science of preserving human remains by treating them (in its modern form with chemicals) to forestall decomposition. Embalming has a very long and cross-cultural history, with many cultures giving the embalming processes a greater religious meaning.

1. EMBALMING OF CADAVERS:
 Embalming:
 It is the art and science of preserving human remains by treating them (in its modern
form with chemicals) to forestall decomposition.
 The intention is to keep them suitable for public display at a funeral, for religious
reasons, or for medical and scientific purposes such as their use as anatomical specimens.
 The three goals of embalming are sanitization, presentation, and preservation (or
restoration).
 Embalming has a very long and cross-cultural history, with many cultures giving the
embalming processes a greater religious meaning.
 History:
 Perhaps the ancient culture that had developed embalming to the greatest extent
was Egypt. As early as the First Dynasty (3200 BC), specialized priests were in charge
of embalming and mummification. They did so by removing organs, ridding the body of
moisture, and covering the body with natron. The Ancient Egyptians believed that
preservation of the mummy empowered the soul after death, the latter of which would
return to the preserved corpse.
 The earliest known evidence of artificial preservation in Europe was found
in Osorno (Spain) and is about 5000 years old human bones covered in cinnabar for
preservation
 In China, artificially preserved remains have been recovered from the period of the Han
dynasty (206 BC – 220 AD)
 In Europe the knowledge and practice of artificial preservation had spread from these
ancient cultures becoming widely spread by about 500 AD. The period of the middle
Ages and the Renaissance is known as the Anatomists period of embalming and is
characterized by an increased influence of scientific developments in medicine and the
need of bodies for dissection purposes.
 Early methods used are documented by contemporary physicians such as Peter
Forestus (1522–1597) and Ambroise Pare (1510-1590). The first attempts to inject
the vascular systemwere made by Alessandro Giliani of Persiceto, who died in
1326.

2.  Modern methods:
 In the United States, the Civil War era sparked an interest in embalming and it became
very common across the nation.
 The modern method of embalming involves the injection of various chemical solutions
into the arterial network of the cadaver to prevent decomposition.
 William Harvey, the 17th century English physician who was the first to detail the
system of blood circulation, made his discoveries by injecting coloured solutions into
corpses,
 The Scottish surgeon William Hunter was the first to apply these methods to the art of
embalming as part of mortuary practice.
 He wrote a widely read report on the appropriate methods for arterial and cavity
embalming in order to preserve bodies for burial.
 His brother, John Hunter, applied these methods and advertised his embalming services
to the general public from the mid-18th century.
 Until the early 20th century, arsenic was frequently used as an embalming fluid, until it
was supplanted by other more effective and less toxic chemicals. There was concern
about the possibility of arsenic from embalmed bodies contaminating ground water
supplies.
 There were also legal concerns because people suspected of murder by arsenic
poisoning could claim that the levels of poison in the deceased's body were a result of
post-mortem embalming rather than evidence of homicide.
 In 1867, the German chemist August Wilhelm von Hofmann discovered formaldehyde,
whose preservative properties were soon discovered, and which became the foundation
for modern methods of embalming, replacing previous methods.
 Dr. Frederic Ryusch was the first one to have used the arterial injection method for
embalming.
 Embalming process:
The actual embalming process usually involves four parts:
1. Arterial embalming:
 It involves the injection of embalming chemicals into the blood vessels, usually via the
right common carotid artery.
 Blood and interstitial fluids are displaced by this injection and, along with excess
arterial solution, are expelled from the right jugular vein and collectively referred to as
drainage.
 The embalming solution is injected with a centrifugal pump, and the embalmer
massages the body to break up circulatory clots so as to ensure the proper distribution
of the embalming fluid.
 This process of raising vessels with injection and drainage from a solitary location is
known as a single-point injection. In cases of poor circulation of the arterial solution,

3. additional injection points (commonly the axillary, brachial, or femoral arteries, with
the ulnar, radial, and tibial vessels if necessary) are used.
 The corresponding veins are commonly also raised and utilized for drainage. Cases
where more than one vessel is raised are referred to as multiple-point injection, with a
reference to the number of vessels raised (i.e. a six-point injection or six-pointer).
 As a general rule, the more points needing to be raised, the greater the difficulty of the
case.
 An injection utilizing both the left and right carotids is specifically referred to as a
restricted cervical injection (RCI), while draining from a different site from injection
(i.e. injecting arterial fluid into the right common carotid artery and draining from the
right femoral vein) is referred to as a split (or sometimes cut) injection.
2. Cavity embalming:
 It refers to the replacement of internal fluids inside body cavities with embalming
chemicals via the use of an aspirator and trocar.
 The embalmer makes a small incision just above the navel (two inches superior and
two inches to the right) and pushes the trocar into the chest and stomach cavities to
puncture the hollow organs and aspirate their contents.
 He then fills the cavities with concentrated chemicals that contain formaldehyde. The
incision is either sutured closed or a "trocar button" is secured into place.
3. Hypodermic embalming:
 It is a supplemental method which refers to the injection of embalming chemicals into
tissue with a hypodermic needle and syringe, which is generally used as needed on a
case by case basis to treat areas where arterial fluid has not been successfully
distributed during the main arterial injection.
4. Surface embalming:
 Another supplemental method, utilizes embalming chemicals to preserve and restore
areas directly on the skin's surface and other superficial areas as well as areas of
damage such as from accident, decomposition, cancerous growths, or skin donation.
 Chemicals:
 Embalming chemicals are a variety of preservatives, sanitizers, disinfectant agents,
and additives used in modern embalming to temporarily delay decomposition and
restore a natural appearance for viewing a body after death.
 A mixture of these chemicals is known as embalming fluid, and is used to preserve
deceased individuals, sometimes only until the funeral, other times indefinitely.
 Typical embalming fluid contains a mixture
of formaldehyde, glutaraldehyde, methanol, humectants and wetting agents, and other
solvents that can be used
 . The formaldehyde content generally ranges from 5 to 35 percent, and the ethanol
content may range from 9 to 56 percent.
 Environmentalists generally disapprove of embalming because of the harmful
chemicals involved and their interactions with the environment. Recently, more eco-
friendly embalming methods have become available.