Distillation
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Distillation is a process that separates components of a liquid using vaporization and condensation. It relies on differences in volatility between components. There are several types of distillation including simple distillation, azeotropic distillation, extractive distillation, steam distillation, flash distillation, and fractional distillation. Each type has different applications depending on the properties of the components to be separated.
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The document provides an overview of colligative properties of solutions, which are physical properties that depend on the number of solute particles in solution rather than the chemical identity of the solute. Examples of colligative properties discussed include vapor pressure lowering, boiling point elevation, freezing point depression, and osmotic pressure. Formulas are provided to calculate these colligative properties based on variables like molality, vapor pressure of the pure solvent, and temperature.
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This document discusses colligative properties of solutions and ways of expressing concentration. It begins by defining key terms like solute, solvent, concentration, dilute and concentrated solutions. It then describes various ways of expressing concentration including percentage by weight, mole fraction, molarity, molality, normality and parts per million. The document also discusses colligative properties like lowering of vapor pressure, elevation of boiling point, depression of freezing point and osmotic pressure. It provides equations and experimental methods for determining these properties and using them to calculate molecular masses. The concept of abnormal molar masses from association or dissociation in solution is introduced along with the van't Hoff factor.
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Distillation is a method of separating mixtures based on differences in volatility. It involves heating a mixture to vaporize more volatile components, which are then condensed and collected. There are several types of distillation including simple distillation, fractional distillation, steam distillation, and destructive distillation. Fractional distillation uses a fractionating column with multiple theoretical plates to achieve high purity separations, while steam distillation uses steam to reduce boiling points of heat-sensitive materials. Distillation is used in pharmacy and chemistry to extract and purify substances.
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Distillation is a method of separating mixtures based on differences in volatility. It involves heating a mixture to vaporize components with lower boiling points and then condensing the vapors. There are several types of distillation including simple distillation, fractional distillation, steam distillation, and destructive distillation. Fractional distillation uses a fractionating column with multiple theoretical plates to achieve high purity separations, while steam distillation uses steam to lower boiling points of heat-sensitive materials. Distillation is an important separation technique used in pharmacy, chemistry, and other fields.
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Raoult's law states that the vapor pressure of a solution is directly proportional to the mole fraction of the solvent. It applies to ideal solutions and describes how the vapor pressure of a solution changes as the composition of the liquid changes. For ideal solutions, the vapor pressure decreases linearly as the mole fraction of the solvent decreases. However, real solutions often deviate from Raoult's law due to intermolecular forces. Colligative properties, such as lowering of vapor pressure, boiling point elevation, and freezing point depression, depend only on the number of solute particles and not their identity. These properties are used to determine molar masses of unknown solutes.
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Distillation is a process that separates mixtures into individual components based on differences in their boiling points. It works by heating the mixture to vaporize components with lower boiling points, which are then cooled and condensed.
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1) Distillation is a method used to separate components of a liquid solution based on differences in how the components distribute between the vapor and liquid phases when heated to their boiling points.
2) Raoult's law describes vapor-liquid equilibrium for ideal solutions, relating the partial pressure of a component in vapor phase to its mole fraction in the liquid phase. Boiling point diagrams can be constructed using vapor pressure data.
3) Equilibrium or flash distillation involves heating a liquid mixture to partially vaporize it in a single stage, separating the vapor and liquid which approach equilibrium compositions.
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Presentation2freezingpointdepression
Depression of the Freezing Point of a Solvent
We need two pieces of information to calculate the depression of the freezing point of the solvent in a solution containing a nonvolatile nonelectrolyte:
• The molal concentration, m, of the solute in the solution (Sometimes it may be necessary to calculate this concentration from other information.)
• The freezing point depression constant, Kf, for the solvent.
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Distillation is a process that separates components of a liquid mixture based on differences in their volatilities in heating and cooling processes. It involves selectively boiling the more volatile components by heating the mixture and then condensing the vapor.
There are several types of distillation including simple distillation, fractional distillation, steam distillation and vacuum distillation. Simple distillation is used to separate components with large differences in volatility, while fractional distillation allows separation of mixtures with components of similar volatility by conducting multiple distillation steps. Distillation finds applications in purification of solvents, separation of essential oils, and production of alcoholic beverages and petroleum products.
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1) Distillation is a method used to separate components of a liquid solution based on differences in how the components distribute between the vapor and liquid phases when heated to their boiling points.
2) Raoult's law describes vapor-liquid equilibrium for ideal solutions, relating the partial pressure of a component in vapor phase to its mole fraction in the liquid phase. Boiling point diagrams can be constructed using vapor pressure data.
3) Equilibrium or flash distillation involves heating a liquid mixture to partially vaporize it in a single stage, separating the vapor and liquid which approach equilibrium compositions.
Azeotropes
This document discusses different types of azeotropes:
- An azeotrope is a mixture of liquids that cannot be separated by simple distillation as the vapor has the same composition as the liquid.
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- A maximum boiling azeotrope has a boiling point higher than its constituent liquids. Repeated distillation of such a mixture results in distillates moving away from the azeotrope composition and residues moving towards it.
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This document summarizes a chemistry laboratory experiment on simple distillation. The experiment aims to separate a mixture of two miscible liquids with a boiling point difference of at least 25°C. The procedure involves heating the liquid mixture in a round-bottom flask attached to a condenser. Vapors form and travel up the condenser where they cool and drip into a collection flask. The temperature is recorded at each stage of distillation. The results show the primary boiling point, final boiling point, amounts distilled and remaining, and percentage of distilled material.
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Presentation2freezingpointdepression
Depression of the Freezing Point of a Solvent
We need two pieces of information to calculate the depression of the freezing point of the solvent in a solution containing a nonvolatile nonelectrolyte:
• The molal concentration, m, of the solute in the solution (Sometimes it may be necessary to calculate this concentration from other information.)
• The freezing point depression constant, Kf, for the solvent.
We use the following equation to calculate a freezing point depression. (Note: This equation assumes the freezing point depression constant has a positive value.)
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This document discusses ideal gases, Raoult's law, ideal solutions, and deviations from Raoult's law. It explains that an ideal gas is composed of randomly moving particles that only interact during elastic collisions. Raoult's law describes ideal solutions. Non-ideal solutions show either positive or negative deviations from Raoult's law due to differences in intermolecular forces between solvent-solute and pure components. Positive deviations occur when these interactions are weaker, while negative deviations occur when they are stronger.
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Distillation is used to separate components of a liquid mixture based on their differing boiling points. Simple distillation gradually increases in temperature as it collects an impure distillate, while fractional distillation uses a fractionating column to achieve a sudden increase between more pure fractions. Alcoholic beverages can be distilled to increase their alcohol concentration from 5-10% to over 40% through heating and collecting the vaporized alcohol.
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2) Factors that influence drug stability like temperature, solvent, ionic strength, dielectric constant, and acid/base catalysts.
3) Common degradation pathways like hydrolysis, oxidation, photolysis and methods to prevent or minimize degradation through each pathway.
4) ICH guidelines divide stability testing guidelines into quality, safety, efficacy and multidisciplinary categories to ensure drug quality and efficacy globally.
Colligative properties
Colligative properties such as boiling point elevation, freezing point depression, and osmotic pressure depend only on the number of solute particles in solution, not their identity. The document discusses these properties and how they are affected when solutes dissolve. It explains that boiling point is elevated and freezing point is depressed because solutes lower vapor pressure, requiring more energy for phase changes. Osmotic pressure arises from differences in solute concentration across a semipermeable membrane. The van't Hoff factor accounts for changes in observed properties when solutes dissociate or associate in solution.
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This document discusses various concepts related to solutions in pharmaceutical science. It defines key terms like solute, solvent, saturated solution, and supersaturated solution. It describes how temperature and pressure can impact solubility and the solubility of gases. It also discusses liquid-liquid mixtures and how they can be miscible, partially miscible, or immiscible. Raoult's law and Dalton's law of partial pressures are introduced in relation to vapor pressure in solutions.
Solubility by Dhiraj Shrestha
The document summarizes key concepts about solubility phenomena presented in a seminar. It defines important terms like solution, solvent, solute, and discusses factors affecting solubility such as polarity of solvents and solutes. It also describes concepts like ideal and real solutions, Raoult's law, and deviations from it. Different types of solutions are explained including gas-liquid, liquid-liquid, and solid-liquid solutions. The document also discusses solubility expression, fractional distillation, and properties of partially miscible liquids.
Distillation
This PowerPoint presentation discusses various types of distillation processes including simple distillation, fractional distillation, flash distillation, azeotropic distillation, and steam distillation. It explains the basic principles and components of distillation, differences between continuous and batch distillation, factors that influence column efficiency, and challenges with separating azeotropic mixtures. Key concepts covered include Raoult's law, distillation curves, reflux ratios, and minimum and maximum boiling azeotropes.
Colligative properties
The document discusses colligative properties, which are properties of solutions that depend on the number of solute particles present. There are four main colligative properties: vapor pressure lowering, freezing point depression, boiling point elevation, and osmotic pressure. Each property is directly proportional to the molality of the solution and can be calculated using the appropriate constant for the solvent.
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Distillation
- 1. Distillationisthe processbywhichcomponentsof aliquidare separatedbyusing vapourizationandsubsequentcondensation. Feedliquidcalleddistilland. Condensedliquidcalleddistillateorcondensate. Raoult`slaw:Partial vapourpressure of eachvolatile constituentisequal tovapourpressure of pure constituentmultipliedbyitsmole fractionata giventemperature. Partial V.P.=V.P.of pure liquid*mole fractionof liquid Ideal solution:whenthere isnochange inthe propertiesofcomponentsotherthandilution. Example:Methanol andwater Real solution: Postive deviation:Vapourpressureisgreaterthanthe sumof the partial pressure of individualcomponents. Thisbehaviouroccurwhencomponentdiffersfrom polarity,length of hydrocarbon chain or degree of association. Example:carbontetrachloride andcyclohexane,benzene andethanol. Negative deviation:V.P.islowerthansumof partial pressure of individual component.This deviationoccurswhen hydrogenbonding,saltformation andhydration occurs between componennts. Example:choloroformandacetone,pyridine andaceticacid,waterandnitricacid. Volatility: volatility=partialvapourpressure of A/mole fractionof A insolution Simple distillation:Itisasimple processof convertingsingle constituentfroma liquidinto itsvapour andthenconvertingthisvapourintoliquidatanotherplace.Alsocalled differential distillation(becausebasedonrelative volatilityof constituents). Purifiedwater andwater for injectionare made by thismethod. Fewofficial compoundslike spiritof nitrousetherandaromaticspiritof ammoniaare prepaedbyit. Azeotropicdistillation:itisadistillationmethodinwhich azeotropicmixture broken by additionof thirdsubstance,whichforms anew azeotrope withone of the component.E.g. azeotrope of waterandethyl alcohol isbrokenbybenzene.Itisusedfordeterminationof watercontentinsubstance using toluene accordingtoIP,1996. Extractive distillation:Inextractive distillationthirdsubstanceaddedtoazeotropicmixtureis relativelynonvolatile comparedtosubstancestobe seprated.E.g.1) Phenol isusedfor seprationof azeotropicmixture of tolueneandiso-octane.2)Furfural isaddedforthe seprationof butadiene from itsmixture containingbutane andbutane. Steam distillation: 1)It isusedfor separationof highboilingsubstancesfromnonvolatile impurities. 2)Steamdistillationisusedforseparationof immiscible liquid. 3)Mainlyusedforseparation of volatile oils. Steamdistillationisthe commonexample of differential distillation.Itisbase onthe principle that whenwaterismixedwithotherimmiscible highboilingpointliquid,thentheirmixture
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