Factors that affect the rate of elimination reactions include the attacking base, leaving group, and reaction medium. A strong base is required for an E2 reaction to remove a weakly acidic hydrogen. A good leaving group is stable and weakly binds electrons, making it easier to form the carbocation intermediate. A polar solvent can stabilize charged carbocation intermediates in E1 reactions, making it the preferred medium, while a non-polar solvent favors the uncharged transition state of E2 reactions.
In organic chemistry, a carbonyl group is a functional group composed of a carbon atom double-bonded to an oxygen atom: C=O. It is common to several classes of organic compounds, as part of many larger functional groups. A compound containing a carbonyl group is often referred to as a carbonyl compound.
Sidra Javed prepared this document on phenols. Phenols are aromatic compounds containing one or more OH groups directly attached to the carbon of a benzene ring. The simplest phenol is carbolic acid, C6H5OH. Phenols are more acidic than alcohols due to resonance stabilization of the phenoxide ion. Phenols undergo electrophilic aromatic substitution and oxidation reactions. Common preparation methods for phenols include the base hydrolysis of chlorobenzene, acidic oxidation of cumene, and preparation from aryl diazonium salts.
The document discusses carbonyl compounds, which contain a carbonyl group (C=O). This includes aldehydes, ketones, carboxylic acids, amides, and acid chlorides. It describes the structure of the carbonyl group and how the C=O double bond is polarized towards oxygen. This polarization allows carbonyl compounds to undergo nucleophilic addition reactions. Aldehydes are generally more reactive than ketones for electronic and steric reasons. Examples of reactions include hydration, cyanohydrin formation, imine formation, acetal formation, oxidation, reduction, and Friedel-Crafts acylation. Qualitative tests and important carbonyl compounds and their uses are also outlined.
This document discusses the colligative property of boiling point elevation. It defines boiling point as the temperature at which the vapor pressure of a liquid equals atmospheric pressure. When a non-volatile solute is added to a solvent, its boiling point increases from the original boiling point. This elevation in boiling point (ΔTb) is directly proportional to the molarity of the solution, as shown by the equation ΔTb = Kb × m, where Kb is the ebullioscopic constant specific to the solvent and m is the molality of the solution. The increased boiling point is due to the solute particles interfering with the vaporization of the solvent molecules.
Theory of Acid-base Indicators and Acid-base Titration CurvesSajjad Ullah
1) Acid-base indicators change color at a specific pH range near the equivalence point of an acid-base titration. This allows the endpoint to be visually identified.
2) The pH curve for a strong acid-strong base titration shows a sharp change in pH at the equivalence point of 7. A weak acid-strong base titration has a more gradual pH change before and after the equivalence point, which is above 7 due to salt hydrolysis.
3) The suitable indicator depends on the pH changes around the endpoint. It must change color in the steep "vertical" portion of the curve to accurately identify the endpoint.
Volumetric Analysis
Types of titration
Acid- Base Theory
Reaction, End Point & Indicators
Acid- Base titration
Titration curve
Non- Aqueous Titration
Precipitation Titration
Complexometric Titration
Oxidation- Reduction Titration,
Calculation. Errors
General Informations,
Factors that affect the rate of elimination reactions include the attacking base, leaving group, and reaction medium. A strong base is required for an E2 reaction to remove a weakly acidic hydrogen. A good leaving group is stable and weakly binds electrons, making it easier to form the carbocation intermediate. A polar solvent can stabilize charged carbocation intermediates in E1 reactions, making it the preferred medium, while a non-polar solvent favors the uncharged transition state of E2 reactions.
In organic chemistry, a carbonyl group is a functional group composed of a carbon atom double-bonded to an oxygen atom: C=O. It is common to several classes of organic compounds, as part of many larger functional groups. A compound containing a carbonyl group is often referred to as a carbonyl compound.
Sidra Javed prepared this document on phenols. Phenols are aromatic compounds containing one or more OH groups directly attached to the carbon of a benzene ring. The simplest phenol is carbolic acid, C6H5OH. Phenols are more acidic than alcohols due to resonance stabilization of the phenoxide ion. Phenols undergo electrophilic aromatic substitution and oxidation reactions. Common preparation methods for phenols include the base hydrolysis of chlorobenzene, acidic oxidation of cumene, and preparation from aryl diazonium salts.
The document discusses carbonyl compounds, which contain a carbonyl group (C=O). This includes aldehydes, ketones, carboxylic acids, amides, and acid chlorides. It describes the structure of the carbonyl group and how the C=O double bond is polarized towards oxygen. This polarization allows carbonyl compounds to undergo nucleophilic addition reactions. Aldehydes are generally more reactive than ketones for electronic and steric reasons. Examples of reactions include hydration, cyanohydrin formation, imine formation, acetal formation, oxidation, reduction, and Friedel-Crafts acylation. Qualitative tests and important carbonyl compounds and their uses are also outlined.
This document discusses the colligative property of boiling point elevation. It defines boiling point as the temperature at which the vapor pressure of a liquid equals atmospheric pressure. When a non-volatile solute is added to a solvent, its boiling point increases from the original boiling point. This elevation in boiling point (ΔTb) is directly proportional to the molarity of the solution, as shown by the equation ΔTb = Kb × m, where Kb is the ebullioscopic constant specific to the solvent and m is the molality of the solution. The increased boiling point is due to the solute particles interfering with the vaporization of the solvent molecules.
Theory of Acid-base Indicators and Acid-base Titration CurvesSajjad Ullah
1) Acid-base indicators change color at a specific pH range near the equivalence point of an acid-base titration. This allows the endpoint to be visually identified.
2) The pH curve for a strong acid-strong base titration shows a sharp change in pH at the equivalence point of 7. A weak acid-strong base titration has a more gradual pH change before and after the equivalence point, which is above 7 due to salt hydrolysis.
3) The suitable indicator depends on the pH changes around the endpoint. It must change color in the steep "vertical" portion of the curve to accurately identify the endpoint.
Volumetric Analysis
Types of titration
Acid- Base Theory
Reaction, End Point & Indicators
Acid- Base titration
Titration curve
Non- Aqueous Titration
Precipitation Titration
Complexometric Titration
Oxidation- Reduction Titration,
Calculation. Errors
General Informations,
E1 elimination reactions proceed by a unimolecular mechanism involving the formation of a carbocation intermediate. The rate depends on the concentration of the reactant. There are two steps: 1) formation of the carbocation and 2) removal of a proton from an adjacent carbon by the base to form the alkene product. The orientation and stereochemistry of product formation is influenced by stability factors. The rate is affected by the stability of the carbocation, the leaving group ability, the base strength, and the solvent polarity. E1 reactions are useful for converting monoenes to dienes and trienes, and in vitamin interconversions.
Presentation on fractional distillation. Introduction to distillation, fractional distillation, its principle, working, applications, advantages and disadvantages.
Aromatic amines topic includes basicity of the aromatic amine. It also includes the comparison of the basicity. It is designed according to new PCI syllabus of B. Pharmacy.
This document describes the synthesis of benzanilide from aniline via a Schotten-Baumann reaction. Aniline reacts with benzoyl chloride in the presence of sodium hydroxide to form benzanilide and hydrochloric acid. The reaction involves benzoylation, where the benzoyl group is inserted in place of the active hydrogen on the amine group of aniline. Details of the reaction mechanism, chemicals used, equipment needed and procedure for synthesizing benzanilide are provided. The theoretical and percent yields are also calculated.
Electrophilic additions involve reactions of alkenes where the pi electrons in the double bond attack an electrophile. There are several types of additions including addition of HX, halogens, water, alcohols, and hydroboration. The mechanism typically involves formation of a carbocation intermediate that is then attacked by the nucleophile. Addition occurs regioselectively according to Markovnikov's rule, favoring the most stable carbocation. Exceptions include free radical additions, which give the anti-Markovnikov product. Oxymercuration-demercuration and hydroboration allow for Markovnikov addition without rearrangements.
The document discusses elimination reactions of alkyl halides. It begins by defining elimination reactions as those that involve the loss of elements from a starting material to form a new pi bond in the product. Specifically, it focuses on dehydrohalogenation reactions, where removal of HX occurs. The most common mechanism is E2 elimination, which is a bimolecular reaction promoted by a strong base. It follows second-order kinetics and has a single transition state. The document discusses characteristics of E2 reactions like Saytzeff's rule, Markovnikov's rule, anti-Markovnikov reactions, stereochemistry and stereoselectivity.
Complexometric titration involves the titration of a metal ion with EDTA (ethylene diamine tetraacetic acid) where a colored complex is formed at the endpoint. There are several types of complexometric titrations including direct titration where the metal ion is directly titrated with EDTA, back titration where excess EDTA is added and then titrated with another metal ion, and replacement titration where the metal ion displaces another metal ion from an EDTA complex which is then titrated. Complexometric titrations can be used to determine mixtures of metal ions and are useful because EDTA forms very stable complexes with most metal ions.
The aldol condensation reaction involves the reaction of two carbonyl compounds in the presence of a strong base to form a β-hydroxyaldehyde or β-hydroxyketone. The reaction proceeds through the formation of an enolate ion intermediate that acts as a nucleophile, attacking the carbonyl carbon of the other molecule. This forms a carbon-carbon bond between the α-carbon of the donor molecule and the carbonyl carbon of the acceptor molecule. The aldol condensation reaction is useful for synthesizing larger molecules from simple starting materials and plays an important role in biochemical processes such as gluconeogenesis.
This document provides information about carbonyl compounds, specifically aldehydes and ketones. It discusses their IUPAC nomenclature, methods of preparation including oxidation of alcohols and oxidative cleavage of alkenes, and physical and chemical properties. The chemical reactions covered include nucleophilic addition, reduction, condensation, and oxidation reactions. Examples of important aldehydes and ketones are also mentioned along with their structures and uses.
- Elimination reactions occur by either an E1 or E2 mechanism. E1 is a one-step reaction involving a carbocation intermediate, while E2 is a concerted, single-step reaction.
- The E1 mechanism is favored by good leaving groups, stable carbocations, and weak bases. It is non-stereospecific and does not occur with primary alkyl halides. The E2 mechanism is favored by strong bases and polar aprotic solvents. It is stereospecific and proceeds through an anti-periplanar transition state.
- Key factors that determine the mechanism include the stability of carbocation intermediates, the strength of the leaving group and base, and steric
Distribution Law
What is Distribution law?
Immiscible liquids
Explanation
APPLICATION OF DISTRIBUTION LAW
Limitations of Distribution Law
Contrast and Comparison between separation through Separating funnel and Fractional Distillation
Permanganometry, iodometry in analytical technique, P K MANIP.K. Mani
This document provides information about various redox titration methods including permanganometry, dichromatometry, iodometry, and iodimetry. It discusses the standard redox potentials and reaction equations for potassium permanganate, potassium dichromate, iodine, and other oxidizing agents. The document also describes procedures for standardizing and preparing standard solutions of these titrants. Specific applications discussed include the titration of iron(II), nitrites, and arsenite.
The overall rate equation for this reaction is:
Rate = k[R-R-OH][H2O]
Where k is the rate constant and [R-R-OH] and [H2O] are the concentrations of the reactants R-R-OH and H2O, respectively.
This document discusses the distribution law, also known as the partition coefficient, which describes how a solute will distribute between two immiscible solvents at equilibrium. It provides the equation that the concentration of the solute in the first solvent (C1) divided by the concentration in the second solvent (C2) equals the distribution coefficient (KD). Several applications of the distribution law are described, including solvent extraction, partition chromatography, and determining solubility, dissociation, and association.
This document discusses precipitation titration methods. It describes Mohr's method, Volhard's method and Fajan's method. Mohr's method uses potassium chromate as an indicator. Volhard's method indirectly titrates excess silver ions with thiocyanate using ferric ammonium sulfate as an indicator. Fajan's method uses adsorption indicators like fluorescein that change color upon adsorption to the precipitate formed at the endpoint. Key factors that influence precipitation titrations like solubility products, common ion effect and temperature are also discussed.
This document summarizes key information about alkenes (olefins):
1) Alkenes contain carbon-carbon double bonds and are classified as unsaturated hydrocarbons. Common examples include ethylene and propene.
2) Alkenes undergo characteristic reactions such as addition of halogens, hydrogenation to form alkanes, hydration and polymerization. Many of these reactions follow Markovnikov's rule.
3) Alkenes are industrially important as monomers for polymers like polyethylene, polypropylene, PVC and polystyrene. Ethylene and propylene are the largest volume organic chemicals produced.
This document describes a laboratory experiment on Cannizzaro's reaction of benzaldehyde. Benzaldehyde undergoes a solvent-free disproportionation reaction in the presence of sodium hydroxide to produce benzoic acid and benzyl alcohol. The reaction is carried out by grinding benzaldehyde and sodium hydroxide together for 30 minutes. Benzoic acid precipitates out and is collected by filtration. Benzyl alcohol is extracted from the filtrate using ethyl acetate. The yields of benzoic acid and benzyl alcohol are calculated and their melting points determined and compared to theoretical values.
This document summarizes key differences between aldehydes and ketones. Aldehydes contain a carbonyl group attached to one carbon, while ketones have the carbonyl between two carbons. Aldehydes are easily oxidized to carboxylic acids, while ketones require more vigorous oxidation. Both can undergo nucleophilic addition reactions to form alcohols. Common tests to distinguish the two include Tollen's reagent and Fehling's reagent.
The document discusses several key factors that affect solubility:
1) The nature of the solute and solvent - whether they are polar or non-polar determines if they will dissolve in each other, with "like dissolving like".
2) Temperature - for gases, solubility decreases as temperature increases but for solids it generally increases as temperature increases.
3) Pressure - for gases, solubility increases as pressure over the solvent increases based on Henry's Law.
This document defines key terms related to solutions and summarizes factors that affect solubility. It defines a solution as a homogeneous mixture where a solute is dissolved in a solvent. Temperature, pressure, and the nature of the solute and solvent affect solubility. There are various units to express concentration, including molarity, molality, and percent composition. Colligative properties like boiling point elevation and freezing point depression depend on the number of solute particles rather than their identity.
This document discusses several physico-chemical properties of drug molecules that are important for drug formulation and delivery, including physical state, melting point, boiling point, polarity, and solubility. It also covers acid-base properties of drugs and how pH and pKa values are used to characterize these properties. Buffers are described as solutions that can maintain a relatively constant pH when acids or bases are added.
E1 elimination reactions proceed by a unimolecular mechanism involving the formation of a carbocation intermediate. The rate depends on the concentration of the reactant. There are two steps: 1) formation of the carbocation and 2) removal of a proton from an adjacent carbon by the base to form the alkene product. The orientation and stereochemistry of product formation is influenced by stability factors. The rate is affected by the stability of the carbocation, the leaving group ability, the base strength, and the solvent polarity. E1 reactions are useful for converting monoenes to dienes and trienes, and in vitamin interconversions.
Presentation on fractional distillation. Introduction to distillation, fractional distillation, its principle, working, applications, advantages and disadvantages.
Aromatic amines topic includes basicity of the aromatic amine. It also includes the comparison of the basicity. It is designed according to new PCI syllabus of B. Pharmacy.
This document describes the synthesis of benzanilide from aniline via a Schotten-Baumann reaction. Aniline reacts with benzoyl chloride in the presence of sodium hydroxide to form benzanilide and hydrochloric acid. The reaction involves benzoylation, where the benzoyl group is inserted in place of the active hydrogen on the amine group of aniline. Details of the reaction mechanism, chemicals used, equipment needed and procedure for synthesizing benzanilide are provided. The theoretical and percent yields are also calculated.
Electrophilic additions involve reactions of alkenes where the pi electrons in the double bond attack an electrophile. There are several types of additions including addition of HX, halogens, water, alcohols, and hydroboration. The mechanism typically involves formation of a carbocation intermediate that is then attacked by the nucleophile. Addition occurs regioselectively according to Markovnikov's rule, favoring the most stable carbocation. Exceptions include free radical additions, which give the anti-Markovnikov product. Oxymercuration-demercuration and hydroboration allow for Markovnikov addition without rearrangements.
The document discusses elimination reactions of alkyl halides. It begins by defining elimination reactions as those that involve the loss of elements from a starting material to form a new pi bond in the product. Specifically, it focuses on dehydrohalogenation reactions, where removal of HX occurs. The most common mechanism is E2 elimination, which is a bimolecular reaction promoted by a strong base. It follows second-order kinetics and has a single transition state. The document discusses characteristics of E2 reactions like Saytzeff's rule, Markovnikov's rule, anti-Markovnikov reactions, stereochemistry and stereoselectivity.
Complexometric titration involves the titration of a metal ion with EDTA (ethylene diamine tetraacetic acid) where a colored complex is formed at the endpoint. There are several types of complexometric titrations including direct titration where the metal ion is directly titrated with EDTA, back titration where excess EDTA is added and then titrated with another metal ion, and replacement titration where the metal ion displaces another metal ion from an EDTA complex which is then titrated. Complexometric titrations can be used to determine mixtures of metal ions and are useful because EDTA forms very stable complexes with most metal ions.
The aldol condensation reaction involves the reaction of two carbonyl compounds in the presence of a strong base to form a β-hydroxyaldehyde or β-hydroxyketone. The reaction proceeds through the formation of an enolate ion intermediate that acts as a nucleophile, attacking the carbonyl carbon of the other molecule. This forms a carbon-carbon bond between the α-carbon of the donor molecule and the carbonyl carbon of the acceptor molecule. The aldol condensation reaction is useful for synthesizing larger molecules from simple starting materials and plays an important role in biochemical processes such as gluconeogenesis.
This document provides information about carbonyl compounds, specifically aldehydes and ketones. It discusses their IUPAC nomenclature, methods of preparation including oxidation of alcohols and oxidative cleavage of alkenes, and physical and chemical properties. The chemical reactions covered include nucleophilic addition, reduction, condensation, and oxidation reactions. Examples of important aldehydes and ketones are also mentioned along with their structures and uses.
- Elimination reactions occur by either an E1 or E2 mechanism. E1 is a one-step reaction involving a carbocation intermediate, while E2 is a concerted, single-step reaction.
- The E1 mechanism is favored by good leaving groups, stable carbocations, and weak bases. It is non-stereospecific and does not occur with primary alkyl halides. The E2 mechanism is favored by strong bases and polar aprotic solvents. It is stereospecific and proceeds through an anti-periplanar transition state.
- Key factors that determine the mechanism include the stability of carbocation intermediates, the strength of the leaving group and base, and steric
Distribution Law
What is Distribution law?
Immiscible liquids
Explanation
APPLICATION OF DISTRIBUTION LAW
Limitations of Distribution Law
Contrast and Comparison between separation through Separating funnel and Fractional Distillation
Permanganometry, iodometry in analytical technique, P K MANIP.K. Mani
This document provides information about various redox titration methods including permanganometry, dichromatometry, iodometry, and iodimetry. It discusses the standard redox potentials and reaction equations for potassium permanganate, potassium dichromate, iodine, and other oxidizing agents. The document also describes procedures for standardizing and preparing standard solutions of these titrants. Specific applications discussed include the titration of iron(II), nitrites, and arsenite.
The overall rate equation for this reaction is:
Rate = k[R-R-OH][H2O]
Where k is the rate constant and [R-R-OH] and [H2O] are the concentrations of the reactants R-R-OH and H2O, respectively.
This document discusses the distribution law, also known as the partition coefficient, which describes how a solute will distribute between two immiscible solvents at equilibrium. It provides the equation that the concentration of the solute in the first solvent (C1) divided by the concentration in the second solvent (C2) equals the distribution coefficient (KD). Several applications of the distribution law are described, including solvent extraction, partition chromatography, and determining solubility, dissociation, and association.
This document discusses precipitation titration methods. It describes Mohr's method, Volhard's method and Fajan's method. Mohr's method uses potassium chromate as an indicator. Volhard's method indirectly titrates excess silver ions with thiocyanate using ferric ammonium sulfate as an indicator. Fajan's method uses adsorption indicators like fluorescein that change color upon adsorption to the precipitate formed at the endpoint. Key factors that influence precipitation titrations like solubility products, common ion effect and temperature are also discussed.
This document summarizes key information about alkenes (olefins):
1) Alkenes contain carbon-carbon double bonds and are classified as unsaturated hydrocarbons. Common examples include ethylene and propene.
2) Alkenes undergo characteristic reactions such as addition of halogens, hydrogenation to form alkanes, hydration and polymerization. Many of these reactions follow Markovnikov's rule.
3) Alkenes are industrially important as monomers for polymers like polyethylene, polypropylene, PVC and polystyrene. Ethylene and propylene are the largest volume organic chemicals produced.
This document describes a laboratory experiment on Cannizzaro's reaction of benzaldehyde. Benzaldehyde undergoes a solvent-free disproportionation reaction in the presence of sodium hydroxide to produce benzoic acid and benzyl alcohol. The reaction is carried out by grinding benzaldehyde and sodium hydroxide together for 30 minutes. Benzoic acid precipitates out and is collected by filtration. Benzyl alcohol is extracted from the filtrate using ethyl acetate. The yields of benzoic acid and benzyl alcohol are calculated and their melting points determined and compared to theoretical values.
This document summarizes key differences between aldehydes and ketones. Aldehydes contain a carbonyl group attached to one carbon, while ketones have the carbonyl between two carbons. Aldehydes are easily oxidized to carboxylic acids, while ketones require more vigorous oxidation. Both can undergo nucleophilic addition reactions to form alcohols. Common tests to distinguish the two include Tollen's reagent and Fehling's reagent.
The document discusses several key factors that affect solubility:
1) The nature of the solute and solvent - whether they are polar or non-polar determines if they will dissolve in each other, with "like dissolving like".
2) Temperature - for gases, solubility decreases as temperature increases but for solids it generally increases as temperature increases.
3) Pressure - for gases, solubility increases as pressure over the solvent increases based on Henry's Law.
This document defines key terms related to solutions and summarizes factors that affect solubility. It defines a solution as a homogeneous mixture where a solute is dissolved in a solvent. Temperature, pressure, and the nature of the solute and solvent affect solubility. There are various units to express concentration, including molarity, molality, and percent composition. Colligative properties like boiling point elevation and freezing point depression depend on the number of solute particles rather than their identity.
This document discusses several physico-chemical properties of drug molecules that are important for drug formulation and delivery, including physical state, melting point, boiling point, polarity, and solubility. It also covers acid-base properties of drugs and how pH and pKa values are used to characterize these properties. Buffers are described as solutions that can maintain a relatively constant pH when acids or bases are added.
This document provides information about solutions and colligative properties. It defines key terms like solute, solvent, and solution. It describes different types of solutions like binary, ternary, and quaternary. It explains concepts like vapor pressure, Raoult's law, and how temperature and pressure affect solubility based on Henry's law. It also discusses concentration terms like molarity, molality, and mole fraction and how they are calculated.
Full Distillation technique where you find about various terminologies, its principle in which raolt's law and henry's law, assembly, classification. Distillation apparatus with their principle, advantages and disadvantages and detailed abour steam distillation and azeotropic distillation.
This document provides information about a General Chemistry 2 summer course including the instructor's contact information, teaching assistants, textbook, course schedule, exam details, and chapter outlines. Specifically, it outlines Chapter 11 which discusses the structure of water, intermolecular forces, physical properties of water and liquids, phase diagrams, solutions, and colligative properties.
Distillation is a physical separation process that separates mixtures based on differences in their boiling points. It involves heating a mixture until it vaporizes, cooling the vapors until they condense, and collecting the purified liquid fractions. Simple distillation uses one equilibrium stage while fractional distillation uses multiple equilibrium stages to improve separation efficiency. Raoult's law describes vapor pressures in ideal mixtures but some mixtures form azeotropes that cannot be separated by distillation alone.
This document provides information on solutions, including different types of solutions classified based on the phase of the solvent and solute. It discusses liquid solutions in detail and different methods of expressing the concentration of solutions such as molarity, molality, and normality.
It describes factors that affect solubility such as nature of solute and solvent, temperature, and pressure. The document explains concepts like saturated solutions, unsaturated solutions, and solubility curves. It introduces Henry's law which states that the solubility of a gas in a liquid is directly proportional to the partial pressure of the gas.
The document also discusses Raoult's law, ideal and non-ideal solutions, and deviations from Raoult's
Bab 3 Thermodynamic of Engineering ApproachIbnu Hasan
This document discusses properties of pure substances and phase changes. It introduces concepts like saturated liquid, saturated vapor, and phase diagrams. Properties are presented in tables that show how quantities like enthalpy and temperature vary with pressure and phase for substances like water. The ideal gas law is presented as a simple equation of state to model gas behavior.
In the secondary structure of proteins is due to hydrogen bonding (HB between the backbone oxygens and amide hydrogens. HB also occur in the tertiary structure of proteins.
1. A solution is a homogeneous mixture of one or more solutes dissolved in a solvent. Solubility refers to the ability of a solute to dissolve in a solvent.
2. Henry's law states that the amount of gas that dissolves in a liquid is directly proportional to the partial pressure of the gas above the liquid at a constant temperature.
3. Colligative properties depend on the number of solute particles in solution, not their identity, and include vapor pressure lowering, boiling point elevation, freezing point depression, and osmotic pressure.
This document discusses properties of pure substances and phase changes. It defines a pure substance as having a fixed chemical composition and describes the three common phases as solid, liquid, and gas. Phase changes between these three states are explained, including saturated and supersaturated states. Key concepts introduced are the saturation temperature and pressure, which define conditions for phase changes. Diagrams are presented to illustrate phase equilibria, including temperature-volume, pressure-volume, and pressure-temperature diagrams. Common thermodynamic properties like latent heat and reference states are also defined. Ideal gas behavior is discussed along with limitations of the ideal gas model.
The document summarizes key concepts about solubility phenomena presented in a seminar. It defines important terms like solution, solvent, solute, and discusses factors affecting solubility such as polarity of solvents and solutes. It also describes concepts like ideal and real solutions, Raoult's law, and deviations from it. Different types of solutions are explained including gas-liquid, liquid-liquid, and solid-liquid solutions. The document also discusses solubility expression, fractional distillation, and properties of partially miscible liquids.
1. The document discusses various types of solutions including homogeneous mixtures, binary solutions, gas-liquid solutions, and solid-liquid solutions.
2. It describes different methods of measuring concentration including mass percentage, volume percentage, molarity, and mole fraction.
3. The key concepts of solubility, saturated solutions, and factors that affect solubility such as temperature, pressure, and nature of the solute and solvent are summarized.
The document discusses colligative properties of solutions, which depend only on the number of solute particles and not their type. It describes how adding solute particles lowers vapor pressure and freezing point and raises boiling point of the solvent. Specifically, it provides equations to calculate boiling point elevation, freezing point depression, and osmotic pressure based on molality and van't Hoff factor of the solution.
Colligative properties such as boiling point elevation, freezing point depression, and osmotic pressure depend only on the number of solute particles in solution, not their identity. The document discusses these properties and how they are affected when solutes dissolve. It explains that boiling point is elevated and freezing point is depressed because solutes lower vapor pressure, requiring more energy for phase changes. Osmotic pressure arises from differences in solute concentration across a semipermeable membrane. The van't Hoff factor accounts for changes in observed properties when solutes dissociate or associate in solution.
The document discusses various concepts related to solutions including:
- Components of a solution including solvent, solute, and binary solutions.
- Different units used to express concentration such as mass percentage, volume percentage, parts per million, and mole fraction.
- Factors that affect solubility such as nature of solute and solvent, temperature, and pressure.
- Raoult's law and how it relates to ideal and non-ideal solutions.
- Colligative properties that depend only on the number of solute particles such as vapor pressure lowering, boiling point elevation, freezing point depression, and osmotic pressure.
1. The document discusses various types of liquids and solutions, including volatile and non-volatile liquids, ideal and non-ideal solutions, and dilute solutions.
2. Key concepts covered include vapor pressure, boiling point, Raoult's law, azeotropes, and colligative properties such as lowering of vapor pressure, elevation of boiling point, and depression of freezing point.
3. Graphs are used to represent concepts such as the vapor pressure-temperature relationship, Raoult's law, boiling point diagrams, and more. Distillation and related processes are also summarized.
This document provides an overview of wound healing, its functions, stages, mechanisms, factors affecting it, and complications.
A wound is a break in the integrity of the skin or tissues, which may be associated with disruption of the structure and function.
Healing is the body’s response to injury in an attempt to restore normal structure and functions.
Healing can occur in two ways: Regeneration and Repair
There are 4 phases of wound healing: hemostasis, inflammation, proliferation, and remodeling. This document also describes the mechanism of wound healing. Factors that affect healing include infection, uncontrolled diabetes, poor nutrition, age, anemia, the presence of foreign bodies, etc.
Complications of wound healing like infection, hyperpigmentation of scar, contractures, and keloid formation.
ISO/IEC 27001, ISO/IEC 42001, and GDPR: Best Practices for Implementation and...PECB
Denis is a dynamic and results-driven Chief Information Officer (CIO) with a distinguished career spanning information systems analysis and technical project management. With a proven track record of spearheading the design and delivery of cutting-edge Information Management solutions, he has consistently elevated business operations, streamlined reporting functions, and maximized process efficiency.
Certified as an ISO/IEC 27001: Information Security Management Systems (ISMS) Lead Implementer, Data Protection Officer, and Cyber Risks Analyst, Denis brings a heightened focus on data security, privacy, and cyber resilience to every endeavor.
His expertise extends across a diverse spectrum of reporting, database, and web development applications, underpinned by an exceptional grasp of data storage and virtualization technologies. His proficiency in application testing, database administration, and data cleansing ensures seamless execution of complex projects.
What sets Denis apart is his comprehensive understanding of Business and Systems Analysis technologies, honed through involvement in all phases of the Software Development Lifecycle (SDLC). From meticulous requirements gathering to precise analysis, innovative design, rigorous development, thorough testing, and successful implementation, he has consistently delivered exceptional results.
Throughout his career, he has taken on multifaceted roles, from leading technical project management teams to owning solutions that drive operational excellence. His conscientious and proactive approach is unwavering, whether he is working independently or collaboratively within a team. His ability to connect with colleagues on a personal level underscores his commitment to fostering a harmonious and productive workplace environment.
Date: May 29, 2024
Tags: Information Security, ISO/IEC 27001, ISO/IEC 42001, Artificial Intelligence, GDPR
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Reimagining Your Library Space: How to Increase the Vibes in Your Library No ...Diana Rendina
Librarians are leading the way in creating future-ready citizens – now we need to update our spaces to match. In this session, attendees will get inspiration for transforming their library spaces. You’ll learn how to survey students and patrons, create a focus group, and use design thinking to brainstorm ideas for your space. We’ll discuss budget friendly ways to change your space as well as how to find funding. No matter where you’re at, you’ll find ideas for reimagining your space in this session.
Main Java[All of the Base Concepts}.docxadhitya5119
This is part 1 of my Java Learning Journey. This Contains Custom methods, classes, constructors, packages, multithreading , try- catch block, finally block and more.
বাংলাদেশের অর্থনৈতিক সমীক্ষা ২০২৪ [Bangladesh Economic Review 2024 Bangla.pdf] কম্পিউটার , ট্যাব ও স্মার্ট ফোন ভার্সন সহ সম্পূর্ণ বাংলা ই-বুক বা pdf বই " সুচিপত্র ...বুকমার্ক মেনু 🔖 ও হাইপার লিংক মেনু 📝👆 যুক্ত ..
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4. The boiling point of a liquid
is the temperature at which its
vapor pressure is equal to the
pressure of the gas above it
Definition of b.p.
5. In terms of intermolecular interactions the b.p.
represents the energy required to overcome the various
intermolecular attractions binding the molecules as a
liquid (e.g. dipole-dipole attraction and hydrogen
bonding) and therefore undergo a phase change into
the gaseous phase . Therefore the boiling point of a
liquid is also an indicator of the strength of the
attractive forces between the liquid’s molecules.
6. The normal boiling point of a liquid is the temperature
at which its vapor pressure is equal to 1 atm
7. Importance of b.p.
B.p. is a physical constant used for:
1. Identification of unknown liquid compound
2. Purification
8. factors affecting b.p.
Pressure
Molecular weight
Structure of the molecule & intermolecular
interactions
Branching
Polarity
Van der Waals interactions
H-bonding
Impurities
9. a. When the pressure is less than 1 atm , the boiling
point of the liquid is less than its normal b.p.
b. P = 1 atm, the b.p. of the liquid is called normal
boiling point
c. When P is greater than 1 atm, the b.p. of the liquid is
greater than its normal b.p.
The higher the altitude, the lower the
temp at which water boils
Factors affecting B.P.
18. HF higher than HCl by 100 oC
H2O higher than H2S by 160 oC
H2O ( M.wt.=18): boiling point 100 oC
H2S ( M.wt.=34): boiling point -60 oC
CH3OH (66), CH3SH (6)
CH3-O-CH3 (-24), CH3-S-CH3 (38)
Factors affecting B.P.
19. b.p. is supposed to increase directly
with m.wt., however, this is not the
case for H2O, NH3 and HF
20. Compound Structure Boiling point
Acetamide CH3C(O)NH2 222 oC
Acetic acid CH3CO2H 118 oC
Ethanol CH3CH2-OH 78 oC
Ethylamine CH3CH2-NH2 17 oC
Ethane CH3CH3 -89 oC
Q/ Explain the reason for the difference in b.p. of the
above compounds.
21. A solution has a higher boiling point than a pure
solvent .
The b.p. of pure H2O is 100 oC, but that b.p. can be
elevated by adding a solute such as a salt.
Δ Tb = Kb Cm
where Kb is called the boiling-point elevation constant
Factors affecting B.P.
22. The reason for elevating b.p. is:
the number of solvent molecules at the surface of the
solution is less than for pure solvent. The surface
molecules can be considered “diluted” by the less
volatile particles of the solute
The rate of exchange between solvent in the solution
and the air above it is lower (vapor pressure of the
solvent is reduced)
23. A lower pressure means that a higher temperature is
necessary to boil the water in the solution , hence
boiling point elevation
Conversely, adding common salt to water will lower its
freezing point.
24. Ionic vs. covalent compounds
Na+
Na+
Na+
Na+
Na+
Na+
Cl-
Cl-
Cl- Cl-
Cl-
1413 oC
Boiling occurs when a temp. is reached
at which the thermal energy of the
particles ix great enough to overcome
the attractive forces that hold them in
liquid
25. In the liquid state of a covalent compound, the
weak intermolecular interactions are more are
more easily overcome and boiling occurs at much
lower temp.
-161.5 oC
