbers, as industrialisation attracts many single male members that
resulted in low sex ratio.
4.3 EDUCATION
The development of a backward region by the establishment of industries
becomes meaningless unless local people can seize the opportunities. In the
absence of educated local people the most sought after skilled and
administrative posts are taken over by neo-immigrants. Therefore the local
people will be limited to unskilled labour. Education plays a major role in the
socio-economic development of the region.

75

76
Literacy and education generates awareness and awakening among people
about the positive and negative impacts of industrial development. It helps
people in judging the choice and location of industries and also become aware
of the nature of pollution they would generate and take precautionary
measures against environmental hazards. Except in Ramachandrapuram and
Sangareddy Mandals, in rest of the Mandals, there is no great improvement in
the percentage of literates against Medak District literacy percentage (Figure
4.4) and (Table 4.4).
Primary schools are good in numbers; upper primary and secondary schools
can be improved for the Patancheru and Jinnaram Mandals. On an average one
school is existing for a group of about 4 to 5 villages (Table 4.5). The students
spend more time and energy in reaching the school. As the total population is
very high in Sangareddy and Ramachandrapuram Mandals, they too require
more number of upper primary and secondary schools. The number of Junior
Colleges and Degree colleges can also be improved. Industrial Training
Institutes which train people for the skilled labour requirement in industries are
to be increased, at present, only one such institute is existing (Table 4.6).
Table 4.4 Literacy
Name of the Mandal No. of literates (%age)
Males Females Total
1
2
3
4
Patancheru
R.C.Puram
Jinnaram
Sangareddy
20953(49.95)
25120(64.60)
10698(42.54)
29448(53.96)
9590(25.48)
16894(46.26)
3763(16.33)
16701(32.33)
30543(38.38)
42014(55.71)
14461(30.01)
46149(43.44)
Medak dist 426073(36.98) 175796(15.73) 601869(26.52)
(Source: Population Census 1991 in Handbook of Mandal Statistics, Medak District (1995)).

77
Table 4.5 Number of Primary, Upper Primary & Secondary Primary schools-Enrollment (1993-94)
Primary school Upper primary school Secondary primary school
No.
Schools
Total
Enrolled
No.
Schools
Total
Enrolled
No. Schools Total
Enrolled
Patancheru
R.C.Puram
Jinnaram
Sangareddy
33
10
34
42
4849
2762
4028
5302
9
2
5
8
2607
716
1143
1686
6
7
7
12
2174
3093
2109
3543
(Source: Handbook of Mandal Statistics, Medak District (1995)).
Table 4.6 Colleges / Institutes
Patancheru -One Government Junior College
-One Industrial training institute
Sangareddy -Two Government Junior colleges, one each for boys and girls
-Two degree colleges
-One Industrial training institute
4.4 HEALTH
It is the duty of a welfare state to look after the health of its people, for that
reason medical facilities are provided by Government (Table 4.7). The medical
facilities provided by Government are inadequate. In this kind of polluted
environment, people are prone to a variety of diseases and hence require timely
and proper attention from the Government in providing medical facilities. Some
practicing private doctors are doing well, costing the pockets of innocent
victims of pollution.
Table 4.7 Medical facilities, 1993-94
Patancheru R.C.Puram Jinnaram Sangareddy Medak dist.
No. of Dispensaries 0 0 0 0 4
No. of Hospitals 0 0 0 1 4
No. of P.H.Cs 0 1 2 1 49
No. of Doctors 0 1 3 1 86
No of Beds 0 0 4 2 324
No. of Patients treated 0 25359 51681 9526 1175296

78
Photo 4.1 : A person cleaning with the polluted waters of
Photo 4.2 : Sheep drinking polluted waters of
Photo 4.3 : Conversion of irrigation land to dry-land farming immediately adjacent to
Nakkavagu near Chitkul, because of pollution of water

79
The veterinary services available for domestic animals are given in Table 4.8.
Several cattle and sheep suffered from deterioration of health and some died
instantly after consuming the polluted water from streams and tanks. During
summers when there are very few water bodies left with uncontaminated water,
the thirsty animals in the fields have no other way, except to drink these
polluted waters. During rainy season leachets from solid waste dumps and
polluted water from overflowing effluent lagoons, enter into the fresh rainwater
collected in pools, the unsuspecting animals, which blindly consume these
polluted waters, get affected. Incidents of livestock accidentally becoming
victims to polluted waters are many. In such an environment adequate drinking
water facilities should be provided at various points for the convenience of
animals. In this kind of hostile environment, the medical facilities provided for
animals are inadequate.
Table 4.8 Veterinary services (1993-94).
Vet. Hospitals & Dispensaries
(LSU and RLUS are the lower version of Vet. Hosp’s)
Vet.
Doctors
Livestock
inspectors
Vet. Hosp. LSU RLUS
Patancheru
R.C.Puram
Jinnaram
Sangareddy
0
0
0
1
2
2
1
1
7
1
5
1
2
2
1
6
0
0
5
0
Medak dist. 11 68 131 82 70
(Source: Joint Director, Animal Husbandry Medak Dist,. in Handbook of Mandal Statistics,
Medak District (1995)).
4.5 LAND-USE
Land-use trends in Nakkavagu basin are shown in Figure 4.6 and Table 4.9.
Agriculture dominates the land-use pattern as seen in Patancheru,
Ramachandrapuram, and Sangareddy Mandals.

80
Figure 4.5 Land Utilization particulars for the year 1993-94
Patancheru
1
0%
2
8%
3
10%
4
3%
5
2%
6
1%
7
20%
8
38%
9
18%
R.C.Puram1
0%
2
1%
3
17%
4
0%
5
0%
6
1%
7
12%
8
57%
9
12%
Jinnaram
1
20%
2
13%
3
7%
4
5%
5
1%
6
2%
7
13%
8
19%
9
20%
Sangareddy
1
0%
2
1%
3
13%
4
0%
5
0%
6
1%
7
12%
8
35%
9
38%
Medak dist.
1
9%
2
7%
3
7%
4
5%
5
1%
6
3%
7
8%
8
18%
9
42%
Legend
1- Forest
2- Barren & un-cultivable land
3- Land put to non-agricultural uses
4- Permanent pastures & other
5- Miscellaneous trees of grooves
6- Cultural waste
7- Other fallow land
8- Current fallows
9- Net area sown

81
Percentage of forest area is considerable only in Jinnaram Mandal. There is no
forest area in Patancheru, Ramachandrapuram, and Sangareddy Mandals.
Barren and uncultivable land is less in Sangareddy and Ramachandrapuram
Mandals whereas District (7%) average is comparable for Patancheru Mandal
(8%) and slightly high for Jinnaram (13%) Mandal. Land put to non-agricultural
use is high in Ramachandrapuram (17%), Sangareddy (13%) and Patancheru
(10%) in comparison to Jinnaram Mandal and the Medak District at 7%. The
high percentage of land put to non-agricultural uses is the result of
industrialisation and associated urbanisation, and also Sangareddy being
administrative capital of Medak District it has the highest percentage.
Sangareddy and Jinnaram Mandals have no permanent pastures or grazing
lands, Patancheru (3%), Jinnaram (5%) and for Medak District (5%).
Miscellaneous tree groves are significant only for Patancheru Mandal, Jinnaram
and Medak District average stand at 1%. Cultural wastelands are less in all the
Mandals in comparison to District at 3%. Other fallow lands are highest for
Patancheru (20%), and high in Jinnaram (13%), Sangareddy (12%) and
Ramachandrapuram (12%) Mandals, in comparison to the District (8%). Current
fallow lands are very high in Ramachandrapuram (57%); Patancheru (38%) and
Sangareddy (35%) in comparison to Jinnaram (19%) and Medak District average
(18%). The total fallow (current fallow + other fallow) lands are high in
Ramachandrapuram (69%), Patancheru (58%), Sangareddy (47%) and Jinnaram
(32%) in comparison to Medak District (26%). Net sown area is less then the
District (42%), at Sangareddy (38%), Jinnaram (20%), Patancheru (18%) and
Ramachandrapuram (12%). The high percentage of fallow lands and less
percentage of net sown area in Patancheru, Sangareddy, Jinnaram and
Ramachandrapuram Mandals is the net result of the pollution of soil, water and
air by the industries.

82
Table 4.9 Land utilisation particulars for the year 1993-94 (in Hectares)
Patancheru R.C.Puram Jinnaram Sangareddy Medak dist.
Geographical area 25193 8933 20943 24612 951828
Forest 0 0 4214 0 87349
Barren & uncultivable land 1974 68 2643 253 65408
Land put to non-agricultural uses 2449 1507 1418 3323 63585
Permanent pastures & other 726 0 975 36 44285
Misc. trees of grooves 434 6 134 106 8725
Cultural waste 354 81 377 266 24487
Other fallow land 5093 1074 2823 3046 73443
Current fallows 9535 5128 3945 8416 178179
Net area sown 4629 1069 4414 9206 405834
(Source: Chief planning office, Medak District, in Handbook of Mandal Statistics, Medak District (1995)).
4.6 AGRICULTURE
During 1940’s Patancheru was identified as a model rural development centre,
which is aided by grants from the rural welfare trust fund to cover rural
development including agriculture, horticulture, and hygiene (Barass, 1950). In
spite of industrialisation, a major percentage of people are engaged in rural
activities - about 60% and above in all the Mandals, except in
Ramachandrapuram Mandal. However, there is a shift in a number of people
involved in rural activities to other activities, in all the four Mandals in
comparison to the District average (Figure 4.5).
The principle crops under cultivation are given in Table 4.10. Jowar is the
principal dry-land crop and Paddy is the main wetland crop. Various pulses and
oil seeds are grown as rain-fed crops. The area under cotton cultivation is
increasing in the recent years only. The mechanisation of agriculture is
expanding rapidly, as the labour costs have increased phenomenally because of
industries. The ratio of the number of villages and the total number of tractors
for each Mandal is nearly one for Patancheru, two each for Ramachandrapuram

83
and Jinnaram Mandals. Sangareddy Mandal shows less mechanisation in
comparison to other Mandals.
Figure 4.6 Distribution of working population

84
Figure 4.7 Group wise number of farmers (1990-91)

85
Particulars of agricultural land holdings are given in Figure 4.7 and Table 4.11.
Marginal farmers are greater than 50% in all the Mandals, marginal and small
farmers together constitute greater than 75% in all the Mandals. On the whole,
the categories of farmers are comparable to the District average percentage.
Marginal farmers are having up to 2.46 acres of land, in the case of pollution of
their lands, have no other way but to sell off at through away prices or those
lands are left fallow. This section of the population is more vulnerable to
environmental changes like droughts, floods and even environmental pollution,
which will lead to out-migrations or will be reduced to agricultural labourers.
The disguised unemployment is another major problem, which is the result of
small land holdings. Agricultural machinery and implements are given in Table
4.12.
Table 4.10 Area under principle crops 1993-94 (Area in Acres)
Crops Patancheru R.C.Puram Jinnaram Sangareddy Medak dist.
Paddy 4722 865 8348 4787 226292
Wheat 0 67 5 201 6289
Jowar 5563 1559 1053 10806 274878
Maize 2 15 1917 53 169985
Horsegram 0 0 4 179 4639
Greengram 69 26 31 892 78398
Blackgram 34 0 0 921 47322
Redgram 446 122 144 600 28564
Bengalgram 281 22 31 699 37248
Chillies 506 148 73 1436 25723
Coriander 0 50 0 319 6638
Turmeric 0 0 0 531 3405
Cotton 276 0 182 392 26275
Sugarcane 12 0 65 1012 71806
Groundnut 169 26 153 892 17486
Seasamum 14 0 0 139 8430
Safflower 386 61 0 951 17321
Sunflower 201 80 52 658 39281
Castor 0 115 45 0 3668
Linseed 0 0 0 346 2785
Source: Handbook of Mandal Statistics, Medak District (1995)).

86
Table 4.11 Particulars of Agricultural Census (1990-91).
Holdings Total area in acres
Patancheru
R.C.Puram
Jinnaram
Sangareddy
8689
2151
6769
10617
36388.38
9670.57
23037.12
37590.99
Medak Dist. 423686 1644528.49
Table 4.12 Agricultural machinery and implements
Tractors Sprayers Ploughs Oil engines Electric motors
Patancheru
R.C.Puram
Jinnaram
Sangareddy
20
15
52
18
50
107
347
97
2864
19
2537
26
4
4
1
3
774
154
1258
1119
Medak dist. 1927 8179 133062 1691 67468
Percentages of the cultivated and fallow land of the highly polluted Pocharam
and Bachuguda villages for the periods 1984-85 to 1995-96 is presented in
Figure 4.7. Pollution of water, soil, and air may be the main cause of fallow
lands; at least on the whole about 20% of the lands are being left fallow in both
the villages.
Traditionally there had been two types of irrigation practices in the region, lift
irrigation from wells and streams, and irrigation by gravity from tanks. The lifts
worked with bullocks called mhotas are suitable for irrigating up to 8 acres.
Mhotas were in practice till 1980’s. The present method of lift irrigation is by
electric motor pumps. The availability of water from some tanks spread in the
region can also be attributed to the prosperity of agriculture (Table 4.13). Tanks
are adequate in numbers, but now some tanks are of little use except as storage
ponds for industrial effluents. As these tanks are connected in series the

87
pollutants entering a tank at higher reaches pollutes all other tanks
downstream. Presently many farmers shifted to dry-land farming as the water
sources are polluted. The pollution of wells and tanks crippled all those farmers
irrigating crops under them.
Table 4.13 Minor irrigation sources
No. of Tanks Total Ayacut (Acres)
Patancheru
R.C.Puram
Jinnaram
Sangareddy
18
5
19
19
3823
634
3438
3519
Medak dist. 637 140816
4.7 EMPLOYMENT
Development of industries in other then the main urban centres is the policy of
decentralisation so that socio-economic development takes place in other
regions too. Industries generate direct and indirect job opportunities.
In industrial areas due to the payment of higher wages, it has an impact on the
agricultural sector. Mechanisation of agriculture took place especially in
Patancheru and Ramachandrapuram Mandals, because of shifting of
agricultural labour to industrial sector where they are paid high. The
involvement of a considerable percentage of people engaged in other then
rural activities, in comparison to the distribution of working for population in
Medak District, is the direct indication of people absorbed in industries and
allied sectors (Figure 4.5).

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Figure 4.8 Percentage of cultivated and fallow land

89
The real development of a region takes place only if there is any social and
economic development of the local people. As the industrial area is close to the
major urban center Hyderabad, industrialisation gave way for shuttling workers
from the city. On account of pollution, the area is not preferred for a living,
especially in Patancheru Mandal. The low literacy rate provides fewer
opportunities for the people seeking suitable jobs that lead to immigrations
from elsewhere. The tertiary sector is also less developed as the money is being
spent in the main city. No residential colonies are existing in the region because
of pollution which indicates the majority of the industrial workers are
commuting from other places especially from Hyderabad and its outskirts
where they have better civic amenities and other services too. As a result, the
local people are losing indirect employment opportunities, therefore the
multiplier effect is very weak.
The actual backwardness of the District is in the interior and western parts of
the District. By selecting this peripheral area close to Hyderabad, the industrial
development is contributing more to the economic development of Hyderabad
rather than in reducing the backwardness of Medak District.
4.8 POPULATION STRUCTURE OF MOST POLLUTED VILLAGES
The following are the villages, which are located close to the industrial areas
and the polluted streams, with polluted groundwater, surface water, soil and air
pollution: Ismailkhanpet, Arutla, Chidruppa, Byathole, Edthanoor, Indrakaran,
Lakdaram, Chinna Kanjerla, Pedda Kanjerla, Sultanpur, Krishnareddipet,
Indresham, Inole, Bachuguda, Chitkul, Isnapur, Kardanoor, Mutangi, Pocharam,
Khazipalli and Bollaram. These are the most polluted villages, which are
frequently mentioned in the press and other media. The workers engaged in
rural and urban activities, the percentage of literates and illiterates, and
population below and above 6 years of age of the above villages is presented in
Figure 4.8.

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Figure 4.9 (a) Population statistics of most polluted villages

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Figure 4.9(b) Population statistics of most polluted villages

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As the percentage of rural population (about 80 percent) is higher in some
villages in spite of their proximity to the Industrial areas, it implies that the
industrialisation did not result in much creation of job benefits to them. As the
literacy rate is also very low (about 20 percent) in many of the villages, this is
another negative factor for not getting job opportunities. Nearly 20 percent of
the population in these villages is well below 6 years of age, as this age group is
sensitive to pollution, it is hazardous for their growth and development.
4.9 CULTURAL PROPERTIES
The cultural history of Medak District commences from the prehistoric time that
is Paleolithic age. At Kondapur near Patancheru, shreds of pottery, polished
stone artifacts and slag of iron belonging to the Neolithic and megalithic
cultures were collected. These and other discoveries in the area reveal that
there existed a highly developed cultural people in the prehistoric times. The
innumerable burials (Cairns and stone circles) near Muttangi, Asnathpur, and
Khazipalli near Patancheru and other parts of the District, belonging to
Megalithic culture were also discovered. About 30 kilometers to the west of
Patancheru at Kondapur archaeological excavations indicate the existence of a
buried city of vast dimensions dating back to Mauryan and Satavahanas period.
Early History of Medak District dates back to Pre-Asokan times (Table 4.1).

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Table: 4.1 Early History of Medak District.
PERIOD DYNASTY IMPORTANT RULERS
Before 230 B.C
230 B.C to 218 A.D.
A.D. 218 to 543
A.D. 378 to 600
A.D. 543 to 757
A.D. 757 to 973
A.D. 973 to 1200
Mauryan
Satavahanas
Mahisha dynasty
Vishnukundins
Chalukyans of Badami
Rashtrakutas of Malkhed
Western Chalukyans of
Kalyani
Asoka
Gautamiputra Satakarni (A.D. 62-86).
Vasisthiputra Pulumavi (A.D. 86-114)
Siva Sri (A.D. 114-121)
Yajna Sri Satakarni (A.D. 128-157).
Mana and Yasa.(?)
Vikramendra Verma
Madhava Verma
Govinda Verma
Kirttivaraman II (Last Ruler).
(Total Nine Rulers)
Danti Durga to
Dhruva
Ahavamalla taila II (A.D. 973-97) (Founder)
Taila II (973 A.D.)
Tribhuvanamalla Vikramaditya II (A.D.
1076-1126).
Somesvara III (A.D. 1126-38).
(Total Thirteen Rulers).
Patancheru is the modern name, which was also called as Pottalacheruvu or
Potlakire in the past. Patancheru as the capital of Chalukyans of Kalyani for
some time played an important role in the political and religious history of the
area. The early rulers of the dynasty encouraged Jainism until Somesvara built
the Kalyana. Brahma Siva a staunch follower of Jaina law who also authored two
Kannada works belonged to Potalakire. Potalakire once flourished as an
important Jaina center. Parasvanatha (23rd
Tirthankara) is worshiped in Manikya
Prabhumandir found here. Innumerable Jina panels are excavated in addition to
other antiquities by the Department of Archaeology and Museums,
Government of Andhra Pradesh.

94
During the Medieval period, Patancheru was under the rule of Kakatiyas,
Bhamanis, Qutub Shahis and Barid Shahis respectively. Medieval Hindu temples
are found scattered in the villages around Patancheru. The Gods and Goddesses
of these temples are identified as, Yoga Narasimha, Siva in Linga form, Bhairava,
Ganesa, Devi, Gandharvas, Virakal, Anjaneya, Naga, Nagini, etc. In the Modern
period, it was under the rule of Mughals and Asaf Jahis respectively. In 1930 the
first Andhra conference was held at Jogipet in this District. The whole of
Nizam's dominion remained outside the mainstream of Indian national
movement. Medak District merged with the Indian union only on 17th
of
September 1948 at the time of the police action over Nizam.
The rich cultural heritage of the past was alone possible by the prosperity of
agriculture and allied trade. Irrigation had been the chief need in developing
agriculture. The prosperity and development of the state depended on revenue
collection, which was mainly dependent on the pros and cons of agricultural
development.
Prehistoric and historical evidence prove that this place is one of the
continuously settled places on par with other areas of the country. The
resources which sustained indigenous populations over more than 2000 years is
a record by itself. Availability of water and fertility of soil were the necessary
requirements for supporting earliest civilisations and advanced through
sustained agricultural activity. Through ages indigenous people protected,
saved and managed the precious available fresh water to their advantage, for
sustainable livelihood.

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WATER ENVIRONMENT
5.1 INTRODUCTION
It is predicted that the 21st
century would witness hydro-politics that could even
result in wars for water at all levels (international, national and regional). The
hydrosphere presently holds about 1,384,120,000 km3
of water in various states,
of that most of which is stored in the oceans. Only 2.6 percent is fresh water, of
this, 77.23 percent is frozen in ice caps, icebergs, and glaciers. Groundwater
found up to a depth of 4kms that accounts for another 22.21 percent of fresh
water. The remaining little water is stored in the soil, lakes, rivers, the biosphere
and atmosphere. Therefore, fresh water is the precious commodity for all
terrestrial life on earth.
The protection of fresh water sources like lakes, tanks, rivers, streams and
groundwater from pollution is fundamental to food production, public health
and health of all living species. Toxic pollutants released into the freshwater due
to the so-called developmental activities by human beings can render water
unfit for supporting life.
The biggest problem associated with industrial activity in Patancheru area is the
deterioration of the quality of water from its industrial wastes. The chemicals
from a wide range of industries including pharmaceutical industries release
chemical wastes into the environment thereby polluting the water environment.
Location of tanks, streams, settlements, and industries are shown in Figure 5.1.
The practice of using drainage system and tanks for disposal of industrial
effluents resulted in the devastation of surface and groundwater environments,
in Nakkavagu basin.

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Figure 5.1 Location of Cheruvus / Tanks, Streams Settlements
and Industries

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The areas other than Patancheru industrial area within Nakkavagu basin, which
are affected by water pollution include Chitkul, Chidruppa, Sultanpur,
Eardanoor, Arutla, Baithole, Gandigudem, Pocharam, Ganapathigudem,
Ismailkhanpet, Inole, Lakdaram, Bachuguda and Peddakanjerla.
5.2 NAKKAVAGU BASIN
In water pollution impact assessments the basins are considered as units
because the movement of surface and ground waters is mainly restricted to the
basin alone till they join a higher order basin.
The Nakkavagu basin is the sixth order basin, as Nakkavagu stream is a sixth
order stream. The catchment area of Nakkavagu basin is 734 square kilometres;
it appears polygonal in the plan (Figure 2.1). The catchment area lies mainly in
the Medak District and partly in Rangareddy District. Nakkavagu originates to
the south of Patancheru near Kollur and joins Manjira River near Gaudcherla
village after travelling a total distance of 35kms. Initially, Nakkavagu is known as
‘Maisammavagu’, from Kardanoor it is popularly known as Nakkavagu. A major
tributary of Nakkavagu is Pamulavagu, a fifth order stream, which flows from
the north-east direction of the basin and joins Nakkavagu at Bachuguda village
of Patancheru Mandal. The Nakkavagu initially travels north up to Bachuguda
village, after the confluence of Pamulavagu it goes in the north-north-west
direction up to Chidruppa, from here it takes a turn in the north-west direction
and forms an ‘S’ shaped meandering loop before joining with Manjira river at
Gaudcherla. Manjira River ultimately ends up in Godavari River at Kandukurthi
Bridge in Nizamabad District. Nizamsagar is the reservoir constructed over
Manjira River at the border between Medak and Nizamabad Districts.

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Figure 5.2 Drainage Pattern Nakkavagu Basin

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Nakkavagu has largely dendritic drainage pattern. This kind of drainage pattern
is very commonly associated with areas of uniform lithology, horizontal or very
gently dipping strata, and low relief. They comprise a multitude of small branch
streams, which join each other, usually at relatively acute angles, to nourish a
large trunk stream. While the drainage density depends on the permeability of
the underlying rock and precipitation. Drainage density is high on north-eastern
portion of Nakkavagu basin that is to the right of Nakkavagu stream. Rainwater
flows in Nakkavagu typically for 4 to 6 months during Monsoon and Post-
monsoon periods, and the rest of the year industrial effluent flows along the
water course. Presently the water flowing in Nakkavagu in any given season is
more, in comparison to the flow conditions before industrialisation. Since all the
industrial effluents will finally end up in the Nakkavagu.
5.2.1 Drainage System
Drainage of Nakkavagu is highly altered by the interference of man through
many centuries. The flowing waters are tamed through the construction of a
series of tanks and channels. The characteristics of the drainage system of
Nakkavagu is given below:
a) The drainage pattern is mainly considered as sub-parallel and dendritic
which is characteristic in granitic terrain.
b) Radial drainage is observed on the north of Lakdaram cheruvu,
streamlets radiating from kopje like granitic structure (Figure 2.1(a)).
c) A tributary of Nakkavagu emerging from Peddacheruvu outflow flows
parallel to Nakkavagu for a distance of about six km before joining with
Nakkavagu near Baitul village (Figure 2.1(e)). The semi-parallel drainage
system observed at many places along Nakkavagu can be attributed to
the paleo-flow channels of Nakkavagu. For example the stream of Arutla
and another stream north of Bachuguda (Figure 2.1(d) & 2.1(f)).

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d) ‘S” shaped meandering of Nakkavagu, before its confluence with Manjira
River at Gaudcherla is the prominent feature of Nakkavagu (Figure
2.1(c)).
d) The drainage is also affected by roadways, railway line, development of
industries and construction of houses, etc. As it is easy to alter drainage
of streamlets, they got most affected. The provision of culverts or
bridges over larger streams lessened the alteration of natural drainage.
5.2.2 Tanks
The artificial lake is called ‘tank’ it is locally called as cheruvu or cheru or kunta.
They are largely seen in regions of uncertain rainfall. They are formed in natural
hollows or depressions or sloping land by building a dam or bund on the lower
side to hold water, by enclosing a semi-circular or semi-elliptical area. Some
times artificial tanks are created by removing earth to create depression and
then bund is laid, which are usually oblong in shape. The area irrigated by a
tank is called its ayacut.
The tanks are serving two important purposes in controlling the floods and as
an insurance against crop failure during drought. Water collected in the tanks is
the primary source of water for meeting domestic, agricultural needs of human
beings and for supporting all other living things of the region. They have a
prime role in the development of the region and therefore they are essential in
the area.
The characteristics of the tanks in Nakkavagu basin are given below:
a) Intensive integrated watershed management was done in Nakkavagu
basin, in the past. Almost all the second order and some higher order
streams are tapped through the construction of bunds and creation of
tanks.

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b) Smaller tanks are constructed in the fertile agricultural fields. The primary
purpose of these tanks is for recharging the groundwater and less
important as a source for flow irrigation. Centuries of flooding of streams
and streamlets resulted in the deposition of large thickness of alluvium.
The soil in such places is highly permeable, and construction of huge
tanks for storage of water for flow irrigation is impossible. Therefore a
series of small tanks are constructed in those regions; they are the places
for recharging the groundwater aquifers. As a result, groundwater raises
high on the downward side of the tank. The high density of dug wells
and bore-wells are found on the downward side of such tanks, for
example, a number of such tanks and bore-wells are seen in the north of
Nakkavagu, between Chidruppa and Tarkhanpet (Figure 2.1(i)).
c) Non-cultivable rocky wastelands at higher contour levels are selected for
construction of very large tanks. These places are less permeable so
there ought to be lesser leakage’s, therefore such places are put to best
use by construction of large tanks for storing water example, Lakdaram
tank (Figure 2.1(b)), Peddacheruvu (Figure 2.1(g)) etc. In this way the
wastelands are also contributing to the economic prosperity of a region
indirectly. Rocky granite areas are least useful for cultivation, so they are
of least use. All the rainwater falling on such areas will ultimately move
to lower reaches quickly. As a result, all the water would have been
wasted in the absence of tanks in such places. The wastelands increase
the total availability of rainwater per unit area under cultivation if the
water falling upon wastelands is fully harvested and utilised for cultivable
lands. The rocky wastelands too have a role in sustaining the agricultural
activity of the region.
d) Eye like small depressions observed at many places are non-perennial
water sources, at the time of rains they overflow leading to streamlets.
During rainy season some of these act as percolation pits. Some of these

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small depressions located close to many of the villages could be the
result of excavation for clay or mud and the raw material for construction
purpose. Such a usage is still seen around Patancheru town; intensive
brick making activity is going on around Patancheru.
e) Some tanks are oblong and square in shape in plan, indicating that many
of these tanks are dug and constructed for the purpose of storing water
ex. Ismailkhanpet south tank (Figure 2.1(j)) and Peddacheruvu of Chitkul
(Figure 2.1(g)). These tanks are usually shallow; the range between full
tank level and low tank level is high. Whereas the bund constructed
directly over natural depression usually appears like ‘delta’ in the plan
(Figure 2.1(k)), which ranges between full tank level, and low tank level is
very high as a result, the storage capacity is also high. The dugout tanks
involve enormous costs so that preference will be given for the
construction of bunds along the natural valleys of the streams. Therefore,
dugout tanks are found few in numbers in Nakkavagu basin.
f) Canals are dug out to divert the floodwaters from the streams they
ultimately end up in the tanks, which are specially constructed for this
purpose for example Muttangi village tank (Figure 2.1(h)).
g) Two types of water outlet systems are existing for the tanks. The
controlled central point of the opening which is manually operated
facilitates controlled irrigation, whereas spillway is to let out the excess
waters as a security against bund failure and for filling the tanks
downstream from excess waters. A series of tanks are constructed on the
downstream to see that no water goes waste from spillways.
h) Some of the tanks of the past are silted up completely; therefore very
little or no water can be stored in them. Such tank-bed areas are at
present under cultivation. The soil (silt deposited in the tank bed)
deposited over a period in these tanks is fertile.

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i) In Bollaram industrial area, nearly 95 % of the tanks are of non-perennial
water source category, in Bachuguda area about half of the tanks are
perennial sources of water.
5.3 INDUSTRIAL POLLUTION IN NAKKAVAGU BASIN
Case studies of 10 pharmaceutical industries located in Nakkavagu basin are
considered to evaluate the quantity of hazardous raw material utilised in the
production (Table 5.1). The difference between the total raw material consumed
and the amount of product produced is the material that would ultimately enter
into the environment of Nakkavagu basin, in the form of solid, liquid or
gaseous state. Of which only a part of the material is recovered, and most of
the remaining wastes are the effluents, which are partially treated and are then
released into the environment. Total quantity of products produced by these
ten industries is about 1881.5 tonnes and the total amount of hazardous raw
material used is about 8146 tonnes i.e. on an average about 4.3 times of
hazardous raw material is utilised for every unit of the product produced. These
industries are using organic and inorganic hazardous chemicals as raw material.
The hazardous and toxic chemicals identified under schedule one and part two
of ‘The Manufacture, Storage and Import of Hazardous Chemicals Rules, 1989’,
are being utilised in the production by many industries. They are, Acetone,
Acetyl chloride, Ammonia, Aniline, Benzene, Bromine, Chlorine, Chlorosulphonic
acid, Dimethylcaromyl, Dioxane, Ethylene dichloride, Formaldehyde, Hexane,
Hydrochloric acid, Maleic anhydride, Methylene chloride, Nitrobenzene,
Nitrogen dioxide, Nitrogen oxides, Phenol, Phenyl glycidal ether, Sodium
cyanide, Sulphuric acid, Thionyl chloride, Toluene and Triethylamine. There are
four possible potential hazardous problems associated with the use of
chemicals; they are

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Table 5.1 Hazardous raw material used by industries in Nakkavagu basin

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1) Hazardous waste products.
2) These chemicals are a potential occupational hazard to the workers.
3) The containers used for storage and transport are being reused for domestic
purposes. Thousands of such containers are sold every year, which are
supposed to be disposed off safely.
4) They can find their way into the environment through mishandling and
leakage’s etc.
5.3.1 COMMON EFFLUENT TREATMENT PLANTS
There are two Common Effluent Treatment Plants (CETPs), which are
established at Patancheru and Bollaram.
5.3.1.1 CETP - PATANCHERU
The association of industries constructed a CETP at Patancheru in the year 1994.
The effluent treatment plant is meant for treating 7,500 cubic meters per day.
The total members of CETP-Patancheru are 128 industries, presently only 72
industries are contributing their effluents to CETP.
The treatment process at CETP can be grouped into three categories
respectively i.e. 1) Effluent collection and equalisation 2) Physico-chemical
treatment and 3) Biological treatment. The effluents reaching the CETP through
tankers from the member industries are collected in sumps. After that, the
combined effluent is given the physicochemical treatment comprising
equalisation, decanatation and screening. The supernatant effluent from
decanatation unit is pumped into biological treatment system comprising an
anaerobic system (USAB) and aerobic activated sludge process (ASP) with a
secondary clarifier. The effluents are then treated in aeration tanks then the
effluents are sent into secondary settling tanks. Decanter separates the sludge

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from secondary settling tanks, and the effluents are released into the Isukavagu
stream (CPCB report, 1998).
Two samples of treated effluents released by CETP-Patancheru collected in the
rainy season are chemically analysed (Tables 5.2). They are highly polluted and
far exceed the permissible limits of industrial effluents, disposable in inland
surface waters. CETP has no secure hazardous sludge disposal site. The sludge
collected in the process is being dumped in the same premises, which is also a
potential source of water contamination.
Table 5.2 CETP-Patancheru effluents (1997) (in ppm)
pH TS TSS TDS Cl S COD BOD Zn Cd Pb Cr Cu
a 8.6 12154 609 11545 3349 3065 5240 2200 0.285 0.042 0.4 0.1 0.22
b 8.5 8174 399 7775 2149 2115 3680 1650 0.21 0.025 0.4 0.1 0.2
As almost all the industries do not have primary treatment plant facility, the
effluents are being directly sent to CETP. As this facility is not equipped to treat
the effluents in two stages, the CETP fails to treat the effluents.
Since its inception in 1994, CETP was receiving effluents from Patancheru and
other places like Jeedimetla, Kazipally, Medchal, Kothur, Bollaram and
Pashamylaram, etc., it is also receiving effluents from other Districts such as
Rangareddy, Hyderabad, Medak, Nalgonda, Mahboobnagar of Andhra Pradesh
and Bidar of Karnataka. Although CETP is not capable of treating local industrial
effluents it had been receiving the effluents across Nakkavagu basin. Also CETP
of Patancheru received effluents from non-member industries too. Therefore
the impact of Pollution on Nakkavagu basin area is the net result of industries
located in a far wider area than Nakkavagu basin alone.

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Nine different types of industries are sending their effluents to CETP of
Patancheru. They are Bulk Drugs and Drug Intermediates, Pulp paper and other
cellulose base industries, Metal finishing, Resins and Chemicals, Pesticides,
Paints, Rubber, Edible oil refineries and Textile processing. Therefore it is
impossible for CETP to treat the effluents to the prescribed standard from such
diverse industries. The classification of member industries of CETP-Patancheru,
type of effluents, location wise and contribution of effluents are given in Tables
5.3 and 5.4
5.3.1.2 CETP - BOLLARAM
CETP-Bollaram is having presently 25 member industries, of which eight
member industries are from outside Bollaram IDA. The present effluent load of
CETP is 340 m3
/day. Some of these industries are also members of Patancheru
and / or Jeedimetla CETP’s too.
The wastewater brought in tankers is unloaded into the primary clarifier, by
using pumps, at the rate of 10 to 15 m3
/h. Suspended solids are removed here
and collected in 3 sludge lagoons. Clear wastewater flows by gravity to the
holding tank where nutrients, i.e. Phosphoric Acid, Urea and Di-Ammonium
Phosphate, are added. The wastewater is equalised by gentle recirculation by a
pump and after equalisation fed into a chamber for the digester, which is
recycled back to the digesters at the rate of 40 to 50 m3
/h. Wastewater at the
rate of 10 m3
/h is sent to first stage aeration tank for biological treatment. From
the first stage of the aeration tank, wastewater flows by gravity to the
intermediate clarifier where micro-organisms are separated in the form of
sludge and the same is returned to the first stage aeration tank and clear liquid
overflows to the second stage aeration for further biological degradation.
Wastewater from the second stage of aeration tank flows by gravity to the final
clarifier is taken to maturation ponds from where it is pumped to the oxidation

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ponds-cum-solar evaporation ponds. All the solar evaporation ponds are
connected in series. The effluents get evaporated and the sludge collected is
disposed of (CPCB report, 1998). It also receives effluents without primary
treatment at various industries.
The effluents released from CETP’s do not have adequate water sources for
dilution in Nakkavagu and Manjira River, except to some extent. The
performance of CETP’s is given in Table 5.5. CETP’s are the industries by
themselves are the major contributors of pollution.
Table 5.3 Classification of Member Industries of CETP-Patancheru
S.No. Name of Products Number of Industries
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
Bulk-drugs
Chemical
Steel
Textile
Leather Finishing
Cellulose Product
Edible Oil Refinery
Paper (Card Board)
Rubber
Paints
Polyelectrolyte
Pesticides
49
2
5
2
3
2
1
3
1
1
2
1
Total 72
Source: CPCB Report, 1998.

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Photo 5.1 : Partially treated effluents being released from CETP –
Patancheru into Isukavagu
Photo 5.2 : Hazardous sludge as waster collected and stored at
CETP – Patancheru

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Table 5.4 Location wise classification of Member industries of CETP-Patancheru and their
effluent loads.
S.No. Location of Industries No. of
Industries
Effluent load (kld) Percentage
contribution
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Patancheru
Pashamylaram
Bollaram
Gaddapotharam
Bonthapalli
Chitkul
Others
24
4
3
9
4
2
15
1597.06
197.20
70.00
208.80
75.00
120.00
559.00
56.5
7.0
2.0
7.5
2.5
4.5
20.0
Source: CPCB Report, 1998.
Table 5.5 Performance of CETP’s
Parameter Name
CETP-Patancheru CETP-Bollaram
Relevance of Unit Operation ++ +
Operation and Maintenance ++ +
Stability of ETP ++ +
Performance of ETP ++ +
Time required for perfect operation 3 months 6 months
Disposal system + -
Management Practices ++ +
+ Not satisfactory ++ Near to mark or near satisfactory level.
Source: CPCB report (1998).
5.4 SURFACE WATER
The surface waters in the basin include Nakkavagu and its tributaries, tanks,
ponds and other small depressions. The volume of water in many of the surface
water bodies varies with seasons. The surface water bodies, which receive the
effluents from industries continuously, do not show much variation. Similarly
because of industrial effluents entering into Nakkavagu, the flow is maintained
from Kardanoor onwards, even during the peak of summer Nakkavagu never
goes dry. The flow of effluents in the Nakkavagu and its tributaries is shown in
Figure 5.2.

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Figure 5.3 Effluents (quality and quantity) of Isukavagu Pamulavagu,
Nakkavagu and Manjira river, January 1998).

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Figure 5.4 Effluent Stream
Water table
Lagoon
precipitation
Groundwater
Pollution zoneDilution zone

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Figure 5.5 Formation of Acid rain

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Figure 5.6 Unpolluted tank
granite
Bund
Aquatic macrophytes
sediments

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Figure 5.7 Impact of Industrial effluents on tank

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The industrial effluents are usually released directly into streams and tanks.
Pollutants also enter indirectly, as effluent stream (Figure 5.3), through the
atmosphere in the form of acid rains (Figure 5.4) and dust particles brought
down by rain or air, leachates from solid waste dumps, surface runoffs during
rains, leakage of effluents from solar evaporation ponds, etc. The surface water
pollution is dangerous to the aquatic ecosystem. Nakkavagu waters are
polluted beyond sustaining any life. Some of the tanks are supporting little life
forms, and some are completely devoid of aerobic fauna. The comparison
between unpolluted and polluted tanks is given in Figures 5.6 and 5.7.
All the industrial effluents ultimately end up in Nakkavagu; as a result, it
became the most polluted stream. Nakkavagu carries the effluents to a distance
of 22 km from Kardanoor onwards up to the merging point with Manjira River
at Gaudcherla. Pamulavagu, a major tributary of Nakkavagu, adds its effluents
into Nakkavagu at Bachuguda. The flow of effluents in Pamulavagu is erratic;
sometimes there is no flow at all, because of a series of tanks located across its
tributaries. The industrial effluents released in Bollaram and Khazipally industrial
areas gets collected and stored in the tanks like Khazipally tank, Gandigudem
tank, Asanikunta, Krishnareddipet tank, etc. Krishnareddipet tank is the largest,
and is the last of the series of tanks across the Pamulavagu tributary unless the
outlet of this tank is rarely opened any water flows into Pamulavagu.
5.4.1 Flowing Waters
The quality of streams varies, and it is dependent on various factors. The total
dissolved solids of the effluents of Nakkavagu as analysed over a period are
presented in Figure 5.8. This gives a general picture of the pollution in
Nakkavagu over a period. On the whole, the trend shows a gradual increase in
pollution since 1979 with the exception of observations in 1995 and 1998.

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Figure 5.8 Nakkavagu-TDS

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The analytical data related to the quality of flowing waters is presented in
Tables 5.6, 5.7, 5.8 & 5.9. The data is subjected to various statistical procedures
to understand the nature of pollution. The parameters are compared to the
inland surface water standards of EPA, 1986 (Table 5.10).
5.4.1.1 Surface waters Analytical Results
5.4.1.1.1 Summer Data of Streams (S-Data):
The data is pertaining to eleven samples of which nine samples represent the
Nakkavagu, and two samples represent CETP and Pamulavagu. These samples
are collected in summer 1997. Basic analysis data of the samples is presented in
Table 5.6 and 5.11.
These samples are compared to the standards of inland surface waters (Table
5.10). The pH of Nakkavagu waters are slightly alkaline, CETP waters are slightly
acidic and the Pamulavagu waters are more alkaline. TDS, COD, BOD and SO4
parameter concentrations are very high. Cl is nearer to the limit of 1000ppm. F
is high in 4 samples that are above 2ppm. Pb is high in all the samples with the
exception of one sample of Nakkavagu. Hg is very high in all the samples. As
and Se are high in all the samples with the exception of one sample from
Nakkavagu. Cd, Zn, Cu, B, Mn, Cr, and Fe parameters are within permissible
limits.
Almost all the parameters of CETP effluents are high. Therefore, the pollution in
Nakkavagu is mainly because of the release of partially treated effluents into
Nakkavagu.

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Table 5.6 S-Data (Stream)

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The correlation matrix is given in Table 5.12. The following groups of elements
are strongly and positively correlated: TDS is strongly related to TH, Cd, Hg and
Cr, TH is related to Cd, Hg and Cr, COD is related to BOD and Cl, BOD related to
SO4 and Cl, and the following pairs of parameters are also strongly related SO4
– Cl, SO4 – Zn, F – Fe, Zn – Se, Cu – As, and As – Se.
5.4.1.1.2 Rainy Season Data of Streams (R-Data):
R-Data is pertaining to 14 samples of surface waters collected from Isukavagu,
Nakkavagu, Manjira River, Nizamsagar and Godavari River. These samples are
collected during the rainy season (1997). The variation of TDS, COD and BOD in
surface waters at various locations from the source up to Godavari River is
given in Figures 5.9, 5.10 & 5.11 and Table 5.13. There is an only slight
reduction in the above parameters as the waters of Nakkavagu flow
downstream. TDS and COD values in the effluents are reduced to the
permissible limits, whereas BOD is still high just before the confluence point
with Manjira River. The low values can be attributed to two factors, the innate
capacity of self-treatment of the stream as it moves over a distance (about
22kms) and the dilution factor, as it is the rainy season freshwaters from other
sources reach Nakkavagu. Total suspended solids are also high in Nakkavagu
and Pamulavagu streams. The waters of Manjira and Godavari Rivers are
moderately alkaline, could be the result of agricultural pollution, the excess salts
from agricultural fields (the residual fertilisers etc.) might have reached through
water into the rivers. Sulphates and chlorides found in the effluents are
contributed by the industries as directly or indirectly through CETP’s. But after
the confluence with Manjira River, they are diluted to the safer limits.
Throughout Nakkavagu DO is very low and it is incapable of sustaining any kind
of aerobic life, and also there are few chances of survival of anaerobic life
because of the toxicity of Nakkavagu waters.

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The concentration of Zn, Cd, Pb, Cr and Cu in Isukavagu and Nakkavagu are
presented in Table 5.8 among them except Pb rest are within the safe limits.
Correlation of the parameters indicates that the TDS, TS, TSS, Cl, SO4, COD and
BOD all are positively related to each other’s (Table 5.14). The dissolved
substances such as Cl, SO4, etc. are responsible for the high COD and BOD in
the stream waters. The negative values for Dissolved oxygen (DO) against all
the above parameters indicate that they are responsible for the fall in oxygen
levels in the water.
5.4.1.1.3 Winter Data of Streams (W-Data):
The water of Pamulavagu is highly acidic, whereas the waters of Nakkavagu is
alkaline. TDS, Electrical Conductivity (EC) and COD parameters are moderately
high as compared to the waters of Manjira River. Isukavagu is less polluted
before the confluence of CETP effluents. DO in Manjira River is high before the
confluence of Nakkavagu effluents, but after the addition of Nakkavagu
effluents, its DO is reduced by half (Table 5.15). The Table 5.16 shows a strong
correlation between TDS, EC and COD.
5.4.1.2 Quality of Streams
The quality of the streams as observed during the year is discrete and cannot
be linked to seasons. The drainage system existing and which is used for
draining the effluents from industries are not perennial. The perennial nature of
the streams especially Nakkavagu and Isukavagu are because of the continuous
letting out of the industrial effluents and effluents from CETP-Patancheru. The
production in industries is not seasonal, and the effluents are continuously let
into the streams. Some of the industries are releasing their effluents at intervals
in such cases the samples collected would appear more polluted.

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During the rainy season because of dilution, the pollution levels of Nakkavagu
effluents should have been low but as compared to Summer Data (S-Data) and
Winter Data (W-Data) over all the parameters are high at same locations. The
industrialists had a knowledge of the presence of CPCB team. As a result the
quality of effluents sent to CETP during that period had been good, and the
industrialists restricted themselves during that period by not letting the
effluents into the streams, and also during that period the treatment facility was
improved a lot. There are many reasons for variation of the quality of the
effluents in the streams
5.4.2 Tanks
The quality of tanks depends on upon the water entering them; these are
artificial water bodies purposefully built across the streams to store water. They
have become the traps or obstruction points to the free movement of effluents
in the natural drains, which are released by industries into them. The residence
time of pollutants in tanks is increasing, unless the effluents are released they
remain trapped in them. But for fear of damage to the crops, water is not being
let out. They are presently appearing like ‘solar evaporation tanks’ where
pollutants are getting accumulated in them.
5.4.2.1 Tanks Analytical Results
The degree of quality of some of the tanks in the region is presented in Figure
5.12 and Table 5.17 and 5.18. Higher values of TDS, EC and COD, indicate
higher pollution levels in such tanks. Asanikunta, Khazipalli and Krishnareddipet
tanks are the worst polluted tanks in the region. The Krishnareddipet tank is
one of the highly polluted largest tank in the region. Asanikunta and Khazipalli
tanks have highly acidic waters, which when released into streams will lead to
secondary effects like the mobilisation of heavy metals to less polluted areas.
The Table 5.19 shows a strong correlation between TDS, EC and COD, and a
negative correlation between all the above parameters and DO. Therefore, the
pollutants in the waters are responsible for the fall in DO in the tanks.

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5.5 GROUNDWATER
Groundwater potential depends on upon some factors like climate, topography,
soil characteristics, lithology, geological structures and flora of the area.
Geologically Nakkavagu basin comprises mainly of Archaean granites, alluvium
and partly basalts and laterites. Groundwater occurs in confined, semi-confined
and unconfined conditions. The groundwater pollution depends on various
factors such as depth of groundwater table, type of aquifer, the permeability of
the aquifer, characteristics of the soil, topography, geology of the area and
concentration, dilution, dispersion and nature of pollutants.
The groundwater flow directions get established over a period, there won’t be
much variation in the behaviour of groundwater in aquifers unless there is a
significant crustal movement. As pollutants in groundwater follow the
groundwater flow trends, the dispersion patterns remain the same although the
concentrations of pollutants may vary.
Groundwater pollution takes place because of percolation of the pollutants into
the saturated zone (Figures 5.13 and 5.14). As many factors control the flow of
groundwater, the pollutants also disperse in those directions. The concentrates
of pollutants reaching the groundwater do not remain the same as at the
surface, some of the pollutants get absorbed and / or adsorbed. It also depends
on the solubility of the pollutants in water. At higher alkalinity, the groundwater
precipitates the heavy metals and other elements. Clay is almost impermeable
so they may trap some of the pollutants in the ground.
5.5.1 Groundwater in Granites
Granites are plutonic crystalline igneous rocks. The nature and depth of
weathering, joints, fractures and other structures mainly control the movement
and occurrence of groundwater. The geological structures like joints, faults,
lineaments, etc., in the sub-surface granites, act as conduits for the flow of
pollutants to far off distances.

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Figure 5.13 Effluents released by industries reach saturated zone, pollute
groundwater. Wells intercepting such polluted groundwater zones yield
polluted water.

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Figure 5.14 Influent drainage pollutants mixing with groundwater

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The probable dispersion patterns of polluted water are shown in Figure 5.15.
The weathered product of granite is locally known as ‘morum’, water potential is
high in such weathered zones. Wells are dug up to depths of 15 to 50 feet
below ground level (bgl) in weathered zones. The bore-wells, which reach
fractures or joints in granites, are good sources of water and even more better
if the fractures or joints are interconnected (Figure 5.16). Bore well depths in the
area, on an average in the range of 30 to 100 feet below ground level.
Sometimes water flowing in a certain fracture follows considerable distance
without any loss. Surprisingly pollutants dissolved in water also get transported
too far of without getting diluted because of such fractures (Figure 5.13(d)). The
pollutants also get trapped by dykes (Figure 5.17) and also between the open
spaces between granites (Figure 5.18). For tracking dispersion, pattern and rate
of dilution of pollutants require proper understanding of geological structures.
Basalts and laterites are mainly located in the south-western parts of
Nakkavagu basin; the percentage of basalt and laterite coverage is very less.
The groundwater potential of the three Mandals of Nakkavagu basin is given in
Table 5.20.
Table 5.20 Groundwater Potential
S.No. Name of Mandal Potential (MCM)
1
2
3
Patancheru
Sangareddy
Ramachandrapuram
22.99
25.29
7.18
Source: A.P. State groundwater department reports, 1988-1991 Hyderabad.

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Figure 5.15 Pollution trends
Radial
Oval
Linear
Following fractures or joints

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Figure 5.16 Groundwater flowing through joints and fractures
Fractures
Joints
Pollutants mixed with groundwater
Industrial effluents
precipitation
Hazardous solid waste
leachets

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Figure 5.17 Dispersion of Pollutants in the presence of dyke
Sub-surface Dyke
Water table
Granite
Borewells
Soil

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Figure 5.18 Impact of pollution on confined aquifer in granitic terrain
GraniteGranite
Water table
Palaeo water reservoir
Batholith
Soil

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5.5.2 Groundwater Analytical Results
5.5.2.1 Summer Data (S-Data):
S-Data is about 6 samples of which three are borewell samples, and three are of
open wells. The primary analysis data and statistical parameters are presented
in Tables 5.21 and 5.25 respectively.
The samples are compared to the inland surface water samples of EPA (Table
5.10). TDS is high in Pocharam borewell (BP1) and the open well (OB5). COD
and BOD are also very high in all the borewells and open wells, with the
exception of open well (OB4). Hg is very high. As and Se are found high in the
open well samples OB5 and OB6.
The samples are compared to the drinking water standards (Table 5.31). Hg is
about 10 to 300 times high in all the wells. Cl is found high in all the well
samples and very high in open well samples. As, Se, SO4 are located high in the
open wells. Pb is high only in one open well sample (OB4). TDS is found
exceptionally high in all the open well samples and one borewell sample (BP1).
Cd is found high in the Borewells (BP1 and BG2) and the open wells (OB5 and
OB6). Zn is high in all the samples except in one borewell sample (BB3). Cu is
found high in BB3, OB4, OB5 and OB6. Mn is found high in BG2 and OB5
samples. Cr and Fe are within the safer limits.
The correlation matrix is given in Table 5.26. The following groups of elements
are strongly and positively correlated: TDS is strongly related to TH, B and Cr,
TH is strongly related to Cl, Cu, As, Se and Cr, Cl is related to Cu, As, Cr and Se,
B is related to Cr and Fe, Cu is related to As and Se, As is related to Se and Cr,
and the pairs of parameters are also strongly related COD – BOD, SO4 – As, F –
Se, Se – Cr.

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5.5.2.2 G1 and G2- Data
The groundwater data’s (G1 and G2) about the year 1991 is considered to
understand the dispersion pattern of pollutants on the ground.
G1-Data
G1 data of 26 samples represent 14 villages adjacent to Nakkavagu, which are
located in the polluted zone. Analysis of these samples is presented in Table
5.22, and statistical parameters are in Table 5.27. Except for three wells, all other
wells have alkaline waters. TDS and TH values are higher in many well samples,
but they are well within permissible limits for inland surface waters of EPA
(Table 5.10). SO4 and Cl are within limits. Some villages are showing high
concentrations of F and Mn. Fe concentration is high in some cases.
The data is compared to the drinking water standards in Table 5.31. In nine
samples TDS is very high which represent the seven villages Baithole, Lakdaram,
Sultanpur, Inole, Chitkul, Arutla and Ismailkhanpet. Chloride is very high in the
majority of the villages. Fluoride is around 1.5ppm in the majority of cases. Mn
is exceptionally great in Bachuguda, Pocharam, Lakdaram, Chidruppa,
Eardanoor and Baithole villages, and high in Lakdaram, Sultanpur, Peddakanjerla
and Ganapathiguda villages. Nitrate is found high in 12 cases representing 8
villages, Lakdaram, Chidruppa, Sultanpur, Inole, Chitkul, Arutla, Bollaram and
Madharam.
The correlation coefficients are shown in Table 5.28, and the correlation matrix
plot in Figure 5.19 reveals that there is a strong positive correlation of TDS, Cl,
Ca, Fe, and also between the following pairs of parameters TDS – NO3, Cl – NO3,
Ca – NO3 and Fe – NO3. This indicates that all the parameters are associated
with TDS, which were released directly, or indirectly by the industries as
effluents.

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Figure 5.19 Correlation of the parameters (GI-data)

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Figure 5.20 Clustering of the parameters (GI-Data)

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The cluster analysis, based on the similarity measures, also indicates that a
substantial grouping of all the parameters (Figure 5.20). The linkage of these
parameters shows that there is a strong relation of TDS with rest of the
parameters.The extent of groundwater pollution is also shown diagrammatically
in Figure 5.21. The distances indicate that the degree of pollution is exceeding
in one case at Peddakanjerla.
The analytical data is subjected to R-mode factor analysis. A three-factor model
is chosen for interpretation. The factor loadings plot (Figure 5.22) indicate the
following groups of parameters (TDS, Cl-
, Ca, and Fe), (TH and Alkalinity (ALK)),
and (Mn and F-
). NO3
-
can be associated with first group as it is located close to
it, SO4
-
and COD are slightly independent, but they are close to the first two
groups. Overall, all the above parameters are the constituents in the industrial
effluents. pH and Mg are independent. Probably Mg is contributed by the
natural hardness in the groundwaters as magnesium carbonate, in addition to
the contamination from industrial effluents. The characteristic Mn and F
association and in confirmation with the samples, which are contributed from
the industrial pollution and also the natural contamination from deep fractures,
that entered into the groundwater.
G2-Data
G2-Data is about 41 samples representing 13 villages adjacent to Nakkavagu
and its tributaries, which are located in the highly polluted zone. Basic analytical
and statistical data of the groundwater samples are presented in Table 5.23 and
5.30 respectively.
When compared to the inland surface waters (Table 5.10), the TDS values are
exceeding in 6 cases that is 2100. Carbonate Hardness (CH), CaCO3, and EC are
also high in samples with high TDS.

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Figure 5.21 Clustering of the cases having similar groundwater pollution
(GI-Data)

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Figure 5.22 Factor loading plot and screen plot (GI-Data)

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The data is compared to the drinking water standards in Table 5.31. Nitrate is
well within the limit, exceptionally high in two samples of Peddakanjerla. Nitrite
is high in as many as 11 samples representing the following villages, Eardanoor
Tanda, Arutla, Chidruppa, Lakdaram, Ganapathiguda, Kardanoor, Inole and
Peddakanjerla. TDS is also very high in about 11 samples of 7 villages Baithole
Tanda, Baithole, Arutla, Lakdaram, Kardanoor, Ganapathiguda and
Peddakanjerla. In the majority of the cases, Cl is very high, whereas F is very
high in Eardanoor and Inole villages.
Clustering of villages with similar groundwater pollution is shown in Figure 5.25.
Clustering of the associated parameters are shown in Table 5.29. There is a very
strong correlation between TDS, Electrical Conductivity (EC), Carbonate
Hardness (CH), Cl and Calcium Carbonate (CaCO3). Therefore carbonates and
chlorides are the major constituents of TDS released by industries. The
dendrogram shows the association of parameters (Figure 5.24).
In the dendrogram (Figure 5.25), the degree of pollution among the samples
are showing less variation except for the last four cases, showing very high
variation from rest of the samples. The four samples are from Ganapathiguda
and Arutla and two samples are from Peddakanjerla.
In the Figure 5.26 generated after R-mode factor analysis the cluster of
parameters are grouped as (EC, TDS, CH, NO3), (Cl, TH, CaCO3), these
parameters are mainly the constituents of the industrial effluents. pH, F and
NO2 are independent. Fluoride can be attributed as mainly a geological
contaminant from deep fractures. Nitrite could be a factor contributed from
agricultural sources i.e. use of nitrogen fertilisers.

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Figure 5.23 Correlation of the parameters (G2-Data)

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Figure 5.24 Clustering of the Parameters (G2-Data)

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Figure 5.25 Clustering of the cases having similar groundwater pollution
(G2-data)

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Figure 5.26 Factor loadings plot and scree plot (G2-data)

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DISCUSSIONS
6.1 INTRODUCTION
The causes and impacts of water pollution are direct and indirect and have
many dimensions. In this chapter, it has been tried to discuss all such
relationships. Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) and Strategic
Environmental Assessment (SEA) which are the tools in decision making for
sustainable development are also discussed. Some of the synthesis discussed in
the following pages reflects the views of either self or the authors of the
literature from which the ideas are quoted.
6.2 ECOSPHERE
The ecosphere is part of geoecosphere or earth. Geoecosphere is defined as the
interacting terrestrial life and life-supporting systems viz. troposphere,
atmosphere, hydrosphere, pedosphere, and biosphere. The interaction of
ecosphere with life and other spheres is shown in Figure 6.1. The sustainability
of life on geoecosphere depends on the quality of all the above spheres. The
rate of change of each geoecospheric component depends on all other spheres
too (Richard, 1995). Human beings, being an inherent component of biosphere
contribute to the overall sustainability or otherwise of the entire geoecosphere
in our unique way. Industrial outfits; the manifestation of human activity, are
clustered to certain zones, very often in and around urban areas. The physical,
chemical and biological nature of ecosphere itself is altered as a result of the
activities like industrialisation, infrastructure development, etc. Industrialisation
often involves generation of different byproducts, which at times are toxic in
nature. The hydrosphere (water) and atmosphere (air) act as two important and
fast couriers for the dispersal of different waste products generated in the
above processes. The hazardous solid waste, which appears immobile, becomes
a source of water pollution through leachets. Thus, preservation, protection,
and conservation of hydrosphere and atmosphere components attain vital
significance.

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6.3 HYDROSPHERE
As discussed above, the preservation of hydrosphere is vital, and this is even
substantiated in the study area too. The hydrosphere and its interaction with
other spheres and external influences are shown in Figure 6.2. The hydrosphere
of Nakkavagu basin suffers mainly from deterioration of the quality of water.
The high degree of the presence of the pollutants in the water environment of
Nakkavagu basin during the last two decades had deteriorated the
environment of Nakkavagu basin.
6.4 ROLE OF HUMAN ACTIVITIES ON ENVIRONMENT
The increase in the intensity of human activities with the progress of mankind is
responsible for the environmental problems on earth. The man is the dominant
species on earth in sheer numbers and capacity to change the natural
environment can be considered a geological agent of action. The impact of
man is largely seen on land and to a lesser extent on the sea. On land or at sea
the activity is limited to the surface environment only.
In biosphere there is no other species as dominant as a man. World Population
is increasing exponentially; therefore, the earth is overburdened by the present
about six billion population. The carrying capacity of earth is reaching a stage of
non-sustenance. The progress of human beings at present is at the cost of
snatching the living rights of about 30 million species, sharing the living space
on this unique planet-earth. Human activity within last three centuries wiped
out many species from this earth. Many species are getting extinct even before
their discovery.
The development and progress of human beings can be attributed to the
geological resources bestowed to human beings by the earth. The progress and
prosperity of human beings is accelerated mainly by the use of water and

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minerals (including soil). The irrigation facilities and fertile soil prospered
agricultural activity, a very old sector in existence for the past more than 5000
years. Although the development of settled agriculture is the precursor for
human development, it accelerated only with the usage of implements and
domestication of animals. Although the devastation of environment and
ecology started since the time man started agriculture, it accelerated only since
industrial revolution.
Extensive discovery and usage of minerals led to the industrial development,
which accelerated only since the 18th
century, started in Europe. The raw
material for industries involves mining - stripping the earth, these minerals
excavated are then concentrated, and complex chemicals are formed out of
them. In the process of production, only minor part of the raw material turns
into the finished product, rest of the chemicals is released as waste into the
environment. The hazardous chemicals let into the environment are the cause
of concern.
6.5 WATER CONTAMINATION
Inorganic, Organic and Synthetic chemical wastes released by industries in
Patancheru are the leading causes of water pollution. Synthetic chemicals are
the substances never produced in nature, many of these chemicals are so stable
that they cannot be broken down by the existing Common Effluent Treatment
process.
Ponds, tanks, lakes, streams, and rivers are the natural chemical laboratories for
all kinds of chemical reactions. The presence of sunlight, the wind, convection
currents in the water, and the potential energy of the stream mixes and stirs the
water. Creation of harmful chemicals from harmless chemicals in the natural lab
is taking place on a wider scale. In routine test’s thousands of complex organic

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176
and inorganic chemicals, those resulting from reactions in the natures lab, are
not analysed. The impact of all those chemicals on biota dependent on those
waters are never known. In situations where the degree of toxicity of chemicals
is beyond the detection capability of human senses, the gravity of the problem
is occasionally revealed by the death of domestic animals, fish, etc., as it is
happening in Nakkavagu basin. In the past two decades hundreds of cattle,
sheep, and other domestic animals died after consuming polluted waters, such
incidents are reported in the press from time to time.
6.6 INDUSTRIES AND POLLUTION
The environment is being polluted by the release of many hazardous
substances by the industries into water, air and soil (Figure 6.8). Many of the
substances that are found in the polluted environment, were not involved in the
evolution of life, therefore they are toxic. Among the 108 elements in the
periodic table, 80 are metals and only 17 of these are toxic viz. Be, Se, Os, Cd,
Pb, Hg, As, Tl, Sb, V, Cr, Te, Ni, Co, Zn, U and Mn. Among the above following
metals are analysed Se, As, Cd, Pb, Hg, Cr and Zn of which Hg, As, Se and Pb are
found to be polluting the water environment of Nakkavagu basin (Ref: Chapter
– V).
The man knows more than seven million chemicals and some 80,000 are in
common use. The carbon-based chemicals account over 90 percent of world
production of organic chemicals and a large proportion of fertilisers. About 800
to 1000 new chemical compounds are introduced each year. The presence of a
large number of pharmaceutical and chemical industries in and around
Patancheru is responsible for releasing organic chemicals into the environment.
Water is an important medium for spreading toxic substances in the
environment. Water also helps in chemical reactions among dissolved

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substances; therefore water is a kind of chemical reactor in nature’s lab, which
can alter the chemical composition and thereby the toxicity of many
substances. Water molecules cause ionisation. Ions are reactive and form
different substances, which could be more or less, toxic, dissolvable, volatile and
able to bioconcentrate. The less oxygen combined with the metal and the more
acid in the water, the more dissolvable the metal. Dissolved metals are easily
taken up by plants and ingested by animals.
The industrial pollution can be broadly classified into inorganic and organic
pollution. Inorganics from industrial sources can be broadly divided into metals,
salts, and acids and bases. The metals are usually found in low concentrations
near localised sources of pollution, but this is balanced by their high human
toxicity. Because they are adsorbed onto minerals, their mobility is restricted.
Trace metals are the metals present in the environment or the human body in
very low concentrations, such as Copper, Iron, and Zinc. Heavy metals are those
trace metals whose densities are at least five times greater than water, such as
cadmium, lead, and mercury. Toxic metals are all those metals whose
concentrations in the environment are now considered to be harmful at least to
some people in some places. Once mobile, metals find their way by many ways
into the biotic systems through, water, food, and air. Chronic poisoning by
long-term exposure to low levels of metals is of more concern than acute
effects. Organo-metallic compounds are more poisonous than the simple
inorganic compounds as they are highly soluble for example alkyl mercuric
compounds.

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Figure 6.2 A simplified model of environmental pollution Holdgate, 1979

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179
Industrial processing often involves derivation of salts as various by-products.
Anions from salts are very mobile and move with the groundwater, cations are
less mobile and undergo ion exchange or adsorption. Some salts contribute to
pollution primarily by their high concentration levels; other salts like arsenic
contribute to pollution because of their toxicity. Acids and bases in the
groundwater are neutralised by aquifer rocks resulting in a salinity increase. Salt
incrustations are commonly found along the banks of Nakkavagu and
Pamulavagu and also in the fields using polluted waters for irrigation.
6.7 INDUSTRIES AND MICRO-CLIMATE
The air pollution has far-reaching impact on the environment; the pollutants
transported by air as a suspended particulate matter or aerosols or in the form
of various gases ultimately return to earth elsewhere, through precipitation or
dry deposition. There is every chance that such pollutants find their way into
the water environment directly or indirectly. Smog formation and acid rains,
which are the two mechanisms of air pollution, have the tendency to alter the
microclimate of the region. Heat island effect is one of the direct / indirect
symptoms of air pollution.
6.7.1 Smog
In the study area, the diurnal temperature variations are usually high.
Occasionally on clear and calm winter night’s temperature, inversions are
witnessed that leads to condensation just above the ground surface called fog.
Particles of smoke and poisonous gases such as sulphur dioxide, oxides of
nitrogen, carbon monoxide;, etc., released from the industries couple with fog
to form smog. The smog is a health hazard. The smog is more common in
Patancheru industrial area especially in the low-lying areas during winters.

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6.7.2 Acid rains
Acid rains are indirect sources of water pollution through the air. The normal
rain is slightly acidic (about pH 5), due to dissolved carbon dioxide and other
naturally occurring acids in the atmosphere. Rain with pH less than normal
values in a region is called acid rain. The air pollutants like sulphur dioxide,
nitrogen oxides, hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide, etc., are released into the
environment in an industrial area. Under dry conditions in the atmosphere, the
gases react chemically with sunlight results in photochemical smog, it is a foul
smelling yellowish haze rich in ozone, running eyes and noses, coughing is the
symptoms, sometimes can lead to death. The photochemical smog cannot be
ignored. Under wet conditions in the atmosphere, like the presence of clouds,
precipitation leads to acid rains. The acidity of rainwater, flowing into streams
and lakes is reduced by rocks containing calcium which neutralises the acid. The
granite rocks in Nakkavagu basin, which contain little calcium, do not neutralise
acid rain, so the acids enter rivers and destroy the ecosystem. pH less than 5.5
leads to a reduction in fish numbers, and fish death occurs below pH 5. Acid
rainwater releases aluminium from rocks, which is poisonous to fish and plants.
Acid rain kills forests over large areas called ‘forest dieback.' The archaeological
monuments like temples, mosques, and graveyards plastered by mortar are
etched or eaten away. The archaeological sites in and around Patancheru
several hundred years old are under threat. Acid rains in and around industrial
areas have the tendency to pollute surface water and groundwater resources.
6.7.3 Heat island
Industries contribute to the rise in atmospheric temperature called ‘Heat Island’;
this phenomenon is experimentally proved for many large cities. Industrial areas
such as those concentrated in Nakkavagu basin too contribute largely for raise
in temperatures and changes in the local climatic conditions.

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The heat in the industrial areas released by the machinery, exothermic chemical
reactions, and vehicles, burning of fossil fuel, wood and from other heat energy
sources. The continuous release of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide,
nitrous oxide, chlorofluorocarbons (CFC's), etc., creates a bubble-like shield of
several square kilometers around an industrial area and the surrounding rural
areas. There is usually high dust content in the air released by the various
processes in an industrial area. The greenhouse gases and the dust allow the
solar radiation but they prevent the outgoing long radiation, therefore heat is
trapped. Consequently, the microclimate in and around an industrial area would
be warmer then the surrounding open countryside. The dust particles and the
gases like sulphur dioxide, nitrogen oxide, chlorine, fluorine, bromine, carbon
monoxide, etc., are hygroscopic in nature encourage condensation, that leads
to cloud cover, the clouds again act as heat blanket.
6.8 TOXICITY
The quantum of pollutant to which each individual is exposed is called the dose,
and the amount of health damage is called the response. The dose is usually
expressed in one of the three ways, a) The amount of substance actually in the
body. b) The amount of the material entering the body (usually in food,
drinking water, or the air). c) The concentration in the environment (John et al
1991). Toxicity of pollutants is shown in hypothetical dose-response curve
(Figure 6.9)
The assimilation of xenobiotic chemicals within organism at sub-lethal or lethal
levels may induce a sequence of biological effects. These range from molecular
interference with biochemical mechanisms and interactions with cellular
organelles (e.g. DNA and RNA molecules), through to pathological changes at
the cellular, tissue, and organ levels. Finally, these result in an integrated

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functional or behavioural response, experienced at the whole organism level,
which may be reversible or irreversible (Des and Gregory, 1984).
Figure 6.3 Hypothetical dose-response curve a) the observed effects of a
substance essential to life at low concentrations b) the effects of a non-essential
substance, Duffus, 1980.

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Biomagnification is an indirect route of pollutants reaching species at higher
trophic levels, through an endless cyclic transfer of food material from life to
life. Often the victims are identified lately and by the time of discovery a large
community is under the impact of pollution. This kind of pollution requires a
thorough study of all the paths of food chains. Ultimately the estimation of
impact of pollution on human beings is possible through epidemiological
studies. It is the search for statistical associations between the occurrence of
disease in a population and the factors suspected of causing the disease.
6.8.1 Toxics Found in Nakkavagu Basin
The following are the toxicants, which are being used by the industries in the
production. Many of these toxicants would be consumed in part only for end
product, rest of the chemicals are released as wastes, would pollute the water
environment of Nakkavagu basin. The health and environmental impacts
discussed are from Harte et al., 1991.
Acetone:
Other names: Dimethyl ketone,~ 2propallone; pyroacetic ether; ketone
propane.
Health Effects:
Inhalation of very high concentrations can depress the central nervous system,
causing dizziness, weakness, and loss of consciousness The presence of large
amounts of acetone

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Ammonia:
Other names: Ammonia water; ammonium hydroxide.
Health effects:
The symptoms of ammonia exposure are a burning sensation (in the eyes, nose
and throat), pain in the lungs, headache, nausea, tearing, coughing and an
increased breathing rate. Concentrations are shown in table below~
Health Effect Concentration
Throat irritation
Cough
Life threatening
High mortality
400 ppm
1700 ppm
2400 ppm
>5000 ppm
Environmental effects:
Ammonia (NH3) adds nitrogen to the environment, In areas that cannot handle
the added nitrogen, disruptions to the ecosystem will result, These include toxic
effects on plants, Birds, and animals and changes in the balance of species,
Although ammonia is a base, it actually acidifies soil by its rapid conversion to
nitrate (NO3), releasing hydrogen ions just like other acids
Arsenic:
Physical and chemical properties: Arsenic and selenium are antagonistic toxins
exposure to one reduces the adverse effects of the other.
Health effects:
Lung cancer from inhaling arsenic and skin cancer from swallowing it are the
two most dangerous effects of arsenic exposure for the general population.
Inorganic is considered as the highest category of cancer-causing chemicals.

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Acute Arsenic Poisoning is characterised by severe gastrointestinal damage
resulting in vomiting and diarrhea and general vascular collapse leading to
`shock, coma, and even death.
Environmental Effects:
Arsenic is toxic to plants in high concentrations Eventually the trees may
become totally unproductive.
Benzene:
Other Names Benzol,_ carbon otl,` coal tar naphtha; cycLohexatriene,_ phenyl
hydride; pyrobenzole
Health effects: Acute exposure following ingestion or excessive inhalation
depresses the central nervous system resulting in a headache, dizziness, nausea,
convulsions, coma, and possibly death. It is considered as a carcinogen.
Leukemia -induced death rate of 95 per 1000 workers based on an assumed
lifetime occupational exposure.
Environmental effects: Benzene is a long-term contaminant of groundwater
because it cannot readily evaporate underground, and since little microbial
activity occurs in underground water, it is not degraded
Cadmium:
Health Effects:
Inhaled cadmium is associated with lung cancer in people. Chronic exposure to
low levels of cadmium may also result in progressive lung diseases such as
emphysema and chronic bronchitis Chronic exposure to cadmium is also
associated with a wide range of other diseases, including heart disease, anemia,
skeletal weakening, depressed immune system response, and kidney and live
disease.

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Organisms strongly accumulate cadmium at all levels. Cadmium has the
Potential to concentrate in the food chain.
Copper:
Health Effects:
Copper deficiency leads to anemia, growth retardation defective keratinization,
hypothermia, mental deterioration, etc. Excess copper leads to diseases like
hePatitis, cirrhosis tremor, kayser fleisher rings and renal dysfunction
Chromium:
Health Effects:
Chromium metal appears to be biologically inert, and no harmful effects have
been reported. Chromium compounds are responsible for the majority of all
adverse effects of chromium. Chromium can produce liver and kidney damage,
internal haemorrhage, dermatitis, respiratory damage, and lung cancer, Longer-
term exposures to the respiratory tract and skin can produce perforated and
ulcerated nasal septa, inflammation of the nasal passages, frequent nose
bleeds, and skin ulcers.
Dioxane:
Other Names: /, 4-Dioxane,` pdiomn,` di(ethylene oxide); diethyLene dioxide;
diethyLene ether; diethylene oxide. Dioxane is a synthetic organic compound
Health effects:
Chronic exposure to dioxane is also hazardous. Prolonged skin exposure can
cause a rash or bump Repeated exposure to levels that do not cause symptoms

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can lead to slowed central nervous system function and liver and kidney
damage. These symptoms may be delayed because the chemical has a
tendency to accumulate in body tissue, When dioxane is present in chlorinated
water, a highly toxic compound is formed Its toxicity is 1000 times.
Dioxane could pose a toxic threat to the groundwater supplies if concentrations
are high enough, because of slow microbial degradation and it cannot
evaporate easily from groundwater.
Ethylene Dichloride (EDC):
Health effects:
Central nervous system and gastrointestinal problems such as dizziness, nausea
headache, vomiting, diarrhea, dilated pupils, weak pulse, cyanosis, and
unconsciousness. Kidney and liver damage. In mammals metabolism of EDC
produces metabolites (including chloroacetaldehyde, chloroacetic acid, and
chloroethanol) that appear to be several times more toxic than the parent
compound The metabolic products bind strongly to DNA than does EDC such
binding reactions are involved in the development of mutations, birth defects,
and cancers
Environmental effects
Groundwater contaminant as evaporation rates from underground water is low,
Fluoride:
Health Effects:
The intake of small recommended amounts of fluoride provides partial
protection against tooth decay (dental caries). There is also evidence that small
doses of fluoride can help stimulate bone growth in patients with osteoporosis.
Over-consumption leads to gastrointestinal illness, nausea, and vomiting.

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Long'-term exposure to high levels of fluoride in drinking water can lead to a
serious condition called severe skeletal fluorosis, or crippling fluorosis In this
disease, fluoride causes irregular bone deposits to form, which can lead to
severe pain in joints and eventual crippling Mouling of the teeth (dental
fluorosis) is the most widespread effect of fluoride. As tooth enamel forms in
childhood
Formaldehyde:
Other Names: Formalin,' Methyl aldehyde.
Highly water soluble, colourless gas with a pungent odour and irritant
properties Health effects: Formaldehyde is a possible carcinogen. Health effects
at various concentrations are given in the table below.
Effect Concentration (in
ppm)
Neurophysiological effects
Eye irritation
Upper respiratory irritation
Lower airway and pulmonary effects
Pulmonary edema, inflammation, pneumonia
Death
0.05-1.05
0.05-2.0
0.10-25
5.0-30
50.0-100
>100
Iron:
Health Effects:
Iron deficiency leads to anemia, but exposure to excess iron leads to hepatitic
failure diabetes and testicular atrophy etc.
Lead:

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Health Effects:
Lead affects the human nervous system, the production of blood cells, kidneys,
reproductive system, and behaviour. The risks of lead poisoning are greatest in
children and pregnant women, Health effects at various blood lead levels are
given in the table below.
Health Effect Blood Lead
Concentration
(ppb/100ml)
Level of concern for fetal effects
Blood enzyme changes
IQ deficiencies in children
Clinical anemia, children
Clinical anemia adults
Reproductive effects in adults
Mental losses (writing and speech problems and
mental retardation)
Irreversible brain damage
10-15
15-20
<25
40
50
50
50-60
100
Manganese:
Health Effects:
Deficiency leads to bleeding disorder whereas excess leads to diseases such as
encephalitis, psychosis, Parkinson syndrome and pneumoconiosis
Mercury:
Other Name: Quicksilver
Health Effects:
In addition to pure mercury compounds of mercury can also be harmful,
Methylmercury accumulated in fish by biomagnification, is rapidly absorbed by

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people who eat such fish and can readily pass through the placenta of pregnant
women, exposing developing fetuses, and through the blood-brain barrier into
the brain. High exposure leads to damages to the nervous system, Memory
losses, tremors, emotional instability (anxiety and irritability), insomnia, and loss
of appetite characterise milder exposures. Introversion appears to be the most
prominent personality trait in affected people. At moderate exposures, more
significant mental disorders and motor disturbances as well as kidney damage,
are seen.
-Inorganic mercury discharges by industry are converted by bacteria water and
in sediments to organic methylmercury~ The organic form, methylmercury
accumulates in the aquatic food chain through the process of biomagnification.
-Acid rain and the increasing acidification of surface waters, more acidic
conditions shift the organic mercury to forms that are more readily absorbed by
fish (dimethyl to monomethyl mercury), thus raising the levels in fish to which
humans are ultimately exposed
-Freshwater species are more vulnerable than marine species because selenium
in seawater provides partial protection against mercury's effects
Methylene Chloride:
Other Names: Dichloromethane,' methane dichloride,' methylene dichloride
Health effects:
Methyl chloride is a common pollutant of air and groundwater. The main
exposure is through inhalation. Methyl chloride readily absorbed once inside
the lungs' Absorbed methylene chloride is distributed throughout the body and
easily crosses the blood-brain barrier and the placenta It can also be found in
the breast milk of exPosed women' Once inside the body, methylene chloride is
rapidly converted to carbon monoxide' although it can also be stored in body

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fat. People exposed to high levels of methylene chloride show decreased
manual performance and attention lapses. Heart arrhythmias and death have
been ascribed to excessively high levels of the solvent in air. Methylene chloride
may cause cancer.
Methylene chloride stays in the groundwater for many years. It does not stick
well to soil particles and thus allowing it to move great distances in an aquifer
following its release into soil.
Nitrogen dioxide:
Health effects: Some health effects of Nitrogen Dioxide Exposure
Effect Concentration
Airway resistance increases in chronic bronchitis
Symptoms in asthmatics (nasal discharge,
headaches,
dizziness, and labored breathing)
Infections in young children
1.6 (3-minute exposure)
0.5 (2-hour exposure)
0.15-0.30 (repeated peak
exposure)
Nitric acid, the end product of nitrogen dioxide chemical reaction is the end
product in air. Acid min is a threat to plants and freshwater fauna
Selenium:
Health Effects:
Selenium is the metallic element required in small amount for human health,
but which in large quantities can be toxic, Chronic selenium poisoning results in
loss of hair and fingernails, with disorders of skin, nervous system, and teeth
also reported Selenium has shown to reduce the toxicity of cadmium, inorganic

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and dimethyl mercury, thallium, and silver by altering the way these metals
react in the body.
Environmental Effects
Selenium intoxication of farm animals is a well-known condition that
accumulates selenium from soils rich in the substance. Chronic ingestion over
periods of weeks or months can produce two conditions the blind staggers-
affected animals have impaired vision and alkali disease-signs include liver
cirrhosis, hoof malformations, loss of hair and emaciation.
Sulphur Dioxide:
Health effects:
Effect Concentration (ppm)
Lung function in resisting asthmatics 1-2
Lung function changes in asthmatics with light to
moderate exercise
0.6-0.75
Lung function changes in asthmatics with
moderate to heavy exercise
0.4-0.6
No effects in free-breathing asthmatics at fight
exercise and insignificant effects at moderate
exercise
0.1-0.3

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The most severe damage is caused by the conversion of sulphur dioxide to
sulphuric acid in the atmosphere and its subsequent deposition as acid rain and
dry acid particles
Toluene:
Other Names: Methylbenzene,' methyl benzyl; phenylmethane; toluol.
Health effects:
Upon inhalation, the vapours aggravate the respiratory tract, depress the
central nervous system, and damage the liver and kidneys Exposure of pregnant
women to toluene has been associated with damage to the unborn child
Environmental Effects
In the atmosphere, toluene contributes to the problem of photochemical smog
Natural plant and animal populations are likely to be at risk from industrial and
vehicle-related releases of toluene because natural levels are very low in
comparison
Zinc:
Other Names: Chinese white,_ flowers of zinc; philosophers wool;
Health Effects:
Zinc is required for human health over-consumption of zinc may impair heart
function. It is the most common metal found in Human tissues after iron. Much
zinc can result in a condition called zinc toxicosis Over consumption of zinc
leads to stomach distress, cramps, nausea, vomiting, and diarrhoea.

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Zinc is more a hazard to aquatic organisms than to humans In areas around
smelters and mine runoff plant growth is depressed and aquatic life and
waterfowl are impaired The effects of zinc are greater in soft water than in hard
water.
6.9 PEOPLE
Nakkavagu basin and surrounding areas are being inhabited for more than 2
million years. These indigenous peoples life is in jeopardy at this juncture of
history, the development that claims the progress of life and mankind also acts
against it. The sons of the soil are nowhere safe on this earth, more unlikely
near the industrial areas. Pollution does not have limits; the cause and effect
can reach any distances, by any media and means.
The traditional knowledge has little meaning in the modern industries.
Industrialisation is meaningful if it brings real development in the lives of
indigenous people. In the name of development of backward Districts as in the
case of Medak District, industrialisation is alone not justified. The agricultural
activity with options of irrigation sources falls under zone one and two of
intensive agriculture of Von Thunen’s five agricultural zones that is intensive
dairy farming and horticultural activity. Around Hyderabad this is the only
region best suitable for the intensive agricultural activity, having the finest
watershed management.
Patancheru is the sub-urban part of Hyderabad; this region is prosperous in
comparison to other interior parts of the District which are backward, the
development of those parts would have been justified if at all there is any
interest to develop the backward Medak District.

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The industrial activity is secondary which requires skilled persons and literates,
or else it becomes an attractive place for the immigrants and in real terms of
development little does the local people will be benefited directly in the form of
jobs. With the proximity to Hyderabad, in fact, the industrialisation benefited
the immigrants and other residents in securing jobs than the rural indigenous
population. The Medak District overall got benefited very little. The industries
are thriving at the cost of environmental degradation. It 's hard to evaluate and
estimate the total losses to property and life, due to pollution. The
industrialisation in this part of Medak District benefited the local population
very little, but it could have earned riches for the state and the nation in the
form of foreign exchange and taxes. The bulk drug industries are providing
succour to millions of people elsewhere but same industries causing diseases
and / or death of the local people. These industrialists have not taken any major
social service work for the local people, though it is the social and moral
responsibility of industrialists towards them. The industrialisation in this part of
Medak District has given more sufferings to the indigenous people then
prosperity.
6.10 SOCIO-ECONOMIC ISSUES
As far as human beings are considered, developmental activities in a region are
weighed by positive and negative Socio-economic parameters. Any
developmental activity is meaningless unless a majority of the local population
is benefited out of it. Socio-economic impact is equally important as
biophysical impact, but in the majority of Environmental Impact Assessment’s
less importance is given for Socio-Economic impact. It is often found that
industrial pollution and its impact on the biophysical environment are
overlooked if socio-economic benefits are considerable.

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The social and economic impacts are determined by the type of projects and
upon the host environmental characteristics of the region. Socio-economic
impacts are of various types. The direct impact is the creation of employment
opportunities for local and non-local people. The educational and industrial
training institutes at local level provide opportunities for the local population in
the skilled sector. The attraction of higher wages leads to some people shifting
from less promising traditional occupations. Industrial development also leads
to a shortage of agricultural labour, as they shift to industries for work, which
provides higher wages. The leakage from multiplier benefits would lessen if the
percentage of local labour employment were high. The cause-effect diagram for
the local socio-economic impacts due to industrial development is shown in
Figure 6.3.
6.11 LANDSCAPE
The industrialisation and other developmental activities in Nakkavagu basin
brought changes in the landscape by the construction of buildings, laying of
roads, the release of pollutants, etc. The landscape is an important national
resource and an outstanding natural and cultural inheritance, which is widely
appreciated for its aesthetic beauty and is important contribution to regional
identity and sense of place. Although it is subject to evolution and change, the
landscape is recognised as a resource of value to future generations. (DOT
1993). The following is an initial list of factors that contribute to landscape (CC,
1993).

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Figure 6.4 Cause and Effect diagram for local socio-economic impacts of
industrial development (Redrawn and modified figure, Glasson et al. 1987)

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 Physical: geology, landform, climate, and micro-climate, drainage, soil,
ecology
 Human: archaeology, landscape history, land use, buildings and settlements
 Aesthetic:
 Visual, e.g. proportion, scale, enclosure, texture, colour, views
 Other senses e.g. sounds, smells, tastes, touch
 Associations:
 Historical, e.g. history of settlements, special events
 Cultural, e.g. well-known personalities, literature, painting, music.
The indigenous people associated with the local landscape since childhood will
find it difficult to appreciate the changed landscape. For the youngsters who
are born after the establishment of industries between 10 to 20 years of age,
there is no comparative landscape of any kind in their minds, as they have not
experienced anything better landscape since their birth. The elderly persons
were nostalgic when asked to compare the landscape that they witnessed
before and after industrial development.
Nakkavagu was the center of activity for the people of Bachuguda village;
people were seen taking a bath in the waters, catching fish, washing clothes,
etc. It was also the place for domestic animals for drinking water and taking a
bath in those waters. Such scenes in the landscape of Nakkavagu are missing at
present.
The pollution of environment will lead to mental disturbance too. The pitch
dark polluted waters with floating oils and grease and the bad odour
emanating from the water repel people from approaching them. The change in
the composition of plant species brought a total change in the landscape of the
area. Birds are appearing less in numbers they have migrated elsewhere, at very

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few non-polluted lakes large population of several birds are seen, example
Lakdaram tank. Aesthetics of the region is spoiled completely by the industrial
pollution.
6.12 CONCEPTS OF EIA AND SEA
Environmental impact can be defined as any change in the environment that is
caused by an activity or a factor. The change caused by an activity may be
physical, chemical, biological, social or economic. (Ramaswamy et al., 1990).
History of Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) is given in Table 6.1.
Table 6.1 History of developments in Environment and EIA.
1947 Representatives of 24 nations and many private societies met at Switzerland to
propose the creation of an ‘International Union for Conservation of Nature’
(IUCN) which came into being in 1948 under UNESCO.
Mid-1960’s Warning from scientists – climate change – increasing carbondioxide.
Late 1960’s Environmental awakening.
1962 Rachel Carson – ‘Silent Spring’ – About the use of pesticides – a great impact
on masses.
1969 National Environmental Protection Act (NEPA), USA, launched EIA and EIS.
Pre 1970 Legislation’s enacted by many countries – air and water pollution, soil erosion.
1970’s A decade of response and action.
1971. World Bank – Environmental Unit – Environmental reconnaissance on hydro
projects and guidelines on EIA.
1972 UN conference on Human Environment, Stockholm, Sweden.
1974 UN conference on the Population.
1976 U. N. conference on Human Settlements.
1987. Asia Development Bank (ADB) – Environmental unit – guidelines on EIA.
1990 Resource Management Act, New Zealand – Principle of sustainability.
1994 EIA is made mandatory for 29 categories of industries by Govt. of India.
The EIA is having a role in achieving the sustainable goals. Sustainable
development is that development which meets the needs of the present

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without compromising the ability of future generations to achieve their needs
and aspirations’ (Brundtland Commission, World Commission on environment
and Development (WCED), 1987). The concept of sustainable development can
be made operational in the form of carrying capacities. EIA is a way of assessing
the carrying capacity, which is a function of some variables, area of the region,
resources under threat, nature of resources, value of the resources and limits of
capacity.
Environmental impact assessment (EIA) aims to prevent environmental
degradation by giving decision-makers better information about the
consequences that development projects could have on the environment. The
benefits of EIA are widely recognised, yet the approach has been applied
primarily to individual projects such as industrial installations or power stations,
rather than to the earlier policy decisions that often strongly influence decisions
concerning projects. The emerging context of EIA is given in Figure 6.5.
Integration of EIA into project cycle is shown in figure 6.6.
Increasingly, Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA) is being used to assess
the consequences of policies, plans and programmes (PPP’s) at the earlier
stages of decision-making. Before going for regional development plans, such
as industrialisation of a region, etc., Strategic Environmental Assessment is
important only after such an assessment, individual proposed projects
assessment should be done. As a result, SEA is likely to become the most direct
method for implementing sustainability. The potential benefits of SEA are given
in Table 6.2. The direct and indirect effects of policies and programmes are
shown in figure 6.4.

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Figure 6.5 The emerging context of EIA, Sadler, 1994

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Figure 6.6 Integration of EIA into project cycle
Source : United Nations Environment Programme, 1998)

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Figure 6.7 Direct and indirect effects of policies and programmes
Source: Federal Environmental Assessment Review Office, 1994)

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Table 6.2 Potential benefits of strategic environmental assessment (Wood
and Djeddour, 1992)
 Encourages the consideration of environmental objectives during policy, plan and
programme-making activities with in non-Governmental organisations
 Facilitates consultations between authorities on, and enhances public involvement
in, evaluation of environmental aspects of policy, plan and programme formulation.
 May render some project EIAs redundant if impacts have been assessed
adequately.
 Allows formulation of standard or generic mitigation measures for later projects.
 Encourages consideration of alternatives often ignored or feasible in project EIA.
 Can help determine appropriate sites for projects subsequently subject to EIA.
 Allows more effective analysis of cumulative effects of both large and small
projects.
 Encourages and facilitates the consideration of synergistic effects.
 Allows more effective consideration of ancillary or secondary effects and activities.
 Facilitates consideration of long range and delayed impacts.
 Allows analysis of the impacts of policies, which may not be implemented through
projects.
Current SEA processes vary considerably. They may be formal / informal,
comprehensive or more limited in scope and closely linked with or unrelated to
either policy or planning instruments (Prasad, 1998). Regarding SEA, India has
little experience, and it is yet to be considered as a mandatory procedure for
every regional development policies, plans, and programmes.
Strategic environmental assessment and Project Environmental Impact
assessment differ in five ways. (Wood, 1995).
1. The precision with which spatial implications can be defined is less.
2. The amount of details relating to nature of physical development is less.
3. The lead-time is greater.
4. The decision-making procedures and the organisations involved may
differ, requiring a greater degree of co-ordination.

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5. The degree of confidentiality may well be greater.
EIAs followed by SEA is important for achieving the sustainable development of
a region. India is one of the first developing countries in the world to bring out
various legislative measures for the protection of the environment. As these two
tools are the recent developments, India should set an example by strictly
implementing the EIA and SEA for various developmental projects for achieving
sustainable development.
The legislative measures brought by Government of India for the protection of
Environment are given below.
- Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972
- Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974
- Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Cess Act, 1977
- Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980
- Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981
- The Environment (Protection) Act, 1986
- The Public Liability Insurance Act, 1991

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ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS
7.1 INTRODUCTION
Environmental impact may be defined as any changes in environmental
conditions or creation of a new set of environmental conditions, adverse or
beneficial, caused or induced by the action or set of actions under
considerations.
Environmental impacts can be of three types as, primary, secondary and
tertiary. Primary impacts are the result of direct actions and, secondary and
tertiary impacts are indirectly induced and typically include the associated
investment and changed patterns of social and economic activities by the
proposed action.
All the impacts have been comprehensively assessed or discussed in this
section. Many of the impacts were covered in detail in the previous chapters.
7.2 PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT
7.2.1 Geology
a) The granitic terrain of Nakkavagu basin being acidic in nature does not
buffer the acidic waters directly released by industries.
b) Joints and fractures in the Granites act as conduits for carrying the
effluents to far off places.
c) Deep well disposal practice in Nakkavagu basin is not recommendable.
As Nakkavagu basin is located over hard rock area (Peninsular granites
and gneisses), effluents do not have any chance to penetrate deep into
the ground and get restricted to shallow zones. With the result,
groundwater of the area gets polluted.
d) It is possible that some of the pollutants identified in water and soil
samples are contributed by the geology of the area. It can be seen that

207
pH of some of the surface water bodies is acidic, which leaches and helps
in the movement of certain elements. These elements get deposited
under favourable conditions.
7.2.2 Topography
The slope of the basin is in the NW direction, while most of the industries are
located in the south-east quarter of the basin. Consequently, effluents flow all
the way across the basin. This increases the residence time for the toxicants.
The increase in residence time of effluents leads to the spread of pollution in
the basin, covering a larger area.
The construction of industries and other ancillary structures has resulted in a
change in the topography of the area mainly in the south-eastern quadrant of
Nakkavagu basin where the majority of the industries are located.
7.2.3 Soils
a) Black cotton soils are predominantly rich in clay content (up to 50
percent) and are less permeable. They hinder percolation of effluents
entering into groundwater.
b) Clay of brick making grade that is available at Patancheru is also a
hindrance for the percolation of pollutants. The clay also adsorbs some
of the hazardous elements.
c) Industrial pollution had degraded the soil quality, as can be seen in
Figure 7.1.
d) The salts dissolved and deposited in the valleys resulted in salt
incrustations in the soils adjacent to Nakkavagu. Saline soils lead to
relatively poor germination and leads to physiological drought, thereby
effecting the growth of the plants.
e) The polluted and non-productive fields are being used for the mining of
sand (recent alluvium along the banks of Nakkavagu), and the clay of

208
brick making grade for the construction industry had resulted in loss of
top fertile soil and presently these fields are turned into badlands.
f) The mining of sand along Nakkavagu also results in easy movement of
pollutants further into new areas along Nakkavagu.

209
Figure 7.1 Impact of Pollution on Soil – A visualized diagram

210
7.2.4 Climate and Meteorology
Temperature conditions and evaporation rates are relatively high in tropical
climatic conditions. Such a condition results in a concentration of the pollutants
in the effluents. Concentrated effluents are more toxic than diluted effluents.
Similarly, as this area receives just about 80cms of annual rainfall, the dilution
factor is very less. The problem of formation of salt incrustations increases in
areas with high temperature and less rainfall. And also the residence time of
pollutants would have been less in the case of areas with high rainfall, as the
pollutants would be flushed out with the rainwater.
Wind speed and direction is important in understanding the impacts of air
pollution. The Pre-monsoon south-eastern winds in the evenings have an
impact on the residents of Hyderabad. The winter winds, which move in the
east and southeast direction mostly, are the most hazardous to the residents of
Hyderabad. In October (23rd
and 24th
) and November (15th
) 1998, the gas such
as methyl mercaptan (it is a heavy gas and it is easily detectable even in
miniscule amounts) was released by one of the three industries in Nakkavagu
basin, reached as far as Jubilee hills and Panjagutta in Hyderabad. This gas
which is easily detectable was the cause of annoyance and protest by the public
(Venkateshwarulu, 1998). The Hazardous gases released by the industries and
which cannot be detected by human beings would have an impact on the
health of Hyderabad population residing in the north-western part of
Hyderabad. The heavy gases would accumulate in the narrow and valley like
parts of the city, especially during the winters, as the air would be cool and
heavy. This would be part of the usual smog, and mist observed during the
winters. As the annual wind patterns are rare in the southern and south-western
directions, the rural people are relatively safer as compared to the larger
population residing in Hyderabad to the east and south-east.

211
Due to heavy air pollution, acid rains are possible. However, air pollution from
NOx, and SO2 is not a major threat presently to the resident population in the
area. But there is another threat from the volatile organic compounds (VOCs)
like Benzene, Toluene etc., as these chemicals are being used in large quantities
in the industries. Absence of forests and other vegetation coverage, the
problem of particulate matter is high especially in Patancheru.
7.3 BIOLOGICAL ENVIRONMENT
7.3.1 Flora
The region has a rich bio-diversity of plant species, meeting the needs of the
people in different ways for the past several centuries. People are well aware of
the use of this invaluable resource. However, pollution in the region had
drastically reduced the incidence of natural species. Due to the presence of
polluted waters, soil, and air, under the new environmental conditions, many
plant species is reduced to few numbers and are limited to few pockets. The
resistant species such as Acacia fernugia is seen in more numbers in all the
highly polluted parts of the basin, in the industrial areas, and all along polluted
Isukavagu, Pamulavagu, and Nakkavagu. Industrial pollution also affected the
agriculture sector in some areas of Nakkavagu basin. This relationship is shown
in Figure 7.2.
7.3.2 Fauna
There is very little wild fauna in the region, as the percentage of forest cover is
very less, and presently appears in pockets only. The major threat is to existing
fauna mainly domestic animals, and birds. The impact of pollution on domestic
animals such as disease and death lead to direct economic losses to the
farmers. The appearance of birds, resident and migratory, is decreasing
drastically. In fact, even the sparrows are seen in less numbers in the area. The
perennial water tanks located in the south and south-eastern part of the basin,

212
where the majority of Industries are located. The industrial effluents entering
into such tanks made the water toxic, has an impact on the aquatic life, which in
turn affects the aquatic birds.

213
Figure 7.2 Impact of Pollution on Agriculture

214
Manjira wildlife sanctuary is located close to this region; the majority of the
industries in Nakkavagu basin are well within 25 to 30 kms of this sanctuary. As
per the environmental guidelines for industries (MoE & F, 1994), all the
polluting industries located well within 25 kms from the ecologically sensitive
areas which includes Sanctuaries should be shifted to a safer distance. Birds not
constrained by geographical barriers, birds visiting this sanctuary would also
visit Nakkavagu basin wherein they are likely to be exposed to various kinds of
pollutants.
7.3.3 Flora and Fauna of Surface Waters
The surface waters include the tanks and streams of Nakkavagu basin. The
impacts are mainly due to the pollutants released by industries into the surface
water bodies. Isukavagu, Nakkavagu and Manjira River (after the confluence of
Nakkavagu) do not support any significant life. Similarly, Khazipally cheru,
Gandigudem cheru, Krishnareddipet cheru, Mukta kunta, Bollaram cheru,
Khazipalli village cheru, Saka cheru, Isnapur cheru and Chitkul cheru are the
most polluted and support very little aquatic life. Whereas Nagula cheru,
Aminpur cheru, Mutangi cheru and Lakdaram cheru, and Manjira River before
the confluence with Nakkavagu are less polluted, hence they support a good
number of aquatic species (Ref: Table 3.3 in Chapter–III).
7.4 Socio-Economic and Cultural Environment
For the socio-economic and cultural environment impact assessments
Patancheru, R.C.Puram, Jinnaram and Sangareddy Mandals are considered in
which Nakkavagu basin exists.
7.4.1 Population
Because of the proximity to Hyderabad, industrial development and the passing
of N.H-9 are the factors responsible for the development of R.C.Puram and

215
Patancheru. One of the reasons for less development of Patancheru in
comparison to R.C.Puram is because of water pollution and obnoxious smell.
Female ratio per 1000 males is less for Patancheru and other three Mandals as
single bachelor's immigrated from elsewhere, for working in the industries at
the cost of the local population.
The population structure of most polluted villages, which are located close to
the industrial areas and the polluted streams such as Ismailkhanpet, Arutla,
Chidruppa, Bythole, Eardanoor, Indrakaran, Lakdaram, Chinnakanjerla,
Peddakanjerla, Sultanpur, Krishnareddipet, Indresham, Inole, Bachuguda,
Chitkul, Isnapur, Kardanoor, Muttangi, Pocharam, Khazipalli and Bollaram. The
percentage of the rural population is around 80% in some villages, which
means not many people are taken in jobs in spite of industrialisation. Only
around 20% of the population is literate that reduces the job opportunities.
Around 20% of the population being below 6 years of age are sensitive to
pollution.
7.4.2 Education
As the literates and the educated local population is low in comparison to a
large number of educated people in a city like Hyderabad which is located in
the suburbs, local people are getting less employment opportunities.
7.4.3 Health
Many of the polluted villages in Nakkavagu basin along polluted streams have
no safe drinking water supply. In 1997 High Court passed an interim order in
the Public Interest Litigation (W.P.No. 26336 dated 5.7.97), asking the
government to provide and continue water supply to the pollution affected
villages in and around Patancheru and Bollaram industrial areas. The villages
include Kalabgur, Kandi, Rudraram, Isnapur, Chitkul, Muttangi, Pocharam,

216
Patancheru and Ramachandrapuram. The domestic animals such as cattle and
sheep, upon drinking the polluted waters either got effected and some of them
died in many instances. Moreover, the crops grown in such a polluted
environment could be phytotoxic. Therefore the polluted water, air and food
would have an adverse impact on the lives of people and other life in
Nakkavagu basin. The present Public Health Centers and Veterinary services
provided by Government are inadequate.
7.4.4 Land – use
The increase in the fallow lands and less percentage of net sown area in
Patancheru, Sangareddy, Jinnaram and R.C.Puram Mandals can be related to
the developmental activities and the pollution of the environment by industries.
7.4.5 Agriculture
Many farmers have shifted to dryland farming where the surface and
groundwater sources are polluted. Some of the farmers are leaving their fields
fallow even up to 20% as in case of Pocharam and Bachuguda villages.
The polluted tanks and the wells to the south-east and southern part of the
basin and the wells along Nakkavagu rendered water unfit for irrigation, either
the crop yields would be very low or occasionally the whole crop would wither
and die. The pollution of water and soil has an adverse impact on the majority
of the local population still dependent on agriculture especially would affect the
majority of marginal farmers.
7.4.6 Employment
Industrialisation did not help the local people in getting alternative
employment opportunities because of the most competitive people in
Hyderabad. Therefore there is a large-scale migration of `skilled’ people into
this region. As the residential areas are located towards Hyderabad away from

217
the industrial area because of the polluted environment in Patancheru area and
other disadvantages of services. As a result, the indirect employment
opportunities are less, therefore, the multiplier economic benefits are also less.
7.4.7 Cultural Properties
The relics of cultural and other heritage sites existing in and around Patancheru
area were neglected due to industrialisation. Innumerable ancient sculptures,
engravings, etc., found in the region have been abandoned and are never taken
care of nor reported to the Archaeology department.
7.5 WATER ENVIRONMENT
7.5.1 Nakkavagu Basin
Drainage System
The drainage system of Nakkavagu was altered through many centuries by the
interference of human activities, like the construction of tanks and channels,
etc., and also with the recent developmental activities especially in the south-
eastern quadrant of the basin. The drainage system is altered and obstructed,
therefore these kinds of activities will act against the free flow of pollutants, and
hence the residence time of pollutants in the basin increases.
Tanks
The presence of water storage tanks in the south and south-eastern part of the
basin are acting as solar evaporation ponds for the pollutants entering them for
example Isnapur tank, Peddacheruvu, Saka cheruvu, Krishnareddipet tank, etc.
As these tanks are located on the non-permeable rocky area. The excellent
water harvesting and storage facilities constructed in Nakkavagu basin are
acting like traps against the free flow of pollutants thereby increasing the
residence time of the pollutants in the basin.

218
7.5.2 Industrial Pollution in Nakkavagu Basin
The majority of the industries located in Nakkavagu basin are the bulk-drug or
pharmaceutical industries. Some of the chemical compounds which are used as
raw material in the production of drugs are Acetone, Acetyl chloride, Ammonia,
Aniline, Benzene, Bromine, Chlorine, Chlorosulphonic acid, Dimethylcaromyl,
Dioxane, Ethylene dichloride, Formaldehyde, Hexane, Hydrochloric acid, Maleic
anhydride, Methylene chloride, Nitrobenzene, Nitrogen dioxide, Nitrogen
oxides, Phenol, Phenyl glycidal ether, Sodium cyanide, Sulphuric acid, Thionyl
chloride, Toluene, Triethylamine etc. Tonnes of such chemicals are used in the
production are hazardous. In a case study of 10 such industries on an average
about 4.3 times of hazardous raw material is utilised for every unit of the
product produced (Ref. Table 5.1). These industries are using organic and
inorganic hazardous chemicals which when released in the process are
hazardous to the life in Nakkavagu basin.

219
Figure 7.3 Economic leakages by non local workers

220
Common Effluent Treatment Plants (CETPs)
The two CETPs, which were established in Patancheru and Bollaram, to treat the
effluents of member industries, are the major contributors to water pollution in
Nakkavagu basin. The effluents released by CETP-Patancheru are toxic and
hazardous, as the effluents are only partially treated. The sludge that is derived
as a waste product in the treatment process of both the CETPs has no place for
secure disposal, which is again a potential source of water contamination.
Therefore CETPs which are industries by themselves are the major contributors
to water pollution in Nakkavagu basin.
7.5.3 Surface water
The ranges of pollutants found in the water environment of Nakkavagu basin
are shown in (Figure Summary of chemical analysis).
Flowing waters
In general, the quality of effluents in Nakkavagu are deteriorating as observed
over a period (Ref: Table 5.8).
The Nakkavagu and Pamulavagu waters are alkaline. TDS, TH, TSS, COD, BOD,
SO4, Pb, Hg, As, Se are found to be high in the samples collected from,
Nakkavagu, Pamulavagu, and CETP. CETP is releasing the effluents with very
high concentration of all the above parameters and including Cd, Zn, Cu, B, Mn,
Cr and Fe. These waters are not fit for releasing into the inland surface waters
(Table Summary).
TDS, COD, and BOD of the effluents of Nakkavagu are only partially reduced
over a distance of about 22kms. As the chances of dilution in Nakkavagu is less
as the rainfall in this region is about 80cms only. Therefore Nakkavagu mainly
acts as an influent stream, which contaminates the groundwater on either side
of the stream.

222
In rainy season, the level of pollution in Nakkavagu is supposed to be low,
considering the factors of dilution. However, contrary to this belief, the early or
first monsoon showers also add to the pollution of Nakkavagu. Leachets from
solid waste dumps enter into Nakkavagu stream. Salts from salt incrustations in
the soil and or other precipitates would directly or indirectly reach Nakkavagu.
Some of the pollutants may enter Nakkavagu by accident or illegal release of
effluents from `solar evaporation ponds’. They usually overflow, since they
remain uncovered and get filled by rainwater, and also there will be little
evaporation because of cloud cover during monsoons. In spite of dilution, it
was observed during the peak of the rainy season (1997) a particular paddy
field irrigated from Nakkavagu waters at Ismailkhanpet Bridge turned brown
and withered. However, after heavy rains in the later part of the rainy season,
the levels of pollution in Nakkavagu are less, because of dilution. Therefore
nowhere and at no time of the year, Nakkavagu is fit for irrigation right from
Kardanoor village to the confluence point at Gaudcherla (about 25 kms stretch).
Tanks
Tanks were built for conserving water and recharging groundwater. But now
they have become a hindrance to free flow of pollutants in the basin. As a
result, the residence time of the pollutants increased, causing damage to the
environment and ecology in Nakkavagu basin. Industrial effluents polluted
many tanks located in different villages on Pamulavagu tributaries; they are
Khazipally cheru, Gandigudem cheru, Krishnareddipet cheru, Mukta kunta,
Bollaram cheru and Khazipalli village cheru. Some tanks located on the
tributaries of Nakkavagu are also polluted such as Saka cheruvu, Isnapur and
Peddacheruvu. The tanks in isolation and away from industrial areas are less
polluted, and some are best preserved, they are Nagula cheru, Aminpur cheru,
Mutangi cheru and Lakdaram cheru. Almost all the major tanks of Nakkavagu
basin are located to the south-east quadrant of the basin as the industries are

223
also located in the same region, therefore the majority of the tanks are polluted
by the industrial effluents released into them. These polluted tanks have
become secondary sources of pollution of streams, tanks, and the groundwater.
7.5.4 Groundwater
Groundwater is polluted on either side of the Nakkavagu and the waters are not
useful for drinking. TDS, COD, BOD, Cl, and Hg are found to be high in the
groundwater samples collected at Pocharam, Ganapathiguda, and Bachuguda
villages. Open wells, which are close to Nakkavagu, are highly contaminated in
comparison to the borewells.
The pollutants also contaminated the drinking water sources of the following
villages: Baithole, Baithole Tanda, Lakdaram, Sultanpur, Inole, Chitkul, Arutla,
Chidruppa, Ismailkhanpet, Peddakanjerla, Kardanoor, Eardanoor and Eardanoor
Tanda. Some of the pollutants such as F, Mn could have been partially entered
into borewells through deep fractures and also the pollutants such as NO2 and
NO3 could have been the result of use of nitrogen fertilisers by farmers. Overall
the groundwater is contaminated, up to a distance of 500 to 1000 meters on
either side of Nakkavagu, from Kardanoor to Ismailkhanpet.
7.6 ASSESSMENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS ON NAKKAVAGU BASIN
WITH AND WITHOUT INDUSTRIES
This is an exercise to quantify the impacts based on the checklist developed by
the Environmental Evaluation System (EES) at the Batelle Columbus
Laboratories, USA (Dee et al., 1973) is used with some modifications, for final
evaluation of impacts with and without industries. In this assessment, 36
parameters are selected (ref. Figure 1.5). Parameter importance weights (PIW)
represent the value of importance of each environmental parameter. The
weights have been given to the 36 environmental parameters based on the

224
degree of the impact caused by the establishment of industries and associated
developmental activities over the last 40 years (industrialisation started in
Nakkavagu basin about 40 years back). Similarly, the weights were given
assessing the degree of alteration of environmental parameters that would
have happened over the last 40 years, even without industries in Nakkavagu
basin.
Impact assessment is a comparative exercise. In the absence of industries too
there ought to be changed in the environment, mainly because of four factors:
a) The growing population in Nakkavagu basin and associated
developmental activities like housing, road networks and other services.
b) The modernisation of agriculture (increasing use of chemical pesticides
and fertilisers)
c) Influence of growing Hyderabad City and the expansion of the city along
NH-9 axis
d) The impact of NH-9, pollution by vehicles, increase in a number of
vehicles, etc.
The resultant weights were given to all parameters (Tables 7.1 (a), (b), (c), (d)
and (e)). The difference and the total weights are also presented in the tables.
The quantification of the impacts is through personal judgement after going
through all methods of assessment of impacts.
The reasons for impacts without industries are comprehensively discussed
below. Patancheru was traditionally an intensive agricultural zone. In
comparison, there is enormous water potential in the area. Further, being
nearer to Hyderabad, the market plays a vital role in defining the orientation of
agricultural practices. Thus, there should be a decreasing preference among the
farmers to leave the lands fallow.

228
There would have been a slight change in cropping pattern from traditional
crops like paddy to commercial crops. In such a situation, there would have

229
been a corresponding increase in the consumption of pesticides and fertilisers
to maximise yields. The residual chemicals lead to agricultural pollution from
inorganic and organic chemicals. Natural growth of population in the region
will increase pressure on the natural resources like construction material for
housing, etc. Energy consumption also increases. People dependent on
firewood would deplete the existing flora in the common lands. Water, health
and sanitation are also of prime concern. In the absence of industries, the
community structure and participation in social and cultural activities would be
strong. As it is close to Hyderabad City, some people would prefer to shift to
the city for residential purpose. Vehicular traffic on the highway passing
through Patancheru increases the incidence of air and noise pollution leading
to adverse environmental impacts. NH-9 is one of the busiest highways.
The impact assessment studies of this area indicate that there is a considerable
impact on the environment. There is a two-fold increase when compared to the
ratios to ‘No industries.' When viewed for ‘No industries’ it would have retained
80% of the environment unaffected. Whereas with industries, it is observed that
the loss to the environment is to the extent of 60%. Overall the differences
show that there is a limited advantage for human interest such as generation of
jobs but the value of losses to the environment, ecology and aesthetics cannot
be accounted due to the industries. The results should be viewed seriously
otherwise the basin would further become unsuitable for any kind of activities.

Conclusions
230
CONCLUSIONS AND MITIGATIONS
The Nakkavagu basin has been thoroughly studied for Environmental Impact
Assessment(EIA) by considering the physical, biological, socio-economic and
cultural, and water environments Based on the studies and discussions made in
the preceding chapters the following conclusions are drawn and certain
mitigation measures are suggested
8.1CONCLUSIONS
1. Industrial activities including infrastructure and other associated
developmental activities are concentrated in certain zones especially to
the south-eastern quadrant of the basin. Polluted effluents and noxious
gases being released and hazardous solid waste being dumped in the
region. Consequently, physical, chemical and biological nature of surface
environment was altered by these industries. Accumulation of pollutants
over a period of time, and with the expansion of existing industries
coupled with the establishment of new industries in the region increased
the impacts of pollution on the inhabitants of Nakkavagu basin.
2. The surface water and groundwater of Nakkavagu basin is polluted. Large
traces of toxic elements like Hg, As, Se and Pb and high values of TBS,
BOD and COD found in the polluted waters of Nakkavagu basin confirms
this When these elements in various compounds form get transferred
through the food chain is dangerous to the life.
3. Effluents in Nakkavagu polluted the groundwater sources around
industrial areas and along the course of the streams. The contamination
of groundwater resource has affected the agricultural sector. The ground
water is polluted to the maximum on either side of the Nakkavagu, to a
distance of 500 to I OOOm.

Conclusions
231
4. The increase in the number of anaerobic tanks point to escalation of
toxicity levels of the sediments getting deposited by the polluted waters.
5. The high industrial concentration ( a diverse set of industries) release
different byproducts into the stream as hazardous wastes. These
pollutants are a threat to the life in Nakkavagu basin.
6. There is a gross misuse of the concept and facility of CETP in Nakkavagu
basin. The hazardous sludge's dumped or consolidated in the open lands
by these cost or infrastructure intensive treatment plants stand testimony
to this.
7. Increased in-migration rates and the corresponding preponderance of
natives to agriculture and allied practices indicates that the welfare of local
people has not exactly been on the positive side.
8. The loss of biodiversity and the emergence of the dominance of
Xerophytes such as Prosopis Juliflora species strongly point to land
degradation within no major timeframe.
9. The distribution of various industrial clusters in the study area goes
diagonally to the concept of industrial land development mooted by
Central and State governments under the name _Patancheru industrial
area'. The irregular distribution of industrial units irrespective of their
nature of operations or requirements at the same place confirm improper
execution of the development of Patancheru industrial area
10. The concept of modem, pollution free industrial development through
minimal or all effluents release is unknown to the residents of Nakkavagu
basin, the industrial entrepreneurs of Nakkavagu basin and the planners
and administrators looking after the industrial development in Nakkavagu
basin.

Conclusions
232
8.2MITIGATIONS
1. Resistant plant species among the indigenous plant species should be
identified through research, for planting them all along the polluted
streams, on either side. A circular vegetative screen of diverse species
should be planted around all the villages so as to decrease dust and air
pollution. And all along the village roads, a green belt can be raised.
2. Farmlands have become saline and toxic because of the use of polluted
waters, which are rich in salts. Reclamation of saline soils is possible by
two means: a) treatment of fields with gypsum and b) flooding of fields
continuously with unpolluted water. So that the salts and other toxic
elements will be washed away with the excess waters. Throughout the
year at no time, fields should not be exposed to harsh sun, and should
be covered with vegetation. If they are exposed, salts from lower levels
will move to the surface by capillary action and again form as
incrustations.
3. Presently, there are chances of contamination of food crops due to
pollution. Instead, for the time being, raising commercial crops like jute,
cotton, timber plants, etc., should be taken up.
4. The lack of zoning of industries increased the risk of pollution. Zoning
the industries by categories the impact of environmental pollution can
be reduced. Patancheru has a heterogeneous mix of industries, which
complicates the problem of pollution. Effluents from varied industries are
being treated at common effluent treatment plants. There is no effective
method to treat such a complex of effluents.
5. Solid waste generated in industrial processing should be disposed of
safely at secured landfill sites. There is a need for creation of such a
facility near Patancheru, and right now there is no such facility.

Conclusions
233
6. Analysis of effluents through parameters like pH, Total solids, Total
suspended solids, total dissolved solids, chlorides, sulphates, COD, BOD
and DO, Zn, Cd, Pb, Cr, Cu and few other parameters is not adequate.
Organic and synthetic pollutants are a major threat in this area but are
rarely analysed. Therefore Pollution Control Boards (PCB’s) need to be
better equipped with effective instruments for better monitoring and
evaluation of pollution.
7. Prevention of water pollution is better than remedial action. Prevention
of pollution at the source should be given top priority. By taking
necessary steps, harm to human health and the environment can be
lessened.
8. Industries are releasing untreated or partially treated effluents into the
tanks. Such practices should be completely avoided. Catchment area
protection and some measures should be taken for recovering the tanks
as suggested below:
 Prevention of industrial effluents into the tank, diversion of
effluents by laying pipeline system to a safer place. Protected,
lined sewerage system lessens dispersion of pollutants. This
system could follow natural drainage system. And also trenching,
bunding and diversion channels across for preventing the
effluents entering into tanks from probable drains.
 A green belt covering the periphery of the tank beyond full tank
level should be maintained.
 Dredging or desilting the polluted tanks, emptying the tanks
during summer. Followed by the whole tank should be subjected
to lime treatment. This activity is to be finished before the
monsoon. Whenever fresh rainwater gets accumulated during the
rainy season, indigenous aquatic species of flora and fauna from

Conclusions
234
the unpolluted tanks should be reintroduced, after checking the
quality of the water. They should be monitored for one year,
before handing it over to the water users committees of the
respective villages.
 The sludge removed from the tanks should be safely disposed off
as per ‘Hazardous Waste (Management and Handling) Rules,
1989’.
9. Instead of providing compensation to the farmers regarding money for
crop losses due to pollution, State government should take necessary
steps to reclaim the polluted lands and in providing the irrigation
facilities from unpolluted sources.
10. Location of industries at Patancheru is never justifiable, as this region is
rightly suitable for agriculture. Most polluting industries and all those,
which are not complying with the rules under various environmental Acts
and Rules, should be closed immediately.
11. Pollution cess should be collected from each polluting industry, right
from the inception, so as to compensate the potential victims of
pollution and in case of any major industrial hazard.
12. Polluter pays’ principle should be made mandatory to make the polluters
responsible. All the polluted villages must be provided free drinking
water to cater to the needs of people and their domestic animals,
payable by the polluting industries.
13. To monitor the local climate, a meteorological station should be
established at Patancheru or Bollaram, to measure other than normal
parameters like air pollution, the acidity of rain, smog, etc. The air
pollution would also contaminate the hydrological system.

References
235
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Achammamba B. (1984) A Comparative Limnological Study into the Profiles of
Hussain Sagar and Himavat Sagar Lakes, Hyderabad. India., Ph.D. Thesis.
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