The document summarizes the Watson and Crick DNA model. It describes the key components of DNA's double helix structure, including that it consists of two antiparallel strands coiled around a common axis. The strands are composed of deoxyribonucleotides linked by phosphodiester bonds and held together by hydrogen bonds between complementary nitrogenous bases: adenine pairs with thymine, and cytosine pairs with guanine. The sugar-phosphate backbone forms the structural framework, while the bases project inward and pair up to form the double helix shape.
This power point presentation explains double helical structure of DNA as proposed by Watson and Crick (1953).Attempts have also been made to high light the valuable contributions made by Rosalind Franklin and Wilkins. Brief details of different types of DNA have also been included.
This power point presentation explains double helical structure of DNA as proposed by Watson and Crick (1953).Attempts have also been made to high light the valuable contributions made by Rosalind Franklin and Wilkins. Brief details of different types of DNA have also been included.
There are slides about DNA replication and types of DNA.
Here we study about different enzymes of replication and its process.Places of enzyme action also shown in the slides.Different proteins are also discussed.
Introduction
History
Definition
Classification of DNA Polymerase
Mechanism of DNA Replication
Process of DNA Replication
Initiation
Regulation
Termination
Conclusion
Reference
DNA replication is semi-conservative, one strand serves as the template for the second strand. Furthermore, DNA replication only occurs at a specific step in the cell cycle.
DNA replication in eukaryotes is much more complicated than in prokaryotes, although there are many similar aspects.
DNA replication is a biological process that occurs in all living organisms and copies their DNA; it is the basis for biological inheritance.
Eukaryotic cells can only initiate DNA replication at a specific point in the cell cycle, the beginning of S phase.
Due to the size of chromosomes in eukaryotes, eukaryotic chromosomes contain multiple origins of replication
There are slides about DNA replication and types of DNA.
Here we study about different enzymes of replication and its process.Places of enzyme action also shown in the slides.Different proteins are also discussed.
Introduction
History
Definition
Classification of DNA Polymerase
Mechanism of DNA Replication
Process of DNA Replication
Initiation
Regulation
Termination
Conclusion
Reference
DNA replication is semi-conservative, one strand serves as the template for the second strand. Furthermore, DNA replication only occurs at a specific step in the cell cycle.
DNA replication in eukaryotes is much more complicated than in prokaryotes, although there are many similar aspects.
DNA replication is a biological process that occurs in all living organisms and copies their DNA; it is the basis for biological inheritance.
Eukaryotic cells can only initiate DNA replication at a specific point in the cell cycle, the beginning of S phase.
Due to the size of chromosomes in eukaryotes, eukaryotic chromosomes contain multiple origins of replication
Nucleic Acids
DNA
Eukaryotic Chromosomes
The Histones
Deoxynucleic acid ( DNA )
Importance of Nucleotides
Base pairing
Denaturation and Renaturation
Determination GC content
Prokaryotic DNA synthesis
Prokaryotic DNA Replication
Transcription
Coding Strand and Template Strand
Steps of RNA synthesize
A DNA molecule is composed of two chains of nucleotides that wind about each other to resemble a twisted ladder. The sides of the ladder are made up of sugars and phosphates, and the rungs are formed by bonded pairs of nitrogenous bases. These bases are adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), and thymine (T).
Nucleic acid-DNA and RNA
Gene-part of DNA
Functions of DNA
RNA-Functions, different types of RNA-Ribosomal RNAs (rRNAs), Messenger RNAs (mRNAs), Transfer RNAs (tRNAs)-Other RNA-Small nuclear RNA (snRNA), Micro RNA (miRNA), Small interfering RNA (siRNA), Heterogenous RNA (hnRNA).
Nucleic acid-nucleotides-nucleoside
Components of nucleotide-a nitrogenous (nitrogen-containing) base (pyrimidine and purine), (2) a pentose, and (3) a phosphate
Structure of pentose sugar, and 5 major bases (cytosine, thymine, uracil-pyrimidine bases and adenine, guanine-purine bases).
Deoxyribonucleotides and Ribo nucleotides-Molecular structure of deoxyadenosine monophosphate (dAMP), deoxyguanosine monophosphate (dGMP), deoxythymidine monophosphate (dTMP), deoxycytidine monophosphate (dCMP) and Adenosine monophosphate (AMP), Guanosine monophosphate (GMP), Cytosine monophosphate (CMP) and Uridine monophosphate (UMP), Watson crick base pairing, Hoogsteen base pairing,
Helical structure-Heterocylic N -Glycosides, Syn and Anti Conformers, detailed structure of single strand and double stranded DNA.
DNA Nucleotides and Tautomeric Form-Tautomers of Adenine, Cytosine, Guanine, and Thymine
Template strand, non coding strand and coding strand
Hydrogen bonds, phosphodiester linkage, hydrolysis of DNA and RNA.
Different forms of DNA-A, B, and Z forms.
Palindrome sequence, Linear DNA, Cruciform DNA, H DNA (Triplex DNA), Denaturation of DNA, Hyperchromicity, Tm, Renaturation of DNA, Tertiary structure of DNA, Difference of DNA and RNA, RNA structural elements, primary. secondary and tertiary structure of RNA. Detailed structure and functions of tRNA, mRNA, rRNA, miRNA, siRNA, hn RNA, snRNA.
Nucleic acid hybridization, C0t analysis, Buoyant density of DNA, Isopycnic centrifugation.
welcome to lovyansh lifescience
topic of molecular biology The Structure of DNA for csir net lifescience 2022 june
DNA Is Composed of Polynucleotide Chains
Base tautomers
nucleotide
nucleoside.
FORMATION OF NUCLEOTIDE & NUCLEOSIDE
Watson base pairing
The Double Helix Has Minor and Major Grooves
Chemical groups exposed in the major and minor grooves along the edges
of the base pairs
Models of the B, A, and Z forms of DNA.
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blood supply to the cardiac muscle in different areas of the heart is not the same. On the surface of the cardiac muscle, there are large epicardial arteries supplying more blood to those areas whereas in the subendocardial region blood supply is less because it is supplied by smaller intramuscular arteries and plexus of the subendocardial artery the diameter of which are less. This blood supply to the subendocardial plexus is further reduced during systole. Therefore the subendocardial region is more prone to myocardial infarction. Again as the left ventricular thickness is much more than that of the right ventricle the occlusion is more severe in the left ventricle. For this region LV subendocardial region is more prone to MI.Q.22 What are the importance of anastomotic channels in heart muscle?In the normal heart, there are some collaterals among the smaller arteries which become active under abnormal conditions like myocardial ischemia. They open up within a few seconds after the sudden occlusion of the larger artery and become double in number by the end of 2nd or 3rd day and reach to normal by one month. When atherosclerosis causes constriction of coronary arteries slowly over a period of many years, collateral vessels develop restoring normal blood and thus the patient never experiences acute episodes of cardiac dysfunction.Q.23 What is the importance of autoregulation in blood supply in heart muscle?Like some other organs, the heart has the capacity to regulate its own blood flow up to a certain limit in order to maintain an almost constant blood flow to the cardiac musculature in spite of any alteration of systemic blood flow. This is known as autoregulation of coronary blood supply.
Observation of Io’s Resurfacing via Plume Deposition Using Ground-based Adapt...Sérgio Sacani
Since volcanic activity was first discovered on Io from Voyager images in 1979, changes
on Io’s surface have been monitored from both spacecraft and ground-based telescopes.
Here, we present the highest spatial resolution images of Io ever obtained from a groundbased telescope. These images, acquired by the SHARK-VIS instrument on the Large
Binocular Telescope, show evidence of a major resurfacing event on Io’s trailing hemisphere. When compared to the most recent spacecraft images, the SHARK-VIS images
show that a plume deposit from a powerful eruption at Pillan Patera has covered part
of the long-lived Pele plume deposit. Although this type of resurfacing event may be common on Io, few have been detected due to the rarity of spacecraft visits and the previously low spatial resolution available from Earth-based telescopes. The SHARK-VIS instrument ushers in a new era of high resolution imaging of Io’s surface using adaptive
optics at visible wavelengths.
A brief information about the SCOP protein database used in bioinformatics.
The Structural Classification of Proteins (SCOP) database is a comprehensive and authoritative resource for the structural and evolutionary relationships of proteins. It provides a detailed and curated classification of protein structures, grouping them into families, superfamilies, and folds based on their structural and sequence similarities.
Cancer cell metabolism: special Reference to Lactate PathwayAADYARAJPANDEY1
Normal Cell Metabolism:
Cellular respiration describes the series of steps that cells use to break down sugar and other chemicals to get the energy we need to function.
Energy is stored in the bonds of glucose and when glucose is broken down, much of that energy is released.
Cell utilize energy in the form of ATP.
The first step of respiration is called glycolysis. In a series of steps, glycolysis breaks glucose into two smaller molecules - a chemical called pyruvate. A small amount of ATP is formed during this process.
Most healthy cells continue the breakdown in a second process, called the Kreb's cycle. The Kreb's cycle allows cells to “burn” the pyruvates made in glycolysis to get more ATP.
The last step in the breakdown of glucose is called oxidative phosphorylation (Ox-Phos).
It takes place in specialized cell structures called mitochondria. This process produces a large amount of ATP. Importantly, cells need oxygen to complete oxidative phosphorylation.
If a cell completes only glycolysis, only 2 molecules of ATP are made per glucose. However, if the cell completes the entire respiration process (glycolysis - Kreb's - oxidative phosphorylation), about 36 molecules of ATP are created, giving it much more energy to use.
IN CANCER CELL:
Unlike healthy cells that "burn" the entire molecule of sugar to capture a large amount of energy as ATP, cancer cells are wasteful.
Cancer cells only partially break down sugar molecules. They overuse the first step of respiration, glycolysis. They frequently do not complete the second step, oxidative phosphorylation.
This results in only 2 molecules of ATP per each glucose molecule instead of the 36 or so ATPs healthy cells gain. As a result, cancer cells need to use a lot more sugar molecules to get enough energy to survive.
Unlike healthy cells that "burn" the entire molecule of sugar to capture a large amount of energy as ATP, cancer cells are wasteful.
Cancer cells only partially break down sugar molecules. They overuse the first step of respiration, glycolysis. They frequently do not complete the second step, oxidative phosphorylation.
This results in only 2 molecules of ATP per each glucose molecule instead of the 36 or so ATPs healthy cells gain. As a result, cancer cells need to use a lot more sugar molecules to get enough energy to survive.
introduction to WARBERG PHENOMENA:
WARBURG EFFECT Usually, cancer cells are highly glycolytic (glucose addiction) and take up more glucose than do normal cells from outside.
Otto Heinrich Warburg (; 8 October 1883 – 1 August 1970) In 1931 was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology for his "discovery of the nature and mode of action of the respiratory enzyme.
WARNBURG EFFECT : cancer cells under aerobic (well-oxygenated) conditions to metabolize glucose to lactate (aerobic glycolysis) is known as the Warburg effect. Warburg made the observation that tumor slices consume glucose and secrete lactate at a higher rate than normal tissues.
Earliest Galaxies in the JADES Origins Field: Luminosity Function and Cosmic ...Sérgio Sacani
We characterize the earliest galaxy population in the JADES Origins Field (JOF), the deepest
imaging field observed with JWST. We make use of the ancillary Hubble optical images (5 filters
spanning 0.4−0.9µm) and novel JWST images with 14 filters spanning 0.8−5µm, including 7 mediumband filters, and reaching total exposure times of up to 46 hours per filter. We combine all our data
at > 2.3µm to construct an ultradeep image, reaching as deep as ≈ 31.4 AB mag in the stack and
30.3-31.0 AB mag (5σ, r = 0.1” circular aperture) in individual filters. We measure photometric
redshifts and use robust selection criteria to identify a sample of eight galaxy candidates at redshifts
z = 11.5 − 15. These objects show compact half-light radii of R1/2 ∼ 50 − 200pc, stellar masses of
M⋆ ∼ 107−108M⊙, and star-formation rates of SFR ∼ 0.1−1 M⊙ yr−1
. Our search finds no candidates
at 15 < z < 20, placing upper limits at these redshifts. We develop a forward modeling approach to
infer the properties of the evolving luminosity function without binning in redshift or luminosity that
marginalizes over the photometric redshift uncertainty of our candidate galaxies and incorporates the
impact of non-detections. We find a z = 12 luminosity function in good agreement with prior results,
and that the luminosity function normalization and UV luminosity density decline by a factor of ∼ 2.5
from z = 12 to z = 14. We discuss the possible implications of our results in the context of theoretical
models for evolution of the dark matter halo mass function.
Professional air quality monitoring systems provide immediate, on-site data for analysis, compliance, and decision-making.
Monitor common gases, weather parameters, particulates.
2. Watson and Crick DNA Model
• DNA stands for Deoxyribonucleic acid which is a molecule that
contains the instructions an organism needs to develop, live and
reproduce.
• It is a type of nucleic acid and is one of the four major types of
macromolecules that are known to be essential for all forms of life.
3.
4. • The three-dimensional structure of DNA, first proposed by James
D. Watson and Francis H. C. Crick in 1953, consists of two long
helical strands that are coiled around a common axis to form a
double helix.
• Each DNA molecule is comprised of two biopolymer strands
coiling around each other.
• Each strand has a 5′end (with a phosphate group) and a 3′end
(with a hydroxyl group).
5. • The strands are antiparallel, meaning that one strand runs in a
5′to 3′direction, while the other strand runs in a 3′to 5′direction.
• The diameter of the double helix is 2nm and the double-helical
structure repeats at an interval of 3.4nm which corresponds to ten
base pairs.
6. • The two strands are held together by hydrogen bonds and are
complementary to each other.
• The two DNA strands are called polynucleotides, as they are
made of simpler monomer units called nucleotides. Basically, the
DNA is composed of deoxyribonucleotides.
• The deoxyribonucleotides are linked together by 3′-
5′phosphodiester bonds.
7.
8. • The nitrogenous bases that compose the deoxyribonucleotides
include adenine, cytosine, thymine, and guanine.
• The structure of DNA -DNA is a double helix structure because it
looks like a twisted ladder.
• The sides of the ladder are made of alternating sugar
(deoxyribose) and phosphate molecules while the steps of the
ladder are made up of a pair of nitrogen bases.
9. • As a result of the double-helical nature of DNA, the molecule has
two asymmetric grooves. One groove is smaller than the other.
• This asymmetry is a result of the geometrical configuration of the
bonds between the phosphate, sugar, and base groups that forces
the base groups to attach at 120-degree angles instead of 180
degrees.
10. • The larger groove is called
the major groove, occurs
when the backbones are far
apart; while the smaller one is
called the minor groove, and
occurs when they are close
together.
11. • Since the major and minor grooves expose the edges of the
bases, the grooves can be used to tell the base sequence of a
specific DNA molecule.
• The possibility for such recognition is critical since proteins must
be able to recognize specific DNA sequences on which to bind in
order for the proper functions of the body and cell to be carried
out.
12.
13. Components of DNA Double Helix Structure
• The nitrogen bases or nucleotides
• Deoxyribose sugar
• The phosphate group (phosphate backbone)
15. • DNA strands are composed of monomers called nucleotides.
• These monomers are often referred to as bases because they
contain cyclic organic bases.
• Four different nucleotides, abbreviated A, T, C, and G, (adenine,
thymine, cytosine, and guanine) are joined to form a DNA strand,
with the base parts projecting inward from the backbone of the
strand.
16. • Two strands bind together via the bases and twist to form a
double helix.
• The nitrogen bases have a specific pairing pattern. This pairing
pattern occurs because the amount of adenine equals the amount
of thymine; the amount of guanine equals the amount of cytosine.
The pairs are held together by hydrogen bonds.
• Each DNA double helix thus has a simple construction: wherever
one strand has an A, the other strand has a T, and each C is
matched with a G.
17. • The complementary strands are due to the nature of the
nitrogenous bases. The base adenine always interacts with
thymine (A-T) on the opposite strand via two hydrogen bonds and
cytosine always interacts with guanine (C-G) via three hydrogen
bonds on the opposite strand.
• The shape of the helix is stabilized by hydrogen bonding and
hydrophobic interactions between bases.
19. • Deoxyribose, also known as D-Deoxyribose and 2-deoxyribose, is
a pentose sugar (monosaccharide containing five carbon atoms)
that is a key component of the nucleic acid deoxyribonucleic acid
(DNA).
• It is derived from the pentose sugar ribose. Deoxyribose has the
chemical formula C5H10O4.
• Deoxyribose is the sugar component of DNA, just as ribose
serves that role in RNA (ribonucleic acid).
20. • Alternating with phosphate bases, deoxyribose forms the
backbone of the DNA, binding to the nitrogenous
bases adenine, thymine, guanine, and cytosine.
• As a component of DNA, which represents the genetic information
in all living cells, deoxyribose is critical to life. This ubiquitous
sugar reflects a commonality among all living organisms.
22. • The sugar-phosphate backbone forms the structural framework of
nucleic acids, including DNA.
• This backbone is composed of alternating sugar and phosphate
groups and defines the directionality of the molecule.
• DNA are composed of nucleotides that are linked to one another
in a chain by chemical bonds, called ester bonds, between the
sugar base of one nucleotide and the phosphate group of the
adjacent nucleotide.
• The sugar is the 3′ end, and the phosphate is the 5′ end of each
nucleotide.
23. • The phosphate group attached to the 5′ carbon of the sugar on
one nucleotide forms an ester bond with the free hydroxyl on the
3′ carbon of the next nucleotide.
• These bonds are called phosphodiester bonds, and the sugar-
phosphate backbone is described as extending, or growing, in the
5′ to 3′ direction when the molecule is synthesized.
• In double-stranded DNA, the molecular double-helix shape is
formed by two linear sugar-phosphate backbones that run
opposite each other and twist together in a helical shape.
• The sugar-phosphate backbone is negatively charged and
hydrophilic, which allows the DNA backbone to form bonds with
water.