Pathogen
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Microbiology is the study of microorganisms including bacteria, viruses, and parasites. Medical microbiology focuses on pathogens that cause disease in humans. Key terms include bacteriology, virology, and parasitology which are the study of bacteria, viruses, and parasites respectively. A reservoir describes where a pathogen lives and reproduces, often in animals. Zoonoses are diseases that pass from animals to humans. The document discusses eight common pathogens including bacteria, viruses, and parasites that cause diseases like hepatitis, diarrhea, and vomiting. These pathogens are transmitted through various methods like contaminated food, water, person-to-person contact, and animals.
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(1) Pathogens are disease-causing microorganisms like bacteria, viruses, parasites, and fungi that live in reservoirs. (2) Reservoirs are places microorganisms can thrive like the human body, animals, and surfaces. Pathogens leave the reservoir through openings like the mouth, nose, or anus and enter a new host through (3) portals of entry. (4) Modes of transmission spread pathogens between hosts through contact, droplets, vectors like mosquitoes, food or water. Pathogens enter through portals of entry and infect susceptible hosts with weak immunity.
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Scopes of parasitology
Parasitology is the scientific study of parasites and the relationship between parasites and their hosts. It includes areas like the biology, physiology, ecology and pathology of parasites as well as the host's response. The scope of parasitology includes academic study, its role in public health, animal husbandry, medicine, and agriculture. It aims to understand parasite survival and transmission as well as develop prevention and treatment of parasitic diseases.
Types of pathogen
This document discusses the different types of pathogens that can cause disease in humans. It identifies bacteria, rickettsiae, viruses, fungi, protozoa, and parasitic worms as the main categories of pathogens. Bacteria are one-celled microorganisms that can be saprophytes, parasites, or toxin-producing. Viruses are the smallest pathogens and all are parasites. Fungi and protozoa include organisms that are parasites or live on dead material. Parasitic worms commonly infect humans through contaminated food, water, or insect bites.
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1- Principles of the Infectious Diseases(1) (3).pptx
dynamicsofdiseasetransmission-131123005720-phpapp02.pdf
dynamicsofdiseasetransmission-131123005720-phpapp02.pdf
1.DYNAMICS OF DISEASE TRANSMISSION AND CHAIN OF INFECTIONS
1.DYNAMICS OF DISEASE TRANSMISSION AND CHAIN OF INFECTIONS
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Edible vaccines
Edible vaccines hold promise as a cost-effective, easy to administer vaccine that can be stored and transported without special equipment. They work by introducing genes into plants that allow them to produce vaccine proteins. While initially thought to only prevent infectious diseases, edible vaccines may also help prevent some autoimmune diseases, cancer, and be used for birth control. Advantages include not needing medical personnel for administration, low production costs, stability during storage and transport, and activation of both mucosal and systemic immunity. Various foods like bananas and potatoes are being studied as platforms for delivering edible vaccines against diseases like hepatitis, cholera, and foot-and-mouth disease.
Carbo metabolism
Glycolysis is the metabolic pathway that converts glucose into pyruvate and produces a small amount of ATP. It occurs in the cytoplasm of cells and can function aerobically or anaerobically. During aerobic glycolysis, pyruvate is further oxidized to produce more ATP. During anaerobic glycolysis, pyruvate is converted to lactate, producing less ATP. The citric acid cycle is a series of chemical reactions in the mitochondria that completes the oxidation of acetyl-CoA derived from carbohydrates, fats, and proteins to produce carbon dioxide, water, and ATP through oxidative phosphorylation. It is also known as the Krebs cycle or TCA cycle. It is a key step
Oil Properties
This document discusses various chemical processes involving oils and fatty acids, including hydrolysis, saponification, hydrogenation, rancidity, and drying oils. Hydrolysis involves the breakdown of triglycerides into free fatty acids and glycerol. Saponification is the hydrolysis of triglycerides with an alkali to produce soaps. Rancidity refers to the deterioration of oils over time resulting in unpleasant tastes and textures. Drying oils such as linseed oil harden when exposed to air through polymerization reactions.
Biomolecules
This document discusses biomolecules. It begins by defining biomolecules as chemicals or molecules present in living organisms. The sum total of different types of biomolecules, compounds, and ions present in a cell is called the cellular pool. Biomolecules are compounds of carbon, so the chemistry of living organisms is organized around carbon. The major biomolecules in cells include inorganic molecules like minerals and gases, organic molecules like carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids, and smaller molecules like amino acids and nucleotides.
Electrophilicsubstitutionreaction
Electrophilic substitution reactions involve replacing a hydrogen atom in an aromatic ring with an electrophilic group. Nitration replaces hydrogen with a nitro group using nitric and sulfuric acid. Halogenation uses a halogen and Lewis acid. Sulphonation uses fuming sulfuric acid and oleum. Friedel-Crafts alkylation and acylation use an alkyl or acyl halide with aluminum chloride to add those groups. The mechanism involves generating an electrophile, forming a carbocation intermediate, and removing a proton. Ortho and para directing groups increase electron density, favoring substitution at those positions, while meta directing groups decrease electron density, favoring meta position. Polynuclear hydrocarbons from
Pcog1 lecture 1
This document discusses plant metabolism and metabolites. It explains that metabolism consists of catabolism and anabolism, and that plants produce primary and secondary metabolites. Primary metabolites such as carbohydrates and amino acids are essential for plant growth and development, while secondary metabolites are not essential but provide functions like defense. It also discusses the differences between biosynthesis, which is the formation of compounds within living organisms using enzymes, and synthesis, which is the artificial formation of compounds.
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This document discusses economic indicators and issues with commonly used indicators like GDP:
1) It introduces economic indicators and why they are important for decision making, listing GDP, unemployment, and inflation as most common.
2) It explains that while GDP measures total output, it does not account for income distribution or non-monetary activities.
3) It discusses efforts to develop alternative indicators that measure broader societal progress, like the UN's life expectancy and infant mortality rankings, which show how the US lags in health compared to other wealthy countries.
History and scope of pharmacognosy
Pharmacognosy is the study of medicines derived from natural sources. It deals with the physical, chemical, biochemical and biological properties of drugs from natural origins, as well as the search for new drugs. The history of pharmacognosy dates back to ancient civilizations in China, India, Egypt and Greece where plants were used medicinally before the beginning of the Christian era. Modern pharmacognosy developed between 1934-1960 due to events like the discovery of penicillin and isolation of compounds like reserpine. Today, pharmacognosy plays an important role in drug development through the isolation of active constituents, elucidation of their structures, and use of natural products as precursors for drug synthesis. Its future prospects
Opium
Opium is obtained from the unripe seed pods of the opium poppy, Papaver somniferum. It contains several alkaloids, with morphine making up 10-16% and being its most important constituent. Opium is cultivated legally in countries like India, Turkey, and Afghanistan by making incisions in the seed pods to extract the milky latex, which is then dried into balls or cakes. In addition to morphine, opium contains alkaloids like codeine and thebaine. It has narcotic, analgesic, and sedative effects and is used to relieve pain, diarrhea, dysentery, and cough, but prolonged use can lead to addiction.
Pharmacuetical aids
This document provides information on various pharmaceutical aids and their sources, descriptions, chemical constituents, tests, and uses. It discusses substances derived from animals (beeswax, lanolin), vegetables (acacia, tragacanth), minerals (kaolin), and their role as excipients in pharmaceutical formulations. Honey, arachis oil, starch, olive oil, and other pharmaceutical aids are also summarized in terms of their biological sources, chemical properties, and applications.
Distillation
Distillation is a process that separates components of a liquid using vaporization and condensation. It relies on differences in volatility between components. There are several types of distillation including simple distillation, azeotropic distillation, extractive distillation, steam distillation, flash distillation, and fractional distillation. Each type has different applications depending on the properties of the components to be separated.
Caffeine
Caffeine occurs naturally in coffee, tea, cocoa, and other plants. It is present along with other related bases like theophylline and theobromine. Caffeine can be isolated from tea leaves or coffee seeds during decaffeination through extraction methods using boiling water, lead acetate, chloroform, and crystallization. It is used as a stimulant, astringent, and diuretic. Chemical tests like the murexide test and reaction with tannic acid can identify caffeine. Thin layer chromatography using an eluent of ethyl acetate-methanol-acetic acid develops a caffeine spot at an Rf value of 0.41.
Size reduction
Size reduction, also called comminution, involves reducing the size of particles through mechanical or chemical processes. There are several types of mills that can perform size reduction through various actions such as cutting, compression, impact, shear forces, and attrition. The energy required for size reduction depends on factors like the new surface area created, crack length, particle deformation, and changes to particle size distribution as described by theories from Rittinger, Bond, and Kick.
Sampling techniques
The document discusses various sampling methods and concepts in research methodology. It defines key terms like population, sample, sampling frame, probability sampling, and non-probability sampling. It then explains different probability sampling techniques like simple random sampling, systematic sampling, stratified sampling, cluster sampling, and multistage sampling. It also discusses non-probability sampling methods and compares the advantages and disadvantages of different approaches. The document emphasizes the importance of representative sampling.
Aswagandha
This document summarizes several plants that act on the nervous system, including their biological sources, geographical sources, morphological characteristics, chemical constituents, uses, and tests. It discusses ashwagandha, belladonna, aconite, and ephedra - outlining what parts of the plants are used as drugs, where they are found, their effects including sedative, hypotensive, respiratory, and anti-spasmodic properties, and how some contain alkaloids and are used to treat conditions like rheumatism, asthma, and low blood pressure.
Environment and health
The document discusses water purification on a large scale. It describes various methods used including storage, filtration through slow sand filters and rapid sand filters, and disinfection through chlorination. It also discusses small-scale household purification methods. Various filtration techniques are described in detail including slow sand filtration and rapid sand filtration. Membrane processes for water purification including reverse osmosis and nanofiltration are also summarized.
digestive_system
This document provides information about the digestive system and digestive process. It defines key terms related to the digestive system and its organs. It describes the main functions of the digestive system as breaking down food into nutrients that can be absorbed and used by the body. It explains the multi-stage process of digestion, including the roles of the mouth, stomach, small intestine, liver, gallbladder and pancreas. Students are assigned a project to diagram and explain the journey of food through the digestive system.
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6:个人职称评审加20分
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Pathogen
- 1. Bacteria, viruses and parasites Microbiology is a term that's applied to the study of micro-organisms. Medical microbiology is a specialist area of medical practice that deals with pathogenic micro-organisms - that is the pathogens that cause disease among humans. While microbiology technically focuses on the study of bacteria, it can and typically also encompasses the study of virology and parasites. However, you may come across more specific terminology - bacteriology (the study of bacteria), virology (the study of viruses) and parasitology (the study of parasites). The word reservoir in infectious diseases describes the natural population in which a pathogen resides and reproduces. Zoonoses are a group of infectious diseases that emerge from animals and pass into humans. Zoonoses are diseases where the natural reservoir occurs within animals. The eight pathogens that were selected in the previous reading represent a spread of these three types of pathogen, manifesting in different types of disease.
- 2. Bacteria, viruses and parasites Pathogen Pathogen type (classification) Primarydisease manifestation Main method of transmission 205Campylobact er jejuni Bacterium Gastrointestinal infection - diarrhoea and vomiting Contaminated food or water, but also person-to-person spread possible in circumstances where poor hygiene practices are present Cryptosporidium parvum Parasite (Protozoal) Gastrointestinal infection - diarrhoea and vomiting Often viadirect or indirect contact with infected animals (zoonosis) but also through infected water (contaminated with animal faeces); sometimes asymptomatic but problematic among people with impaired immunity. Escherichia coli Bacterium Gastrointestinal infection - predominantly diarrhoea Zoonotic but also person-to-person transmission possible in more common types. Particularly problematic among people with impaired immunity. Hepatovirus A (also known as Hepatitis A Virus, HAV) Virus (Picornaviridae) Hepatitis (inflammation of the liver) Person-to-person spread viafaeco-oral route; via sexual transmission and probably viaurine. Norovirus (also known as Winter Vomiting Bug or Norwalk Virus) Virus (Calciviridae) Gastrointestinal infection - predominantly vomiting Person-to-person spread viafaeco-oral route (in particular viadroplet spread from projectile vomiting); also potentially spread through contaminated food. Salmonella spp Bacterium Gastrointestinal infection - diarrhoea and vomiting Mostly through contaminated food, but originating from animal reservoirs including domestic animals, birds and amphibians. Salmonella enterica and Salmonella typhimurium are the most common serotypes. Salmonella typhi and Salmonella paratyphi are responsible for Typhoid fever and Paratyhoid fever respectively. Shigella spp Bacterium Gastrointestinal infection - diarrhoea and vomiting; referred to as Shigellosis Faeco-oral transmission particularly within households and institutional settings from diarrhoea. Occasionally spread by food and water.
- 3. Bacteria, viruses and parasites Vibrio cholerae Bacterium Gastrointestinal infection - predominantly diarrhoea Faeco-oral viawater with the main reservoir in aquatic environments; associated with contaminated shellfish and raw food washed in contaminated water.