This presentation is about control of kv and ma in x-ray circuit, it includes different components of X-ray imaging system (operating console , high voltage generator and X-ray tube ). high voltage generator and high frequency generator is well explained along with step up ,step down and an auto transformer .
X-ray imaging is still one of the most important diagnostic methods used in medicine. It provides mainly morphological (anatomical) information - but may also provide some physiological (functional) information.
The document discusses the components and functioning of an x-ray generator. An x-ray generator uses a step-up transformer to increase the voltage supplied to the x-ray tube and a rectifier to convert the alternating current to direct current for powering the tube. Different types of generators are used including single phase, three phase with 6 or 12 pulses, and high frequency generators which further smooth the pulsating direct current.
The document discusses the key components of an X-ray production system, including the cathode, anode, generator, and tube rating charts. The cathode emits electrons via a heated filament towards the anode. X-rays are produced when electrons collide with the anode. Generators supply power to heat the cathode and accelerate electrons. Tube rating charts indicate safe operating limits based on heat loading to prevent damage. Automatic exposure control uses radiation detectors to optimize exposure time based on patient thickness.
This slides helpful in Quality and Factor affecting the Quality of X-ray in Radiology for students and Teachers. First we know about the Quality and those factor by which the quality of X-ray affect. Quality is main factor X-ray Imaging , because when quality increased the penetration also increased . Quality effect the Image resolution of Images.
Filters are used in x-ray imaging to shape the beam and increase the ratio of useful photons for imaging to those that increase patient dose or decrease image contrast. Filters are typically made of metal like aluminum or copper and are placed between the x-ray tube and patient. They absorb the low energy photons that do not penetrate tissue deeply but deposit much radiation in superficial tissues. This provides better tissue penetration by the beam while reducing the skin dose and improving contrast. Different types of filters include inherent, added, compound, and wedge filters which vary in materials and thickness used.
Macroradiography is a radiographic technique used to magnify images relative to the object being imaged. It works by increasing the object-to-film distance, which magnifies the image size. Key factors that affect image quality include geometric unsharpness, which increases with magnification, and limitations of the x-ray tube's fine focal spot, which restricts output. Macroradiography is useful for examining small bony structures and pulmonary patterns at higher magnification.
Digital cineradiography is used during cardiac catheterization procedures. It consists of three main components: 1) an automatic brightness control that adjusts exposure based on tissue density, 2) a beam-splitting mirror that directs images to a monitor and cine camera simultaneously, and 3) a cine camera that films the angiographic images but increases patient radiation dose. During cardiac catheterization, a catheter is inserted and contrast dye is used to create X-ray videos of the heart valves, arteries, and chambers at various frame rates to diagnose and treat cardiovascular conditions.
The document discusses the basic components and operation of an x-ray circuit. The main circuit provides power to the x-ray tube to produce x-rays and includes a main switch, exposure switch, and timer. The filament circuit supplies power to the filament to produce electrons through thermionic emission and includes a step-down transformer. Common components are transformers to increase or decrease voltage, rectifiers to convert AC to DC, and a timer to regulate exposure duration. The number of phases in the power supply affects the ripple and efficiency of x-ray production.
X-ray imaging is still one of the most important diagnostic methods used in medicine. It provides mainly morphological (anatomical) information - but may also provide some physiological (functional) information.
The document discusses the components and functioning of an x-ray generator. An x-ray generator uses a step-up transformer to increase the voltage supplied to the x-ray tube and a rectifier to convert the alternating current to direct current for powering the tube. Different types of generators are used including single phase, three phase with 6 or 12 pulses, and high frequency generators which further smooth the pulsating direct current.
The document discusses the key components of an X-ray production system, including the cathode, anode, generator, and tube rating charts. The cathode emits electrons via a heated filament towards the anode. X-rays are produced when electrons collide with the anode. Generators supply power to heat the cathode and accelerate electrons. Tube rating charts indicate safe operating limits based on heat loading to prevent damage. Automatic exposure control uses radiation detectors to optimize exposure time based on patient thickness.
This slides helpful in Quality and Factor affecting the Quality of X-ray in Radiology for students and Teachers. First we know about the Quality and those factor by which the quality of X-ray affect. Quality is main factor X-ray Imaging , because when quality increased the penetration also increased . Quality effect the Image resolution of Images.
Filters are used in x-ray imaging to shape the beam and increase the ratio of useful photons for imaging to those that increase patient dose or decrease image contrast. Filters are typically made of metal like aluminum or copper and are placed between the x-ray tube and patient. They absorb the low energy photons that do not penetrate tissue deeply but deposit much radiation in superficial tissues. This provides better tissue penetration by the beam while reducing the skin dose and improving contrast. Different types of filters include inherent, added, compound, and wedge filters which vary in materials and thickness used.
Macroradiography is a radiographic technique used to magnify images relative to the object being imaged. It works by increasing the object-to-film distance, which magnifies the image size. Key factors that affect image quality include geometric unsharpness, which increases with magnification, and limitations of the x-ray tube's fine focal spot, which restricts output. Macroradiography is useful for examining small bony structures and pulmonary patterns at higher magnification.
Digital cineradiography is used during cardiac catheterization procedures. It consists of three main components: 1) an automatic brightness control that adjusts exposure based on tissue density, 2) a beam-splitting mirror that directs images to a monitor and cine camera simultaneously, and 3) a cine camera that films the angiographic images but increases patient radiation dose. During cardiac catheterization, a catheter is inserted and contrast dye is used to create X-ray videos of the heart valves, arteries, and chambers at various frame rates to diagnose and treat cardiovascular conditions.
The document discusses the basic components and operation of an x-ray circuit. The main circuit provides power to the x-ray tube to produce x-rays and includes a main switch, exposure switch, and timer. The filament circuit supplies power to the filament to produce electrons through thermionic emission and includes a step-down transformer. Common components are transformers to increase or decrease voltage, rectifiers to convert AC to DC, and a timer to regulate exposure duration. The number of phases in the power supply affects the ripple and efficiency of x-ray production.
X-ray generators are used to power x-ray tubes in radiology. They contain transformers, diodes, and circuits to select energy, quantity, and exposure time. Generators can be single-phase, three-phase, constant potential, or high-frequency. Three-phase generators provide a continuous output to reduce exposure time and improve image quality. Constant potential generators produce a near-DC waveform for more efficient acceleration of electrons.
Wilhelm Roentgen discovered X-rays in 1895 while experimenting with a Crookes tube. X-rays are produced when high-voltage electricity is used to accelerate electrons towards a metal target in a vacuum tube. This causes the electrons to slow down rapidly and emit X-ray photons. Modern X-ray generators use transformers to step up lower line voltages to the higher voltages needed in X-ray tubes, and rectifier circuits convert the alternating current to direct current required to accelerate electrons. X-ray tubes produce a spectrum of X-rays including a continuous bremsstrahlung spectrum and superimposed characteristic line spectra from the target material.
1. The document discusses the components of an x-ray generator, including a high tension generator and rectification system. It describes how alternating current is generated and then rectified to produce direct current needed to power the x-ray tube.
2. Key components are the step-up transformer, which increases voltage, the rectifier circuit, which converts AC to DC, and the step-down transformer to provide lower voltage for the filament.
3. The document explains different transformer types like autotransformer and the principles of electromagnetic induction that transformers use to change voltage levels in the x-ray circuit.
The document summarizes the key components and parameters of fluoroscopy systems. It discusses the image intensifier, which converts x-ray photons into light photons and uses electrodes to focus electrons onto an output screen. Parameters like conversion coefficient, brightness uniformity, and spatial resolution are described. It also covers the image intensifier's connection to a TV system using cameras like vidicons or CCDs, and how this produces a video signal to display fluoroscopy images on a monitor in real-time.
This document discusses different types of x-ray tubes, including their components and advancements. It begins with early Crookes tubes that had unreliable anodes made of aluminum. It then describes Coolidge tubes, which had improved thermionic emission and evacuated glass envelopes, allowing for more stable x-ray production. More advanced rotating anode x-ray tubes are discussed next, featuring molybdenum anode stems and dual tungsten-thorium filaments, providing larger output. The document also briefly covers stationary anode, grid controlled, and modern metal ceramic x-ray tubes which offer longer life and reduced off-focus radiation.
This document discusses ultrasound and its properties. It defines ultrasound as mechanical longitudinal waves with frequencies above human hearing (20 kHz). Key properties discussed include:
- Velocity depends on the density and stiffness of the medium and is fastest in solids.
- Frequency ranges from 2-20 MHz, with lower frequencies penetrating deeper but having lower resolution.
- Wavelength is the distance over one cycle and depends on velocity and frequency.
- Amplitude represents intensity and decreases with depth, affecting image brightness.
A mobile C-arm unit uses a tube at one end and image intensifier at the other to provide digital fluoroscopy and angiography. It allows for features like last image hold, magnification, and saving images. Digital subtraction angiography requires complex equipment to manipulate pre-and post-contrast images and create a subtracted image, providing clearer views of vessels. Modern digital fluoroscopy systems use charge-coupled devices and flat panel detectors for direct capture of x-rays, improving resolution and allowing post-processing to reduce radiation dose.
The document provides a summary of conventional fluoroscopy and image intensifier technology. It discusses the key components of early fluoroscopes including fluorescent screens and image intensifier tubes. The development of more advanced image intensifiers is described, allowing for lower radiation doses, permanent image recording, and improved image quality through electronic imaging systems. Modern fluoroscopy systems use digital image processing and recording techniques to provide real-time visualization of internal structures during medical procedures.
1. Fluoroscopy uses real-time imaging to view internal structures in motion using contrast media and an image intensifier.
2. The image intensifier converts x-rays to visible light images that are hundreds of times brighter, allowing them to be viewed on a monitor or recorded.
3. Quality control measurements are important for fluoroscopy due to the relatively high radiation doses involved.
This document discusses scatter radiation in x-rays. Scatter radiation is radiation that is deflected from its original path during an x-ray, reducing image contrast. It is produced via interactions between x-ray photons and matter, including Compton scattering and coherent scattering. While scatter radiation carries no useful information for forming an image, it is important because it determines contrast resolution and is considered unwanted radiation due to safety and contrast reduction effects. However, its impact on image unsharpness is considered negligible in practical radiographs.
Computed radiography and direct/digital radiography are two digital imaging techniques. Computed radiography uses an imaging plate that captures x-ray data, which is then converted to a digital image. Direct digital radiography uses detectors like TFT or flat panel detectors to directly capture x-ray data digitally. Both techniques offer benefits over traditional film like faster imaging and easier sharing of images.
This lecture discusses the development of nuclear imaging techniques. It begins with an overview of nuclear imaging and its use of gamma rays and x-rays to form images. The earliest device was the rectilinear scanner, which used a single moving detector. The Anger gamma camera was a significant improvement as it allowed simultaneous detection over a large area. Modern gamma cameras use NaI(Tl) scintillator crystals coupled to PMTs to convert gamma ray interactions to light and then electrical signals. Digital processing is used to determine interaction locations and form images. Collimators are used to selectively detect gamma rays from a desired direction.
X-rays are a form of electromagnetic radiation similar to but with shorter wavelengths than visible light. They are produced in an x-ray tube, which contains a cathode and anode that are charged oppositely; electrons accelerated by the voltage difference between the electrodes impact the anode, producing x-rays. The x-ray film used to detect x-rays consists of an emulsion containing light-sensitive crystals of silver halides.
Ultrasound uses high frequency sound waves to image internal structures. It works by sending sound waves into the body which bounce off tissues and organs, creating echoes. The echoes are detected and used to produce images on screen. Key physics principles include velocity, wavelength, frequency and amplitude of the sound waves. How the waves interact with different tissues through reflection, transmission, scattering and attenuation impacts image quality. Resolution, beamforming and processing power determine how well an ultrasound system can distinguish between tissues. Doppler and colour Doppler utilize the Doppler effect to evaluate blood flow velocity and direction to provide functional information.
This document discusses key considerations for designing radiation shielding in diagnostic radiology facilities. It outlines parameters to calculate shielding needs such as workload, occupancy, beam direction and tube leakage. Common shielding materials like lead, concrete and gypsum are described. The importance of continuity, integrity and quality control of the shielding installation is emphasized through inspection and record keeping.
The document summarizes the key components and functions of an x-ray generator. It discusses how transformers are used to change voltage levels for the filament circuit and high voltage circuit. The filament circuit uses a step-down transformer to provide low voltage for heating the x-ray tube filament. The high voltage circuit uses an autotransformer and step-up transformer to provide high voltage of 40,000-150,000 volts for electron acceleration. Rectification is also discussed, which converts the alternating current output of the high voltage transformer to direct current required by the x-ray tube.
The control console allows the technologist to set technical factors like mAs and kVp and make exposures. It contains meters to measure kVp, mA, and exposure time. The console has several circuits including high voltage, filament, and primary circuits. Automatic exposure control uses an ion chamber or photodiode to automatically terminate the exposure when the proper optical density is reached on the image receptor. High voltage generation converts line voltage to kilovolts needed for x-ray production using transformers and rectifiers.
X-ray generators are used to power x-ray tubes in radiology. They contain transformers, diodes, and circuits to select energy, quantity, and exposure time. Generators can be single-phase, three-phase, constant potential, or high-frequency. Three-phase generators provide a continuous output to reduce exposure time and improve image quality. Constant potential generators produce a near-DC waveform for more efficient acceleration of electrons.
Wilhelm Roentgen discovered X-rays in 1895 while experimenting with a Crookes tube. X-rays are produced when high-voltage electricity is used to accelerate electrons towards a metal target in a vacuum tube. This causes the electrons to slow down rapidly and emit X-ray photons. Modern X-ray generators use transformers to step up lower line voltages to the higher voltages needed in X-ray tubes, and rectifier circuits convert the alternating current to direct current required to accelerate electrons. X-ray tubes produce a spectrum of X-rays including a continuous bremsstrahlung spectrum and superimposed characteristic line spectra from the target material.
1. The document discusses the components of an x-ray generator, including a high tension generator and rectification system. It describes how alternating current is generated and then rectified to produce direct current needed to power the x-ray tube.
2. Key components are the step-up transformer, which increases voltage, the rectifier circuit, which converts AC to DC, and the step-down transformer to provide lower voltage for the filament.
3. The document explains different transformer types like autotransformer and the principles of electromagnetic induction that transformers use to change voltage levels in the x-ray circuit.
The document summarizes the key components and parameters of fluoroscopy systems. It discusses the image intensifier, which converts x-ray photons into light photons and uses electrodes to focus electrons onto an output screen. Parameters like conversion coefficient, brightness uniformity, and spatial resolution are described. It also covers the image intensifier's connection to a TV system using cameras like vidicons or CCDs, and how this produces a video signal to display fluoroscopy images on a monitor in real-time.
This document discusses different types of x-ray tubes, including their components and advancements. It begins with early Crookes tubes that had unreliable anodes made of aluminum. It then describes Coolidge tubes, which had improved thermionic emission and evacuated glass envelopes, allowing for more stable x-ray production. More advanced rotating anode x-ray tubes are discussed next, featuring molybdenum anode stems and dual tungsten-thorium filaments, providing larger output. The document also briefly covers stationary anode, grid controlled, and modern metal ceramic x-ray tubes which offer longer life and reduced off-focus radiation.
This document discusses ultrasound and its properties. It defines ultrasound as mechanical longitudinal waves with frequencies above human hearing (20 kHz). Key properties discussed include:
- Velocity depends on the density and stiffness of the medium and is fastest in solids.
- Frequency ranges from 2-20 MHz, with lower frequencies penetrating deeper but having lower resolution.
- Wavelength is the distance over one cycle and depends on velocity and frequency.
- Amplitude represents intensity and decreases with depth, affecting image brightness.
A mobile C-arm unit uses a tube at one end and image intensifier at the other to provide digital fluoroscopy and angiography. It allows for features like last image hold, magnification, and saving images. Digital subtraction angiography requires complex equipment to manipulate pre-and post-contrast images and create a subtracted image, providing clearer views of vessels. Modern digital fluoroscopy systems use charge-coupled devices and flat panel detectors for direct capture of x-rays, improving resolution and allowing post-processing to reduce radiation dose.
The document provides a summary of conventional fluoroscopy and image intensifier technology. It discusses the key components of early fluoroscopes including fluorescent screens and image intensifier tubes. The development of more advanced image intensifiers is described, allowing for lower radiation doses, permanent image recording, and improved image quality through electronic imaging systems. Modern fluoroscopy systems use digital image processing and recording techniques to provide real-time visualization of internal structures during medical procedures.
1. Fluoroscopy uses real-time imaging to view internal structures in motion using contrast media and an image intensifier.
2. The image intensifier converts x-rays to visible light images that are hundreds of times brighter, allowing them to be viewed on a monitor or recorded.
3. Quality control measurements are important for fluoroscopy due to the relatively high radiation doses involved.
This document discusses scatter radiation in x-rays. Scatter radiation is radiation that is deflected from its original path during an x-ray, reducing image contrast. It is produced via interactions between x-ray photons and matter, including Compton scattering and coherent scattering. While scatter radiation carries no useful information for forming an image, it is important because it determines contrast resolution and is considered unwanted radiation due to safety and contrast reduction effects. However, its impact on image unsharpness is considered negligible in practical radiographs.
Computed radiography and direct/digital radiography are two digital imaging techniques. Computed radiography uses an imaging plate that captures x-ray data, which is then converted to a digital image. Direct digital radiography uses detectors like TFT or flat panel detectors to directly capture x-ray data digitally. Both techniques offer benefits over traditional film like faster imaging and easier sharing of images.
This lecture discusses the development of nuclear imaging techniques. It begins with an overview of nuclear imaging and its use of gamma rays and x-rays to form images. The earliest device was the rectilinear scanner, which used a single moving detector. The Anger gamma camera was a significant improvement as it allowed simultaneous detection over a large area. Modern gamma cameras use NaI(Tl) scintillator crystals coupled to PMTs to convert gamma ray interactions to light and then electrical signals. Digital processing is used to determine interaction locations and form images. Collimators are used to selectively detect gamma rays from a desired direction.
X-rays are a form of electromagnetic radiation similar to but with shorter wavelengths than visible light. They are produced in an x-ray tube, which contains a cathode and anode that are charged oppositely; electrons accelerated by the voltage difference between the electrodes impact the anode, producing x-rays. The x-ray film used to detect x-rays consists of an emulsion containing light-sensitive crystals of silver halides.
Ultrasound uses high frequency sound waves to image internal structures. It works by sending sound waves into the body which bounce off tissues and organs, creating echoes. The echoes are detected and used to produce images on screen. Key physics principles include velocity, wavelength, frequency and amplitude of the sound waves. How the waves interact with different tissues through reflection, transmission, scattering and attenuation impacts image quality. Resolution, beamforming and processing power determine how well an ultrasound system can distinguish between tissues. Doppler and colour Doppler utilize the Doppler effect to evaluate blood flow velocity and direction to provide functional information.
This document discusses key considerations for designing radiation shielding in diagnostic radiology facilities. It outlines parameters to calculate shielding needs such as workload, occupancy, beam direction and tube leakage. Common shielding materials like lead, concrete and gypsum are described. The importance of continuity, integrity and quality control of the shielding installation is emphasized through inspection and record keeping.
The document summarizes the key components and functions of an x-ray generator. It discusses how transformers are used to change voltage levels for the filament circuit and high voltage circuit. The filament circuit uses a step-down transformer to provide low voltage for heating the x-ray tube filament. The high voltage circuit uses an autotransformer and step-up transformer to provide high voltage of 40,000-150,000 volts for electron acceleration. Rectification is also discussed, which converts the alternating current output of the high voltage transformer to direct current required by the x-ray tube.
The control console allows the technologist to set technical factors like mAs and kVp and make exposures. It contains meters to measure kVp, mA, and exposure time. The console has several circuits including high voltage, filament, and primary circuits. Automatic exposure control uses an ion chamber or photodiode to automatically terminate the exposure when the proper optical density is reached on the image receptor. High voltage generation converts line voltage to kilovolts needed for x-ray production using transformers and rectifiers.
The document discusses renewable energy sources like solar and wind power and issues related to integrating them into the electric grid. It focuses on photovoltaic (PV) systems and multilevel inverters that can convert the DC power from PV modules into AC power that can be fed into the grid. A five-level diode-clamped inverter topology is proposed for PV applications that reduces harmonic distortion and switching losses compared to traditional three-level inverters. A PID current control scheme and PWM modulation are used to generate sinusoidal current synchronized to the grid for unity power factor operation under varying solar irradiance conditions. Experimental results show lower total harmonic distortion compared to three-level inverters.
X-ray generators supply electrical power to x-ray tubes. They modify electrical energy from a source to meet the needs of the tube. The generator has a timer to regulate exposure length. A basic x-ray machine circuit has a control console, high-voltage section, and x-ray tube. Autotransformers, step-up transformers, and step-down transformers are used to attain the proper voltages and currents for x-ray production and heating the filament. Rectifiers convert alternating current to direct current required by the x-ray tube. Three-phase generators are more efficient than single-phase generators as the voltage is nearly constant across the x-ray tube.
##CONTENT##
Introduction
Voltage control
Power system control
Control of reactive power and power factor
Interconnected control and frequency ties
Supervisory control
Line compensation
Series compensation
Series and shunt compensation schemes for ac transmission system
The significance of power factor correction (PFC) has long been visualized as a technology requirement for improving the efficiency of a power system network by compensating for the fundamental reactive power generated or consumed by simple inductive or capacitive loads. With the Information Age in full swing, the growth of high reliability, low cost electronic products have led utilities to escalate their power quality concerns created by the increase of such “switching loads.” These products include: entertainment devices such as Digital TVs, DVDs, and audio equipment; information technology devices such as PCs, printers, and fax-machines; variable speed motor drives for HVAC and white goods appliances; food preparation and cooking products such as microwaves and cook tops; and lighting products, which include electronic ballasts, LED and fluorescent lamps, and other power conversion devices that operate a variety of lamps. The drivers that have resulted in this proliferation are a direct result of the availability of low-cost switch-mode devices and control circuitry in all major end-use segments: residential, commercial, and industrial.
Application of Capacitors to Distribution System and Voltage RegulationAmeen San
Application of Capacitors to
Distribution System and Voltage
Regulation
POWER FACTOR IMPROVEMENT,
System Harmonics
Voltage Regulation
Methods of Voltage Control
NEW APPROACH OF DESIGNING AND EXPLOATATION OF ELECTRICAL TRACTION SUBSTATIONSDženan Ćelić
The document discusses improvements to electric traction substation design including:
1. Connecting substations via a three-phase transmission line to simplify design and increase reliability by removing redundant equipment.
2. Using draw-wire circuit breakers and switch-disconnectors to replace elements that could cause incorrect manipulation.
3. Applying combined instrument transformers to further simplify feeders.
4. Designing substations with a single transformer in parallel connection to increase distance between substations while maintaining train speed.
5. Providing selectivity and accuracy of catenary relays with power direction in separating substations for fault detection when two substations power trains.
HVDC and FACTS for Improved Power Delivery Through Long Transmission LinesRajaram Meena
HVDC and FACTS for Improved Power Delivery Through Long Transmission Lines in using PSAT in GUI/matlab in that slide uses a basic deeply small instrument using power transmission lines..it's main purpose to improve knowledge skills of students..
This document summarizes a seminar presentation on HVDC and FACTS technologies for improving power transmission through long lines. It introduces HVDC and its applications for long distance transmission. FACTS devices are discussed as providing advantages over HVDC, including flexible control of voltage, current and power flow. The Unified Power Flow Controller (UPFC) is examined as a combined series-shunt FACTS device. The Power System Analysis Toolbox (PSAT) is introduced for modeling and simulating HVDC and FACTS devices on transmission lines, allowing analysis of faults and power flow control.
The document summarizes key components and functions of an x-ray imaging system. It describes the console that operators use to control exposure factors like mA, kVp, and timing. It also explains the high voltage section that converts power to kilovoltages needed for x-rays. Additionally, it covers automatic exposure control, generators, rectification processes, and other components like collimators and fluoroscopy equipment.
The UPFC is a FACTS device that can control all three parameters of line power flow - voltage, impedance, and phase angle. It consists of two voltage source inverters, one connected in series with the transmission line and one connected in shunt. The shunt inverter controls reactive power flow and voltage, while the series inverter controls real and reactive power flow by injecting a controllable voltage in series with the line. Control schemes for the UPFC include phase angle control, cross-coupling control, and a generalized control scheme that provides damping against power swings for improved stability. The UPFC offers benefits like improved power transfer capacity, transient stability, and independent control of real and reactive power flows.
The document discusses various components used in electrical substations. It describes key equipment like transformers, circuit breakers, isolators, busbars, instrument transformers, and protection devices. It also discusses the purpose of a substation to step up or down voltages for transmission or distribution and provide protection for the transmission system. The control room is mentioned as the place from where all substation equipment is monitored and controlled.
A three phase ups systems operating under nonlinear loads with modified spwm ...EditorIJAERD
This document presents a modified sinusoidal pulse width modulation (SPWM) controller for three-phase uninterruptible power supply (UPS) systems operating under nonlinear loads. The controller aims to reduce total harmonic distortion of the output voltages and currents while maintaining the RMS voltage magnitude. It does this through additional inner control loops that help compensate for harmonics and distortion caused by the nonlinear currents from rectifier loads. Simulation results in MATLAB/Simulink show that the modified SPWM controller achieves a total harmonic distortion of 1% for output voltages, reducing distortion compared to the standard SPWM method.
Fuzzy Logic Controller Based High Frequency Link AC-AC Converter For Voltage ...IJTET Journal
Abstract—In this paper, an advanced high frequency link AC-AC Push-pull cycloconverter for the voltage compensation is proposed in order to maintain the power quality in electric grid. The proposed methodology can be achieve arbitrary output voltage without using large energy storage elements. So that the system is more steadfast and less costly compared with the conventional inverter topology. Additionally, the proposed converter does not contain any line frequency transformer, which reduces the cost further. The control scheme for the push pull cycloconverter employs the fuzzy logic controller based sinusoidal pulse width modulation (SPWM) to accomplish better performance on voltage compensation, like unbalanced voltage harmonics elimination. The simulation results are given to show the effectiveness of the proposed high frequency link AC-AC converter and fuzzy logic controller based SPWM technology
Soft power factor modification using staticchodachude
A good power quality at a system can optimize the efficiency of electrical energy utilization.
Comparison of active power and apparent power will produce a power factor (COS ø).Capacitors bank can
maintain optimum power factor with compensating some reactive power to the system. Static VAR
Compensator (SVC) is generally composed of a conventional capacitor bank in parallel with the load contactor
switch. This leads to a very large inrush current to the capacitor which will resulting damage to the
contactor switches and also capacitors. To reduce inrush current, thyristor is used as a replacement of
contactor switch. Switch can be set by adjusting the firing angle of thyristor. Power factor improvement consists
of a voltage sensor, current sensor, zero crossing detector, thyristor driver and the capacitor bank. The existing
load on the system consists of induction motor 125W, rectifier with load of series of incandescent lamp with
ballasts 85W and fluorescent lamp 20W.Cos phi variation of the load is 0.49 (lag), 0.99 (lag), 0.92 (lag) and 0.62
(lag) when all the loads connect to the system. Through the calculation, the value of capacitor that can
compensate the reactive power to the system is 5.12 µF, 2.71 µF, 2.41 µF and 9.55µF. The capacitor
installation obtain good response because it can increase the cos phi of system to 0.99 (lag) and the current
consumption of the system is smaller than the pre-installation of capacitors, which can reduce the line system
current up to 30% of the system current
This document provides an overview of reactive power compensation methods. It discusses the need for reactive power compensation to improve AC system performance by regulating power factor and voltage stability. The main methods covered are shunt compensation using capacitors and reactors, series compensation using capacitive and inductive elements, static VAR compensators (SVCs) using thyristor-controlled reactors, static compensators (STATCOMs) using voltage source converters, and synchronous condensers.
Reactive power compensation is used to improve the performance of AC power systems. There are various methods of reactive power compensation including shunt compensation, series compensation, static VAR compensators, and static synchronous compensators. Shunt compensation devices such as capacitors and reactors are connected in parallel to transmission lines to regulate voltage. Series compensation uses capacitors connected in series to transmission lines to increase power transfer capability. Static VAR compensators and static synchronous compensators use thyristor-based voltage sourced converters to dynamically inject or absorb reactive power and control voltage. Reactive power compensation provides benefits such as improved power factor, voltage regulation, reduced losses, and increased power transfer capacity.
Reactive power management and voltage control by using statcomHussain Ali
This document summarizes the use of STATCOM devices for reactive power management and voltage control in transmission lines. It defines reactive power and explains the need for reactive power compensation. It then defines FACTS devices and specifically STATCOMs, describing their basic structure and principle of operation for generating and absorbing reactive power. The document discusses how STATCOMs can provide benefits like reactive power control, voltage regulation, and increased transmission capacity. It provides an example of a 500 MVAR STATCOM installed between Qatar and Bahrain for reactive power compensation and concludes that STATCOMs allow tighter voltage control and improved reliability compared to traditional capacitor banks.
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How to Make a Field Mandatory in Odoo 17Celine George
In Odoo, making a field required can be done through both Python code and XML views. When you set the required attribute to True in Python code, it makes the field required across all views where it's used. Conversely, when you set the required attribute in XML views, it makes the field required only in the context of that particular view.
A workshop hosted by the South African Journal of Science aimed at postgraduate students and early career researchers with little or no experience in writing and publishing journal articles.
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Walmart Business+ and Spark Good for Nonprofits.pdfTechSoup
"Learn about all the ways Walmart supports nonprofit organizations.
You will hear from Liz Willett, the Head of Nonprofits, and hear about what Walmart is doing to help nonprofits, including Walmart Business and Spark Good. Walmart Business+ is a new offer for nonprofits that offers discounts and also streamlines nonprofits order and expense tracking, saving time and money.
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This slide is special for master students (MIBS & MIFB) in UUM. Also useful for readers who are interested in the topic of contemporary Islamic banking.
বাংলাদেশের অর্থনৈতিক সমীক্ষা ২০২৪ [Bangladesh Economic Review 2024 Bangla.pdf] কম্পিউটার , ট্যাব ও স্মার্ট ফোন ভার্সন সহ সম্পূর্ণ বাংলা ই-বুক বা pdf বই " সুচিপত্র ...বুকমার্ক মেনু 🔖 ও হাইপার লিংক মেনু 📝👆 যুক্ত ..
আমাদের সবার জন্য খুব খুব গুরুত্বপূর্ণ একটি বই ..বিসিএস, ব্যাংক, ইউনিভার্সিটি ভর্তি ও যে কোন প্রতিযোগিতা মূলক পরীক্ষার জন্য এর খুব ইম্পরট্যান্ট একটি বিষয় ...তাছাড়া বাংলাদেশের সাম্প্রতিক যে কোন ডাটা বা তথ্য এই বইতে পাবেন ...
তাই একজন নাগরিক হিসাবে এই তথ্য গুলো আপনার জানা প্রয়োজন ...।
বিসিএস ও ব্যাংক এর লিখিত পরীক্ষা ...+এছাড়া মাধ্যমিক ও উচ্চমাধ্যমিকের স্টুডেন্টদের জন্য অনেক কাজে আসবে ...
A review of the growth of the Israel Genealogy Research Association Database Collection for the last 12 months. Our collection is now passed the 3 million mark and still growing. See which archives have contributed the most. See the different types of records we have, and which years have had records added. You can also see what we have for the future.
1. PRESENTED BY:- SAGAR CHAULAGAIN
BSC.MIT 1ST YEAR
ROLL NO. :-157
MAHARAJGUNJ MEDICAL CAMPUS
(IOM)
This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-SA
2. Contents:-
Introduction
X-ray Imaging System
Components of X-ray imaging system
Operating console
X-ray tube
High voltage generator
Autotransformer
Control of KV
KV indication
High voltage transformer
Rectification
Ripple
Control of mA
Filament transformer
mA selection
mA indication
mAs meter
3. Introduction
Controlling the KV and mA is an important aspect of medical imaging
technology.
KV represents voltage applied to the X-ray tube while mA represents the
tube current.
Adjusting these parameters can help to optimize image quality and reduce
patient exposure to radiation.
4. The three main component of x-ray imaging system are:-
Operating console
X-ray tube
High voltage generator
THE X-RAY IMAGING SYSTEM
5. THE X-RAY IMAGING SYSTEM
the primary function of the x-ray imaging system is to convert electric energy
into electromagnetic energy.
This system provides a controlled flow of electrons intense enough to produce
an x-ray beam appropriate for imaging.
These systems are usually operated at voltages of 25 to 150 kVp and at tube
currents of 100 to 1200 mA
6. In some types of x-ray imaging systems, such as dental and portable machines,
these three components are housed compactly.
But with most systems, the x-ray tube is located in the examination room, and
the operating console is located in an adjoining room with a protective barrier
separating the two.
The protective barrier must have a window for viewing the patient during the
examination.
And the high voltage generator is always close to the x-ray tube, usually in the
examination room, housed in an equipment cabinet positioned against a wall.
CONT:-
7. Operating console:-
More familiar to radiological technologist
At the operating console a technologist can control tube voltage (KV), tube
current(mA), and exposer time (s), so that the useful X-ray beam of proper quality
and quantity can be obtained.
Operating consoles are based on computer technology. Controls and meters are
digital, and techniques are selected with a touch screen.
Numeric technique selection is often replaced by icons indicating the body part,
size, and shape.
8. CONT:-
Most x-ray imaging systems are designed to operate on 220 V power,
Unfortunately, electric power companies are not capable of providing 220 V
accurately and continuously
Because of variations in power distribution to the hospital and in power
consumption by various sections of the hospital, the voltage provided to an x-ray
unit easily may vary by as much as 5%.
Such variation in supply voltage results in a large variation in the x-ray beam,
which is inconsistent with production of high quality image
9. CONT:-
The operating console usually provides for control of line compensation.
The line compensator measures the voltage provided to the x-ray imaging
system and adjusts that voltage to precisely 220 V.
Older units required technologists to adjust the supply voltage while observing
a line voltage meter.
Today’s x-ray imaging systems have automatic line compensation and hence
have no meter.
10.
11.
12. X-ray tube :-
Provides an environment for the production of bremsstrahlung and
characteristic X-ray.
The basic component of X-ray tube are :-
o Cathode
o Anode
o Rotor/stator
o Glass envelop
o Tube port
o Cable socket
o Tube housing
13. This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-SA-NC
14. High voltage generator:-
Principle function of the X-ray generator is to provide current at a high voltage to
X-ray tube.
It receives the electrical energy from the electrical power system and converts it
into DC form to supply the X-ray tube
The KV, mA and exposer time are the three major parameters which can adjust by
the generator which controls the X-ray production.
15. CONT:-
Contains 3-primary parts:
- The high voltage Transformer
- The filament Transformer
- The Rectifiers
16.
17. Control of KV:-
Radiation quality refers to the penetrability of the x-ray beam and is expressed in
kilovolt peak (kVp)
Range from 25kv (for mammography ) up to 150kv (in high kv technique)
The tube kv during the exposure is the output voltage of the secondary winding
of the high tension transformer, to which the x-tube is connected either directly
or through a system of high tension rectifier.
18. CONT:-
This output voltage may be controlled by changing the input voltage
Since the high tension transformer is of a fixed turns ratio. When its primary
voltage changes its secondary voltage(the tube kv) changes also.
The variable input voltage for the high tension transformer is obtained from
autotransformer which is connected across the primary winding of the high
tension transformer.
Kv change is achieved by varying the output from the Autotransformer and this
is applied to the high tension transformer as its primary (input) voltage.
19. Autotransformer:-
Woks on the principle of self induction.
It’s consists of an single iron core with only one winding of wire about it;
This single winding has a number of connections along its length.
And this single winding acts as both primary and secondary winding
It’s uses are generally restricted to cases in which only a small step-up or
step-down in voltage is required.
20. CONT:-
Thus an autotransformer would not be suitable for use as high voltage
transformer in an X-ray imaging system .
The power supplied to the X-ray imaging system is delivered first to the
autotransformer.
Supplies precise voltage to the high voltage circuit and to filament circuit.
Autotransformer Law is same as transformer law, i.e Voltage is directly
proportional to the number of turns ratio and inversely proportional to current
21. CONT:-
Vs/Vp=Ns/Np=Ip/Is
where Vp = the primary voltage
VS = the secondary voltage
NP = the number of windings enclosed by primary connections
NS = the number of windings enclosed by secondary connections
Ip = the primary current
Is = the secondary current
The ability to provide an adjustable secondary voltage make an
Autotransformer used in controlling kilovoltage
22. CONT:-
A and A’ are primary connections that conduct input
power to the autotransformer.
Connections. C: increases voltage due to proximity
to end and number of turns encased by the
connections.
D and E : decreases voltage.
24. KV Indication
Two meters are incorporated into the high voltage circuit one to measure KVp
and another to measure mA. The meters themselves are located in the control
panel but their connections are in the high voltage circuit.
KV selector varies the output voltage from autotransformer.
To know KV which is being selected, there must be indication on control panel.
I. Calibrated autotransformer
II. Pre-reading kilovolt meter
25. Calibrated autotransformer
Each setting of the selector is marked with kV value in gradations or steps.
Secondary voltage from high tension transformer= primary voltage from
autotransformer x turns ratio of high tension transformer
Peak kilovoltage= secondary voltage x 1.41
Irregularities in this transformer results kilovoltage drop. Load current through
windings of high tension transformer must flow against the resistance of
windings.
26. KV drop
Voltage absorbed in overcoming resistance is lost to x-ray tube called kilovoltage
drop.
kV drop increases with inc. in mA (V=IR)
Also add kV drop in case of use of rectifiers
Total kV drop= kV drop in transformer + kV drop in rectifiers
Actual kV available for x-ray tube= kVp - total kV drop
Therefore KV available for x-ray tube also vary with mA, low at high mA & high at
mA near 0.
27. Modern calibration
Modern x-ray set give KV indication by means of selector position marked truthfully.
It is made possible by
• kilovoltage compensation
• Extra voltage equal to KV drop is supplied to primary circuit of high tension
transformer from autotransformer when tube current is selected.
28. Pre-reading kilovolt meter
That indicates the kilovoltage that will be applied to the x-ray tube once the x-ray
exposure starts ( the potential difference between cathode and anode).
An AC instrument connected across output terminals of autotransformer so actually
reads voltage applied to primary windings of high tension transformer when exposure
begins.
Gives information before kV is actually applied to x-ray tube & therefore actually
reads voltage, not kVp.
29. Difference from actual kVp
Meter can have a scale which is calibrated to kVp on secondary side of high tension
transformer= primary voltage x turns ratio x 1.41
As we know, actual kV applied to tube= kVp – kV drop
so, reading & actual kVp differ & the difference depends on selected tube current.
Manufacturer determine the actual tube kVp at each of tube current & compare with
the meter indication. Then meter reading is brought down by reducing the voltage
across the meter through meter-reading compensator.
30. High Voltage Generator
Responsible for increasing the output voltage from the Autotransformer to
the KVp necessary for X-ray production
High voltage generator has three component,
High voltage transformer
Rectification circuit
Filament transformer
31. High voltage transformer
Step up transformer i.e number of secondary winding are greater in
number than primary.
Works on the principle of mutual induction.
Primary winding is connected to autotransformer and seconday winding
with anode of the X-ray tube.
Converts voltage to kilo voltage peak which is used to accelerate
electrons fastly.
32. CONT:-
Follows transformer law:
Vs = Ns = Ip
Vp Np Is
Increase in V is directly proportional to turns ratio (Ns/Np) & the
current is reduced proportionally
The turns ratio of a high voltage transformer is usually between 500:1
and 1000:1 because transformer operate only ac.
Oil immersed in earthed metal tank to insulate & cool it.
33. Rectification circuit
Rectification is the process of converting AC to DC.
Although transformers operate with alternating current, x-ray tubes must be
provided with direct current.
X-rays are produced by the accelerating of the electrons from the cathode to the
anode and can not produced by electrons flowing in the reverse direction
Reversal of electron flow would be disastrous for the x-ray tube.
Voltage rectification is required to ensure that electrons flow from x-ray tube
cathode to anode only.
34. For the electron flow is to be only in the cathode to anode direction, the sec.
voltage of the high voltage transformer must be rectified
Rectification is accomplished with diodes.
A diode is an electronic device that contains two electrodes.
Originally, all diode rectifiers were vacuum tubes called valve tubes; these
have been replaced by solid-state rectifiers made of silicon
Rectification can be done by two ways :-
Half wave rectification
Full wave rectification
35. Half wave rectifier
Typically in half wave rectification, two
rectifier are connected in series with the
X-ray tube, with one on each side
As a result electrons can flow from cathode
to anode during the first half of each AC
cycle but are blocked during the second
half cycle
36. Full wave rectification
In full wave rectification, two pairs of
rectifiers are configured to operate
alternatively and electron flow from cathode
to anode during both half of AC cycle in a
pulsating current.
Voltage across a full-wave–rectified circuit is
always positive.
37. Difference between half wave and full wave rectification
Half wave rectification Full wave rectification
Contain one or two diode. Contains at least four diode
Rectifiers conduct only on positive half
cycle.
Rectifiers conducts alternatively on both
positive and negative half cycle.
produces 60 X-ray pulses each second Produces 120 X-ray pulses each seconds
only one half of the AC waveform appears
in the output.
All of the input waveform is rectified into
usable output.
It wastes half the supply of power There is no waste of power supply.
It also requires twice the exposure time. It requires half the exposure time than half
wave rectifier.
39. Three phase power
Single-phase power results in a pulsating x-ray beam.
Disadvantages of this is that, intensity only significant when voltage is near peak
and low voltage produces low-energy photons.
Three-phase power is a more efficient way to produce x-rays than is single-phase.
Commercial electric power is usually produced and delivered by three-phase
alternating-current generators
With three-phase power, multiple voltage waveforms are superimposed on one
another, resulting in a waveform that maintains nearly constant voltage.
40. This kilovoltage waveform instead of pulsation is called as rippling.
Half wave rectification of 3 phase input gives 6 pulse output
Full wave rectification of 3 phase input gives 12 pulse output.
Operation in 3 phase power is equivalent to 12% increase in KV or almost
doubling of mAs over single phase power(15% rule)
CONT:-
41.
42. Ripple
The ripple factor is the variation in the voltage across the x-ray tube expressed
as a percentage of the maximum value.
Single-phase power has 100% voltage ripple because the voltage goes from zero
to a maximum value with each cycle.
Three-phase, six-pulse power produces voltage with only approximately 14%
ripple
Three-phase, 12-pulse power results in only 4% ripple
High-frequency generators have approximately 1% ripple and therefore greater
x-ray quantity and quality.
43.
44. HIGH FREQUENCY GENERATOR
Newest development in high voltage generator, smaller than conventional
generators (80% reduction in size)
Converts standard mains voltage i.e. 50 Hz to higher frequency usually 500-
25000 Hz.
Uses inverter circuit.
Voltage ripple less than 1%.
Can be placed within x-ray tube housing .So used in portable machines.
Can utilize single or three phase mains supply
45.
46. Advantage of using high frequency generator
They are very much smaller than 60-Hz high voltage generators, easy to used
in portable machine.
Produces high output and accuracy.
produce a nearly constant potential voltage waveform, improving image
quality at lower patient radiation dose.
Ripple is less than 1%
48. Control of mA
X-ray tube current is controlled through a separate circuit called filament
circuit.
Filament circuit regulates current flow through the filament of the x-ray tube.
Tube current is altered by altering the number of electrons which are emitted
from its heated filament, which can be achieved by changing the temperature of
filament.
The filament is heated by electric power which a step down transformer
provides, the filament is directly connected to the secondary winding of this
transformer.
49. The x-ray tube current, crossing from cathode to anode, is measured in
milliamperes (mA).
50.
51. Filament Transformer
Step-down transformer.
It steps down the voltage to approximately 12 V and provides the current of about
3 to 6A to heat the filament.
The primary winding of the filament transformer obtains its voltage by tapping
off an appropriate number of turns from the autotransformer
And the secondary winding of this transformer is connected directly to the
filament.
52. mA selector
Precise control of filament heating is critical, because a small variation in
filament current results in a large variation in x-ray tube current
A change in filament voltage of about 5% will result in a 20- to 30-% change
in x-ray tube current.
x-ray filament current may be controlled by altering the voltage to the primary
of the step-down transformer
It is done by the addition of resistors connected in series in the circuit leading
from the autotransformer.
53. Several other components in the filament circuit are used to stabilize the voltage
to the filament transformer, including a voltage stabilizer and a frequency
stabilizer
There is also a circuit that automatically compensates for the space charge effect.
54. mA indication
Should have readable indication of the tube current while the exposure lasts. It is
done by means of mA meter.
Connected at center of secondary windings of high tension transformer &
measures current flowing in secondary circuit of high tension transformer
Secondary winding of high tension transformer is wound in 2 halves & inner end
of halves connected to earth forming earthed mid junction or grounded center. It
is the only part of high tension circuit which is virtually at 0 V. In this way, no
part of meter is in contact with high voltage & meter may be safely put on
operating consoles
55.
56. mAs Meter
Records milliampereseconds i.e. product of tube current & time for which it flows
(electric charge).
When exposure time is very short, an ordinary ma meter doesn't have enough time
to give accurate reading.
If exposure time is <1 s, before needle of mA meter can reach right place on scale,
tube current is cut off at end of exposure & needle falls back to zero.
mAs meter is often provided with double scales just as in mA meter.
57. Summary
The x-ray imaging system has three principal sections: the x-ray tube, operating
console, and the high-voltage generator.
The operating console usually provides for control of line compensation, kVp, mA,
and exposure time.
The autotransformer has a single winding and is designed to supply a precise voltage
to the filament circuit and to the high-voltage circuit of the x-ray imaging system.
The high-voltage generator contains three primary parts: the high-voltage
transformer, the filament transformer, and rectifiers.
58. Voltage rectification is required to ensure that electrons flow from x-ray tube cathode to
anode only.
Three-phase power is a more efficient way to produce x-rays than single-phase power
as, Single-phase power results in a pulsating x-ray beam.
Filament transformer steps down the voltage to approximately 12 V and provides the 3
to 6A current to heat the filament.
The x-ray tube current, crossing from cathode to anode, is measured in milliamperes
(mA).
59. Questions ?????
1) What is the role of an autotransformer in controlling the voltage supply to the X-ray tube
during an exposure?
2) What are the percentage of voltage ripple for various power source?
3) Why does the x-ray circuit require rectification?
4) Location of mA meter and KVp meter?
5) What does KVp meter measures actually?
6) What are the advantages of using high frequency generators in place of high voltage
generators?
7) How do we control mA?
8) Difference between high voltage transformer and filament transformer?
9) Difference between tube current and filament current?
60. Reference :-
Radiologic science for technologist by SC Bushong 11th edition.
Christensen's Physics of Diagnostic Radiology 4th edition.
Chesney’s equipment for student radiographers 4th edition.
The Essential Physics of Medical Imaging by Bushberg.
Various online source.
Editor's Notes
1:-) 3-Components
2 control console is used to adjust tube current and voltage as well as the exposure time.
3) The autotransformer has a single winding and is designed to supply a precise voltage to the filament circuit and to the high-voltage circuit of the x-ray imaging system.
3high voltage generator is responsible for providing the high voltage required to operate the x-ray tube .
4consists of step up transformer and rectifiers , the transformer steps up the voltage from the power source to the level required by the x-ray tube while rectifier converts Ac voltage to DC voltage .
*device :-rectifier
*Rectifiers are located in the high-voltage section.
The input voltage is rectified
That rectified voltage is now smoothed with the help of capacitor.
Which is reconverted to AC voltage by the action of inverter . But now at high frequency.
This high frequency voltage is transformed upto the required kilovoltage by use of step up transformer.
Now that voltage is rectified and smoothed for the working of the x-ray tube