Earth Science Report.pptx

Earth’s Lithosphere
 Crust
 Mantle
 Core

Three Layers
• The Crust
• The
Mantle
• The Core

The Crust
• The surface of Earth.
• The thinnest layer.
• Made of solid rock.
• Contains all the
mountains, rocks,
water, soil and land
features.
• Contains the
lithosphere, oceanic
crust and continental
crust. 5 – 25 miles
thick

Lithosphere
• Made from the Crust and Upper Mantle.
• “Litho” means “stone” in Greek.
• This is the layer in which we live because it contains the
oceanic and continental crust.

Two types of Crust:
Oceanic and Continental

Oceanic versus
Continental Crust
• Oceanic Crust:
• Below the ocean
• Consists of basalt
• Very dense
• Continental Crust:
• Forms and contains the
large landmasses
• Consists of granite
• Less dense
5 – 25 miles thick
3 - 5 miles thick

The Mantle
• Most of the mantle is
solid rock.
• The lower mantle rock
is softer.
• It makes up 85% of
the Earth’s mass.
• Temperatures can
reach up to 870 C.
1,800 miles thick

• Divided into two parts:
 The upper mantle extends from the crust to a depth of about 410
kilometers (255 miles). The upper mantle is mostly solid, but its
more malleable regions contribute to tectonic activity.
 The lower mantle extends from about 660 kilometers (410 miles) to
about 2,700 kilometers (1,678 miles) beneath Earth’s surface. The lower
mantle is hotter and denser than the upper mantle and transition zone.

Asthenosphere
• Zone in the Upper
Mantle.
• Lithosphere floats
on top of it.
• Consists of hot,
plastic rock.
• “Asthens” means
“weak” in Greek.

Asthenosphere
The asthenosphere (“weak sphere”) is a soft layer of the
mantle on which pieces of the lithosphere move. It is made
of solid rock that, like putty, flows slowly- at about the same
rate your fingernails grow.

The motion of plates can be described
in four general patterns:
• Collision: when two continental plates are shoved
together
• Subduction: when one plate plunges beneath another
• Spreading: when two plates are pushed apart
• Transform faulting: when two plates slide past each
other

Convection Currents
The middle mantle "flows" because of convection
currents. Convection currents are caused by the very hot
material at the deepest part of the mantle rising being less
dense, then cooling becoming more dense and sinking
again --repeating this cycle over and over.

Convection Currents
• Density = Mass
Volume
• What are Convection Currents???
The process of liquid heating and cooling in between the mantle
and outer core of the Earth.
• When a liquid is heated, the particles spread apart. This is due
to the fact that their energy is being converted into kinetic
energy (the energy of movement). Once these molecules
spread out, their volume increases causing their density to
decrease. Therefore, the hot liquid floats to the top and the
cooler water, which has decreased in volume and increased in
density, sinks to the bottom.
• This process occurs, repeatedly, in the mantle due to the heat
from the core and mantle.

Convection Currents
Takes place
between the
Mantle and the
Outer Core.
Since the density of the
liquid decreased, it
floated up, towards the
surface.

The Core
• The Core is Divided into
two parts:
• Outer Core
• Inner Core
Inner Core
Outer Core

Outer vs. Inner Core
• Outer Core – only liquid layer.
• Made up of liquid iron and nickel.
• This layer creates the Earth’s
magnetic field.
• Temperatures can reach up to
2,200 C.
• Inner Core
• The center of Earth.
• Made up of scorching-hot iron and
nickel. This layer stays solid though
due to intense pressure.
• This layer may also contain oxygen,
sulfur and silicon.
• Temperatures range between
9,000 C and 13,000 C.

What do these two images tell us
about the layers of the Earth?

Temperature
increases as depth increases

Look at the information in the graph
and table below. What’s the
relationship between depth and
density/pressure?

Density and Pressure
increase as depth increases

Which layer of the Earth has the greatest
temperature, pressure, and density?
Core

Evidence
How do Scientists know about the interior of the
Earth?
Two forms of evidence:
• Direct evidence from rock samples
• Indirect evidence from seismic waves

Review…
1. Inner Core
2. Outer Core
3. Lower Mantle
4. Upper Mantle
5. Crust
4
5
3
2
1

Earth is divided into three layers.
The outer layer is called the crust.
Beneath the crust lies the mantle.
The core is the innermost layer
Earth’s Layers

• The solid features formed on Earth’s crust.
• Other features include bodies of water.
• Crustal movement and other tectonic activity inside Earth create
landforms; mountains, faults, sinks, and volcanos.
• Many landforms are shaped by water and wind that carve and erode
land surfaces, carrying and depositing soil, sand and other debris.
Landforms

Topographic maps and models are used to represent landforms
and help scientists better understand objects and processes.

Landforms
Archipelago Bay Strait &
Canal
Cape Channel
Delta Desert Gulf Island Isthmus
Mountain Peninsula Plateau Plain Sound
Swamp Sea Mesa Oasis Valley
Source River Tundra Lake Butte
Canyon Fjord Geyser Lagoon Glacier
Pond Prairie Tributary Volcano Waterfall
Estuary Dune Savanna Reef Marsh

archipelago
• ahr-kuh-pel-uh-goh
A group or chain of
islands in a large body
of water
Back to
Landform Chart

bay
• A bay is a body of
water that is partly
enclosed by land (and
is usually smaller than
a gulf).
Back to
Landform Chart

butte
• A butte is a flat-topped
rock or hill formation
with steep sides.
Back to
Landform Chart

canyon
• A canyon is a deep
valley with very steep
sides - often carved
from the Earth by a
river.
• “Canyon” comes from
the Spanish
word cañon, which
means “tube” or “pipe.”
Back to
Landform Chart

cape
• A cape is a pointed
piece of land that
sticks out into a sea,
ocean, lake, or river.
Back to
Landform Chart

peninsula
• A peninsula is a piece
of land that is almost
entirely surrounded by
water but is connected
to the mainland on one
side.
Back to
Landform Chart

channel
• A channel is a body of
water that connects two
larger bodies of water
(like the English
Channel). A channel is
also a part of a river or
harbor that is deep
enough to let ships sail
through.
Back to
Landform Chart

strait and canal
Strait- A
passageway of
water connecting
two large bodies
of water.
Canal- A constructed
channel filled with
water used for
navigation, irrigation,
or drainage.
Back to
Landform Chart

delta
• A delta is a low, watery land
formed at the mouth of a
river. It is formed from the silt,
sand and small rocks that
flow downstream in the river
and are deposited in the
delta. A delta is often (but not
always) shaped like a triangle
(hence its name, delta, a
Greek letter that is shaped
like a triangle).
Back to
Landform Chart

desert
• A desert is an area
that receives less
than 10 inches of rain
per year and where
there is little to no
vegetation.
Back to
Landform Chart

oasis
- an area made fertile by
a source of freshwater in
an otherwise dry
and arid region.
Back to
Landform Chart

dune
• A dune is a hill or a
ridge made of sand.
Dunes are shaped by
the wind, and change
all the time.
Back to
Landform Chart

estuary
• An estuary is
where a river
meets the sea
or ocean.
Back to
Landform Chart

fjord
• A fjord is an inlet that
is long and narrow in
shape, with
steep cliffs or other
steep rock formations
on each side.
Back to
Landform Chart

geyser
• A geyser is a natural
hot spring that
occasionally sprays
water and steam
above the ground.
Back to
Landform Chart

glacier
• A glacier is an accumulation of
snow and ice that has grown
sufficiently so that it can move
downhill by the force of gravity.
Pressure generated at the bottom
of a glacier is high enough to
cause ice to melt, even in very
cold freezing temperatures. This
permits a glacier to move very
slowly downhill.
Back to
Landform Chart

gulf
• A gulf is a part of the
ocean (or sea) that is
partly surrounded by
land (it is usually
larger than a bay).
Back to
Landform Chart

hill
• A hill landform is a
piece of land that is
above the
surrounding land. It
also has sloping sides
unlike the steepness
of a mountain
landform.
Back to
Landform Chart

island
• An island landform is land that
is completely surrounded by
water. It can be any type of
land. The island can also be
surrounded different types of
water such as a
sea, ocean, river and lake.
Back to
Landform Chart

isthmus
• An isthmus is a
narrow strip of
land connecting
two larger
landmasses. An
isthmus has
water on two
sides.
Back to
Landform Chart

lagoon
• A lagoon is a shallow
body of water protected
from a larger body of
water (usually the ocean)
by sandbars, barrier
islands, or coral
reefs. Lagoons are often
called estuaries, sounds,
bays, or even lakes.
Back to
Landform Chart

lake
• A lake is a large body
of water surrounded
by land on all sides.
This type of water is
usually fresh water
while there are some
that are salt water
lake.
Back to
Landform Chart

marsh
• A marsh is a type of
freshwater, brackish
water or saltwater
wetland that is found
along rivers, pond,
lakes and coasts.
Marsh plants grow up
out of the water.
Back to
Landform Chart

mesa
• A mesa is a land
formation with a flat
area on top and steep
walls - usually
occurring in dry
areas.
Back to
Landform Chart

mountain
• A mountain is a very
tall high, natural
place on Earth -
higher than a hill.
The tallest mountain
on Earth is Mt.
Everest.
Back to
Landform Chart

ocean
• An ocean is a large
body of salt water
that surrounds a
continent. Oceans
cover more the two-
thirds of the Earth's
surface
Back to
Landform Chart

plain
• A plain landform is land that is relatively flat and
does not change much in elevation within a
common area.
Back to
Landform Chart

plateau
• A plateau is a portion of land that is more or less
flat and level, elevated above the surrounding
area. It may have steep slopes or
vertical cliffs on one or more sides.
Back to
Landform Chart

pond
• A pond is a small
body of water
surrounded by land. A
pond is smaller than a
lake.
Back to
Landform Chart

prairie
• A prairie is a wide,
relatively flat area of
land that has
grasses and only a
few trees.
Back to
Landform Chart

river
• A river is a large, flowing
body of water that usually
empties into a sea or
ocean.
Back to
Landform Chart

sea
• A sea is a large body of
salty water that is often
connected to an ocean.
A sea may be partly or
completely surrounded
by land.
Back to
Landform Chart

sound
• A sound is a wide
inlet of the sea or
ocean that is parallel
to the coastline; it
often separates a
coastline from a
nearby island
Back to
Landform Chart

source
• A source is the beginning of a river.
Back to
Landform Chart

swamp
• A swamp is a type of
freshwater wetland
that has spongy,
muddy land and a lot
of water. Many trees
and shrubs grow in
swamps.
Back to
Landform Chart

tributary
• A tributary is a freshwater
stream that feeds into a
larger stream or river.
• The larger, or
parent, river is called
the mainstem. The point
where a tributary meets
the mainstem is called
the confluence.
Back to
Landform Chart

tundra
• A tundra is a cold, treeless area; it is the coldest
biome.
Back to
Landform Chart

valley
• A valley is a low
place between
mountains.
Back to
Landform Chart

volcano
• A volcano is a
mountainous vent in
the Earth's crust.
When a volcano
erupts, it spews out
lava, ashes, and hot
gases from deep
inside the Earth.
Back to
Landform Chart

waterfall
• When a river falls off steeply, there is a waterfall.
Back to
Landform Chart

reef
• Ridge of sand, rock, or coral that lies at or near
the surface of a sea or ocean.
Back to
Landform Chart

savanna
• An area of
grassland and
scattered trees.
Back to
Landform Chart

True or False: The Earth’s surface
has stayed the same for thousands of
years.

True or False: The Earth’s surface
has stayed the same for thousands of
years
The Earth’s surface is always
changing!

Weathering
• The process that breaks down rock and other
substances at the Earth’s surface
• Caused by: heat, cold, water, ice, oxygen, and
carbon dioxide on the Earth’s surface.

There are two
types
of weathering:
 Mechanical (Physical) Weathering
 Chemical Weathering

Mechanical Weathering
 Rocks are broken apart by physical processes (heat,
water, ice, pressure, temperature, etc.)
 The overall chemical makeup of the rock stays the same
 Each piece has characteristics similar to the original rock
• Different Types of Physical Weathering:
– Frost action/ice wedging
– Abrasion
– Exfoliation
– Wind
– Plant Growth

Frost action/ice wedging
• breakup of rock caused by the
freezing and thawing (contracting
and expansion) of water.
• Water seeps into cracks of a rock
and as the climate cools the water
freezes and expands breaking the
rock apart.

Shattered rocks are
common in cold and
alpine environments,
where repeated
process of freezing
effect breaks the rocks
gradually in smaller
fragments and
disintegration process
occurs.

Alternate freezing and thawing
form potholes and frost heave.

Breaking of Rocks by Thermal Process
Thermal expansion due
to the extreme range of
temperatures can
shatter rocks in desert
environments.
Repeated swelling and
shrinking of minerals
with different
expansion rates will
also shatter rocks.

Temperature Changes-alternating hot
and cold temperatures weaken the
rock as it expands and contracts.

Abrasion
• The physical wearing
down of rocks as they
rub or bounce against
each other.
• This process is most
common in windy
areas, under glaciers,
or in stream channels.

Plants and Animals-plant roots force their
way into cracks, animals uncover rock
and expose it to the elements.

Exfoliation
• the peeling away of large sheets of loosened materials
at the surface of a rock.
• Common in shale, slate, and mica.
Enchanted State Rock Park, Texas

Sheeting joints in
granite:
a. Mt. Bukhansan,
near Seoul,
Korea;
b. Tuen Mun
Highway, Hong
Kong

Stone Mountain, Georgia, showing the
product of exfoliation due to unloading

 the process by which chemicals breakdown
rock through a change in the mineral’s
composition, happens fastest in a hot,
moist climate.
a. Oxidation-occurs when oxygen
from the air combines with
iron-rich minerals of the rock,
oxidation = RUST.
Chemical Weathering

Oxidation taking place on shale in Highland
County (Photograph by Stan Johnson)

b. Carbonation-occurs when water
combines with carbon dioxide
in the air to form carbonic acid.
Carbonic acid easily dissolves
rocks like limestone and marble.

When the water is underground,
weathering and erosion forms caves.
www.dkimages.com
www.dkimages.com
As the water evaporates, the
minerals that were dissolved get
left behind to form the beautiful
cave structures.

c. Hydrolysis - water combines with
minerals such as mica and
feldspar found in granite, to
form clay, the rock weakens and
crumbles apart.

Granite gneiss is converting to clay
by hydrolysis in Buckingham County

d. Dissolution – rocks, when in water,
react with acids in the water and dissolve.
A clue that this has happened to a rock is
the presence of small holes.

Natural Bridge
in Rockbridge
County

Factors Affecting the Rate of Weathering
1. Exposure - rate and type of weathering
are dependent on exposure to air,
water and living things.
The greater the amount of rock
exposed, the greater the
weathering.
This is a direct relationship.

2. Particle Size - an increase in surface area
increases the rate of weathering.

Example: Granulated sugar dissolves faster
than a cube of sugar. More surfaces
are exposed when cut.
Fast
Slow
Rate
of
Weathering
Surface Area

3. Mineral Composition - rocks made of harder
minerals weather slower than rocks
made of softer minerals.
Fast
Slow
Rate
of
Weathering
Mineral Hardness

4. Climate - physical and chemical weathering
are affected by climate.
a. In cold and moist climates, physical
weathering is dominant.
b. In hot and moist
climates, chemical
weathering is
dominant.
Cleopatra’s Needle

c. In both cases, water is the major
ingredient that promotes weathering.

5. Time - as time goes on, more weathering
occurs.
6. Humans - excavation of land, mining,
building, etc.

Soil Formation - end product of weathering
and biologic activity.
Time increases

Factor’s Affecting Soil Formation
a. Parent Material(bedrock)
• Residual soil—soil is formed from the
parent material and is of
the same composition.
• Transported soil—parent material has
been carried from
elsewhere and
deposited

b. Climate
• Arid climates have thin soils, high in
mineral content, low in organic
matter.
•Humid climates have thick soils, high
in organic matter, low in mineral
content.
c. Organisms
• Dead and decayed plants and animals
add nutrients, forming topsoil.

d. Time - the longer the weathering,
the deeper the soil.

Erosion transports
weathered rock
material.

A similar process, weathering,
breaks down or dissolves rock,
weakening it or turning it into
tiny fragments.

» Gravity
»Water
»Wind
»Ice
The agents of erosion that wear
away at the surface of the Earth:
What are some ways that
weathered material can be
transported?

Erosion by
Gravity
Rocks and other materials,
especially on steep slopes, are
pulled toward the center of
Earth by gravity.

Here, the
weathering
occurs by
frost wedging
The erosion occurs by gravity

Erosion by Gravity
Slump
Rock Slide Mud Slide
Landslide

Erosion
by Wind
When air moves, it picks
up loose material and
transports it to other places.

Erosion
by Wind
Strong Winds
Dust Storm
Sandstorm

Erosion by
Water
When water moves, it picks
up loose material and

Four primary types of erosion that occur as a
direct result of rainfall:

Erosion by Water
Rivers or Streams Rain
Flooding
Runoff

Erosion by Water
Waves eroding
the shoreline

Erosion
by Ice
When a glacier moves, it
picks up loose material and

The rocks carried by a glacier rub against
the ground below, eroding both the ground
and the rocks. Glaciers grind up rocks and
scrape away the soil. Moving glaciers gouge
out basins and form steep-sided mountain
valleys. Eroded sediment is often visible on
and around glaciers. This material is called
moraine.
Erosion by Ice

Glacial moraines above Lake
Louise, in Alberta, Canada
Mount Everest

Tustamena Glacier, Alaska
Alaska Glacier

Weathering and Erosion are
two very different processes
that tend to act sequentially.

Weathering is the result of
the physical and chemical
changes of rock and mineral
material; the resulting
products might or might not
be transported.

Deposition occurs where the
agents (forces) of erosion lay
sediment down.

Weathering and Erosion wear
down, and deposition fills in
the Earth’s surface.

Deposition by Water
As water moves through a river,
it loses some of its energy and it
can no longer carry some of its
sediment. As a result, it drops, or
is deposited, to the bottom
of the stream.

Deposition by Water
Rivers and streams erode and
deposit water along their path.

Deposition by Water
Water also loses energy and
deposits sediment when it empties
into an ocean or lake.
Sediment that is deposited as
water empties into an ocean or
lake forms a triangular shaped
deposit (delta).

The Mississippi River flowing into
the Gulf of Mexico forms the
Mississippi River delta.

In this example, river waters
are being deposited from
a mountain.

Deposition by Water
Currents, wind, and storms carry
and deposit sand along beaches.
Sandbar Barrier Island

Deposition by Wind
Sediments blown away by wind
eventually are deposited. Over time,
these deposits develop into landforms.
Sand Dune

Deposition by Ice
When glaciers begin to melt, they
deposit sediment on the land.

Copyright © Tim McCabe, NRCS
This is a picture of slump. What caused this erosion?
Notice that the deposition is very close to where the
erosion occurred! It just slid a little down the hill.
Gravity!

This is a picture of creep. What type of erosion is this?
Evidence is easiest to see when it affects the growth of trees.
Wind Erosion

Rivers also empty into the sea.
The water slows down and the sediment drops out.
This forms a delta.
Notice the
Mississippi
River runs
through the
dry land that
has built up
from the
sediment it
dropped once
it reached the
Gulf of Mexico.

http://nsidc.org
www.traditionalmountaineering.org
As glaciers melt, they leave
behind all the rocks and
sediment they broken off the
area through which they
flowed.
Notice all the rock
material that is being
left behind as these
glacier melts back.
This is called till.

/www.wayfaring.info
Our Appalachian
Mountains looked like
this millions of years
ago.
Due to
weathering,
erosion, and
deposition,
they now
look like this!

• https://studyjams.scholastic.com/studyjams/jams/science/r
ocks-minerals-landforms/weathering-and-erosion.htm
• https://studyjams.scholastic.com/studyjams/jams/science/r
ocks-minerals-landforms/landforms.htm

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