Kinesins and dyneins are motor proteins that move along microtubules. Kinesins move cargo from the center of the cell to its periphery by moving toward the plus end of microtubules. Dyneins move cargo from the periphery to the center by moving toward the minus end of microtubules. Both use ATP hydrolysis to power their movement in 8 nm steps along microtubules in opposite directions. Dyneins are also responsible for the bending movement of cilia and flagella by generating force between adjacent microtubule doublets.
Details of cytoskeleton element-microtubule. The Microtubule associated protein-type and function, Treadmilling and dynamic instability, Structure of cilia and flagella
Protein targeting or protein sorting is the mechanism by which a cell transports to the appropriate positions in the cell or outside of it. Both in prokaryotes and eukaryotes, newly synthesized proteins must be delivered to a specific sub-cellular location or exported from the cell for correct activity. This phenomenon is called protein targeting. Protein targeting is necessary for proteins that are destined to work outside the cytoplasm.This delivery process is carried out based on information contained in the protein itself. Correct sorting is crucial for the cell; errors can lead to diseases. In 1970, Günter Blobel conducted experiments on the translocation of proteins across membranes. He was awarded the 1999 Nobel Prize for his findings. He discovered that many proteins have a signal sequence, that is, a short amino acid sequence at one end that functions like a postal code for the target organelle.
Details of cytoskeleton element-microtubule. The Microtubule associated protein-type and function, Treadmilling and dynamic instability, Structure of cilia and flagella
Protein targeting or protein sorting is the mechanism by which a cell transports to the appropriate positions in the cell or outside of it. Both in prokaryotes and eukaryotes, newly synthesized proteins must be delivered to a specific sub-cellular location or exported from the cell for correct activity. This phenomenon is called protein targeting. Protein targeting is necessary for proteins that are destined to work outside the cytoplasm.This delivery process is carried out based on information contained in the protein itself. Correct sorting is crucial for the cell; errors can lead to diseases. In 1970, Günter Blobel conducted experiments on the translocation of proteins across membranes. He was awarded the 1999 Nobel Prize for his findings. He discovered that many proteins have a signal sequence, that is, a short amino acid sequence at one end that functions like a postal code for the target organelle.
The delivery of newly synthesized protein to their proper cellular destination, usually referred to as protein targeting or sorting.
The mode of protein transport depends chiefly on the location in the cell cytoplasm of the polysomes involved in protein synthesis.
There are two modes of protein sorting:-
1) Co - translational Transportation.
2) Post - translational Transportation.
Basics of Undergraduate/university fellows
Transcription is more complicated in eukaryotes than in prokaryotes because
eukaryotes possess three different classes of RNA polymerases and because of the
way in which transcripts are processed to their functional forms.
More proteins and transcription factors are involved in eukaryotic transcription.
Protein targeting or protein sorting is the biological mechanism by which proteins are transported to their appropriate destinations in the cell or outside it. Proteins can be targeted to the inner space of an organelle, different intracellular membranes, plasma membrane, or to exterior of the cell via secretion.
CBCS 4TH SEM ,
CHARGING, STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF tRNA,
AMINOACYL RNA SYNTHETASE(ASR) PROOFREADING AND EDITING
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YzOVMWYLiCE
The delivery of newly synthesized protein to their proper cellular destination, usually referred to as protein targeting or sorting.
The mode of protein transport depends chiefly on the location in the cell cytoplasm of the polysomes involved in protein synthesis.
There are two modes of protein sorting:-
1) Co - translational Transportation.
2) Post - translational Transportation.
Basics of Undergraduate/university fellows
Transcription is more complicated in eukaryotes than in prokaryotes because
eukaryotes possess three different classes of RNA polymerases and because of the
way in which transcripts are processed to their functional forms.
More proteins and transcription factors are involved in eukaryotic transcription.
Protein targeting or protein sorting is the biological mechanism by which proteins are transported to their appropriate destinations in the cell or outside it. Proteins can be targeted to the inner space of an organelle, different intracellular membranes, plasma membrane, or to exterior of the cell via secretion.
CBCS 4TH SEM ,
CHARGING, STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF tRNA,
AMINOACYL RNA SYNTHETASE(ASR) PROOFREADING AND EDITING
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YzOVMWYLiCE
Actin filaments, usually in association with myosin, are responsible for many types of cell movements. Myosin is the prototype of a molecular motor—a protein that converts chemical energy in the form of ATP to mechanical energy, thus generating force and movement. The most striking variety of such movement is muscle contraction, which has provided the model for understanding actin-myosin interactions and the motor activity of myosin molecules. However, interactions of actin and myosin are responsible not only for muscle contraction but also for a variety of movements of nonmuscle cells, including cell division, so these interactions play a central role in cell biology. Moreover, the actin cytoskeleton is responsible for the crawling movements of cells across a surface, which appear to be driven directly by actin polymerization as well as actin-myosin interactions.
SAI KINESIN DYENIN_611211b646114fc7ea3a61dcee56c1b4.pdfAbbireddySairam1
Title: Exploring the Microcosm: An In-depth Journey into Microbiology
Introduction:
Microbiology is a branch of biology that investigates the invisible world of microorganisms, including bacteria, viruses, fungi, and protozoa. These microscopic entities play a pivotal role in various aspects of life, from maintaining ecological balance to influencing human health and industry. This essay will delve into the diverse realms of microbiology, exploring its history, significance, key discoveries, and contemporary applications.
I. Historical Perspectives:
Microbiology has a rich history, with its roots dating back to ancient times when humans were unaware of the existence of microorganisms. The advent of the microscope in the 17th century marked a revolutionary turning point, allowing scientists like Anton van Leeuwenhoek to observe bacteria and protozoa for the first time. The germ theory of disease, proposed by Louis Pasteur and Robert Koch in the 19th century, laid the foundation for understanding the role of microorganisms in causing infections.
II. Classification of Microorganisms:
Microorganisms encompass a wide array of life forms, each with distinct characteristics and functions. Bacteria, the simplest and most abundant microorganisms, exhibit diverse shapes and metabolic pathways. Viruses, on the other hand, are intriguing entities that blur the line between living and non-living, requiring a host cell for reproduction. Fungi, including yeasts and molds, play essential roles in decomposition and various industrial processes. Protozoa, single-celled eukaryotes, contribute to ecological balance and can cause diseases in humans.
III. Significance in Ecology:
Microorganisms play a crucial role in maintaining ecological balance. Bacteria and fungi are essential for decomposing organic matter, recycling nutrients, and enriching soil fertility. Additionally, microorganisms are involved in symbiotic relationships with plants, aiding in nutrient uptake and disease resistance. In aquatic ecosystems, microbial communities are fundamental in nutrient cycling and the breakdown of pollutants.
IV. Impact on Human Health:
While some microorganisms contribute positively to human health, others pose threats as pathogens. Bacterial infections such as tuberculosis and urinary tract infections, viral diseases like influenza and COVID-19, and fungal infections are common health concerns. Microbiology has played a pivotal role in the development of antibiotics and vaccines, significantly reducing the impact of infectious diseases. However, the emergence of antibiotic-resistant strains poses ongoing challenges.
V. Industrial Applications:
Microbiology has found widespread applications in various industries. In food production, fermentation processes involving bacteria and yeast are employed to produce yogurt, cheese, beer, and bread. Microorganisms are also used in the pharmaceutical industry for the production of antibiotics, vaccines, and other therapeu
Cells are the basic, fundamental unit of life. So, if we were to break apart an organism to the cellular level, the smallest independent component that we would find would be the cell.
Chapter 15
The basic unit of life
Characteristics of Life
Macromolecules Needed for Life
Cell Types: Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic
The Microscope
Tour of a Eukaryotic Cell
The Cell Membrane
Transport into and out of Cells
Cell Communication
How Cells Reproduce
How Cells Use Energy
ATP and Chemical Reactions in Cells
Photosynthesis
Cellular Respiration and Fermentation
Elevating Tactical DDD Patterns Through Object CalisthenicsDorra BARTAGUIZ
After immersing yourself in the blue book and its red counterpart, attending DDD-focused conferences, and applying tactical patterns, you're left with a crucial question: How do I ensure my design is effective? Tactical patterns within Domain-Driven Design (DDD) serve as guiding principles for creating clear and manageable domain models. However, achieving success with these patterns requires additional guidance. Interestingly, we've observed that a set of constraints initially designed for training purposes remarkably aligns with effective pattern implementation, offering a more ‘mechanical’ approach. Let's explore together how Object Calisthenics can elevate the design of your tactical DDD patterns, offering concrete help for those venturing into DDD for the first time!
Dev Dives: Train smarter, not harder – active learning and UiPath LLMs for do...UiPathCommunity
💥 Speed, accuracy, and scaling – discover the superpowers of GenAI in action with UiPath Document Understanding and Communications Mining™:
See how to accelerate model training and optimize model performance with active learning
Learn about the latest enhancements to out-of-the-box document processing – with little to no training required
Get an exclusive demo of the new family of UiPath LLMs – GenAI models specialized for processing different types of documents and messages
This is a hands-on session specifically designed for automation developers and AI enthusiasts seeking to enhance their knowledge in leveraging the latest intelligent document processing capabilities offered by UiPath.
Speakers:
👨🏫 Andras Palfi, Senior Product Manager, UiPath
👩🏫 Lenka Dulovicova, Product Program Manager, UiPath
The Art of the Pitch: WordPress Relationships and SalesLaura Byrne
Clients don’t know what they don’t know. What web solutions are right for them? How does WordPress come into the picture? How do you make sure you understand scope and timeline? What do you do if sometime changes?
All these questions and more will be explored as we talk about matching clients’ needs with what your agency offers without pulling teeth or pulling your hair out. Practical tips, and strategies for successful relationship building that leads to closing the deal.
Software Delivery At the Speed of AI: Inflectra Invests In AI-Powered QualityInflectra
In this insightful webinar, Inflectra explores how artificial intelligence (AI) is transforming software development and testing. Discover how AI-powered tools are revolutionizing every stage of the software development lifecycle (SDLC), from design and prototyping to testing, deployment, and monitoring.
Learn about:
• The Future of Testing: How AI is shifting testing towards verification, analysis, and higher-level skills, while reducing repetitive tasks.
• Test Automation: How AI-powered test case generation, optimization, and self-healing tests are making testing more efficient and effective.
• Visual Testing: Explore the emerging capabilities of AI in visual testing and how it's set to revolutionize UI verification.
• Inflectra's AI Solutions: See demonstrations of Inflectra's cutting-edge AI tools like the ChatGPT plugin and Azure Open AI platform, designed to streamline your testing process.
Whether you're a developer, tester, or QA professional, this webinar will give you valuable insights into how AI is shaping the future of software delivery.
UiPath Test Automation using UiPath Test Suite series, part 3DianaGray10
Welcome to UiPath Test Automation using UiPath Test Suite series part 3. In this session, we will cover desktop automation along with UI automation.
Topics covered:
UI automation Introduction,
UI automation Sample
Desktop automation flow
Pradeep Chinnala, Senior Consultant Automation Developer @WonderBotz and UiPath MVP
Deepak Rai, Automation Practice Lead, Boundaryless Group and UiPath MVP
Securing your Kubernetes cluster_ a step-by-step guide to success !KatiaHIMEUR1
Today, after several years of existence, an extremely active community and an ultra-dynamic ecosystem, Kubernetes has established itself as the de facto standard in container orchestration. Thanks to a wide range of managed services, it has never been so easy to set up a ready-to-use Kubernetes cluster.
However, this ease of use means that the subject of security in Kubernetes is often left for later, or even neglected. This exposes companies to significant risks.
In this talk, I'll show you step-by-step how to secure your Kubernetes cluster for greater peace of mind and reliability.
LF Energy Webinar: Electrical Grid Modelling and Simulation Through PowSyBl -...DanBrown980551
Do you want to learn how to model and simulate an electrical network from scratch in under an hour?
Then welcome to this PowSyBl workshop, hosted by Rte, the French Transmission System Operator (TSO)!
During the webinar, you will discover the PowSyBl ecosystem as well as handle and study an electrical network through an interactive Python notebook.
PowSyBl is an open source project hosted by LF Energy, which offers a comprehensive set of features for electrical grid modelling and simulation. Among other advanced features, PowSyBl provides:
- A fully editable and extendable library for grid component modelling;
- Visualization tools to display your network;
- Grid simulation tools, such as power flows, security analyses (with or without remedial actions) and sensitivity analyses;
The framework is mostly written in Java, with a Python binding so that Python developers can access PowSyBl functionalities as well.
What you will learn during the webinar:
- For beginners: discover PowSyBl's functionalities through a quick general presentation and the notebook, without needing any expert coding skills;
- For advanced developers: master the skills to efficiently apply PowSyBl functionalities to your real-world scenarios.
JMeter webinar - integration with InfluxDB and GrafanaRTTS
Watch this recorded webinar about real-time monitoring of application performance. See how to integrate Apache JMeter, the open-source leader in performance testing, with InfluxDB, the open-source time-series database, and Grafana, the open-source analytics and visualization application.
In this webinar, we will review the benefits of leveraging InfluxDB and Grafana when executing load tests and demonstrate how these tools are used to visualize performance metrics.
Length: 30 minutes
Session Overview
-------------------------------------------
During this webinar, we will cover the following topics while demonstrating the integrations of JMeter, InfluxDB and Grafana:
- What out-of-the-box solutions are available for real-time monitoring JMeter tests?
- What are the benefits of integrating InfluxDB and Grafana into the load testing stack?
- Which features are provided by Grafana?
- Demonstration of InfluxDB and Grafana using a practice web application
To view the webinar recording, go to:
https://www.rttsweb.com/jmeter-integration-webinar
2. Kinesins and dyneins
• Cytoskelton includes two components in addition to
actin: intermediate filaments and microtubules.
• Microtubules act as tracks for two classes of motor
proteins: kinesins and dyneins.
• Importance
– Kinesins: moving along microtubules usually carry cargo
such as organelles and vesicles from the center of a cell to
its periphery.
– Dyneins: important in sliding microtubules relative to one
other during the beating of cilia and flagella on the
surfaces of some eukaryotic cells. They carry cargo from
periphery to centre of cell.
3. Microtubules are a component of the cytoskeleton.
These cylindrical polymers of tubulin can grow as long
as 25 micrometers and are highly dynamic.
The outer diameter of microtubule is about 25 nm.
Microtubules
4. • Microtubules are long, hollow cylinders made up of polymerised α- and β-tubulin
dimers.
• They are highly dynamic structures that grow through the addition of α- and β-
tubulin dimers to the ends of existing structures.
• Like actin, tubulins also bind and hydrolyze nucleoside triphosphates, although for
tubulin the nucleotide is GTP rather than ATP.
• Thus, a newly formed microtubule consists primarily of GTP-tubulins.
• Through time, the GTP is hydrolyzed to GDP.
• The GDP-tubulin subunits in the interior length of a microtubule remain stably
polymerized, whereas GDP subunits exposed at an end have a strong tendency to
dissociate.
• Thirteen protofilaments associate laterally to form a single microtubule and this
structure can then extend by addition of more protofilament
7. The heavy chain of kinesin-1 comprises a globular head (the motor domain) at
the amino terminal end connected via a short, flexible neck linker to the stalk – a
long, central alpha-helical domain – that ends in a carboxy terminal tail domain
which associates with the light-chains
Kinesin
8. The head regions bind to microtubules and also bind ATP. The head domains
are thus ATPase motors.
The tail domain binds to the organelle to be moved. ATP is needed for both
binding and movement. Hydrolysis is absolutely essential for movement.
9. Kinesin Motion is highly processive
• Kinesins are motor proteins that move along microtubules.
• When a kinesin molecule moves along a microtubule, the
two head groups of the kinesin molecule operate in
tandem: one binds, and then the next one does.
• A kinesin molecule may take many steps before both heads
groups are dissociated at the same time.
• A single kinesin molecule will typically take 100 or more
steps toward the plus end of a microtubule in a period of
seconds before the molecule becomes detached from the
microtubule.
• The average step size is approximately 80 Å, a value that
corresponds to the distance between consecutive α- or β-
tubulin subunits along each protofilament.
10.
11. Kinesin movement along microtubule
• The addition of ATP strongly increases the
affinity of kinesin for microtubules.
• This is in contrast with the behavior of myosin;
ATP binding to myosin promotes its
dissociation from actin.
12. • In a two-headed kinesin molecule in its ADP form,
dissociated from a microtubule, the neck linker binds the
head domain when ATP is bound and is released when ADP is
bound.
• The initial interaction of one of the head domains with a
tubulin dimer on a microtubule stimulates the release of ADP
from this head domain and the subsequent binding of ATP.
• The binding of ATP triggers a conformational change in the
head domain that leads to two important events.
• First, the affinity of the head domain for the microtubule
increases, essentially locking this head domain in place.
• Second, the neck linker binds to the head domain.
• This change repositions the other head domain acting
through the domain that connects the two kinesin
monomers.
• In its new position, the second head domain is close to a
second tubulin dimer, 80 Å along the microtubule in the
direction of the plus end.
13. • Meanwhile, the intrinsic ATPase activity of the first head domain
hydrolyzes the ATP to ADP and Pi.
• When the second head domain binds to the microtubule, the first
head releases ADP and binds ATP.
• Again, ATP binding favors a conformational change that pulls the
first domain forward.
• This process can continue for many cycles until, by chance, both
head domains are in the ADP form simultaneously and kinesin
dissociates from the microtubule.
• Because of the relative rates of the component reactions, a
simultaneous dissociation occurs approximately every 100 cycles.
• Kinesin hydrolyzes ATP at a rate of approximately 80 molecules per
second.
• Thus, given the step size of 80 Å per molecule of ATP, kinesin moves
along a microtubule at a speed of 6400 Å per second. This rate is
considerably slower than the maximum rate for myosin, which
moves relative to actin at 80,000 Å per second
16. Dyneins
• First microtubule motors to be identified.
• Very large in size.
• Dyneins are called "minus-end directed
motors, because directed towards minus end
17. Dynein is a motor protein in cells which converts the chemical
energy contained in ATP into the mechanical energy of
movement.
Dynein transports various cellular cargo by "walking" along
cytoskeletal microtubules towards the minus-end of the
microtubule.
They transport cargo from the periphery of the cell towards the
centre.
Two types: cytoplasmic dyneins and axonemal dyneins.
18. Cytoplasmic dynein
• Cytoplasmic dynein probably helps to position
the Golgi complex and other organelles in the
cell.
• It also helps transport cargo needed for cell
function such as vesicles made by the
endoplasmic reticulum, endosomes, and
lysosomes.
• Dynein is involved in the movement of
chromosomes and positioning the mitotic
spindles for cell division.
19. Axonemal Dyneins
• Present in flagella or cilia of eukaryotes.
• Help in their beating for effective movement.
20. • Flagella are usually 1 or 2 per cell.
Generally longer. Have rotary motion.
• Cilia are usually many per cell.
They tend to have a whip-like movement.
Cilia & flagella
Bounded by plasma
membrane.
Basal body: a single centriole
cylinder at the base of each
cilium or flagellum.
Core axoneme: a complex of
microtubules & associated
proteins.
Some distinctions:
plasma
membrane
axoneme
basal body
(centriole)
Cilium
cytosol
21. Axonemal dynein
• Each dynein molecule forms a cross-bridge
between two adjacent microtubules of the ciliary
axoneme.
• During the "power stroke", which causes
movement, the ATPase motor domain undergoes
a conformational change that causes the
microtubule-binding stalk to turn relative to the
cargo-binding tail with the result that one
microtubule slides relative to the other .
• This sliding produces the bending movement
needed for cilia to beat and propel the cell or
other particles.
• Groups of dynein molecules responsible for
movement in opposite directions are probably
activated and inactivated in a coordinated fashion
so that the cilia or flagella can move back and
forth.
22. Protein Dynein:
–Is responsible for the bending movement
of cilia and flagella
Microtubule
doublets ATP
Dynein arm
Powered by ATP, the dynein arms of one microtubule doublet
grip the adjacent doublet, push it up, release, and then grip again.
If the two microtubule doublets were not attached, they would slide
relative to each other.
(a)
23. Outer doublets
cross-linking
proteins
Anchorage
in cell
ATP
In a cilium or flagellum, two adjacent doublets cannot slide far because
they are physically restrained by proteins, so they bend. (Only two of
the nine outer doublets in Figure 6.24b are shown here.)
(b)
Figure 6.25 B
24. Localized, synchronized activation of many dynein arms probably causes a bend to begin
at the base of the Cilium or flagellum and move outward toward the tip. Many successive
bends, such as the ones shown here to the left and right, result in a wavelike motion. In
this diagram, the two central microtubules and the cross-linking proteins are not shown.
(c)
1 3
2
Figure 6.25 C
25. Bidirectional dyneins
• Several reports suggest bidirectional movement of
specific dyneins but no conclusive evidence of
unidirectional plus-end motility.
• Motility can be switched to unidirectional minus end
transport by phosphorylation.
• Probability that phosphorylation of motor regulates
its directionality.
26. • Positive End Directed motors: move from –ve
to + end.
Eg: Myosin and Kinesin Motors
• Negative End Directed motors: move from
+ve end to –ve end
Eg:Dynein Motors