This document provides an overview of content analysis. It defines content analysis as the objective, systematic, and quantitative analysis of communicated content such as texts, books, websites, paintings and laws. The document discusses the various types of content that can be analyzed, such as written, oral, iconic, audio-visual and hypertext. It also outlines the steps involved in conducting a content analysis, including planning, identifying objectives, selecting strategies, leading the analysis, and evaluating outcomes. The overall goals and uses of content analysis are to describe characteristics of content, identify important aspects, and support arguments.

1. Content
Analysis
Jammu University
2 Year B.Ed.
Paper 202
Sem: II
Unit: I
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International
License.
Dr. Atul Thakur

2. Content analysis is "a wide and
heterogeneous set of manual or computer-
assisted techniques for contextualized
interpretations of documents produced by
communication processes in the strict sense
of that phrase (any kind of text, written,
iconic, multimedia, etc.) or signification
processes (traces and artifacts), having as
ultimate goal the production of valid and
trustworthy inferences."

3. "a research technique for the objective,
systematic, and quantitative description of
manifest content of communications such as
books, journals, websites, paintings and laws
....etc.”
It is a research tool or technique that help to
analyze the actual content and it is features of
any kind , whether it was a word, picture,
themes, text, and try to present the content in
objective and quantitative manner.
Content analysis is a research tool focused on
the actual content and internal features of
media.

4. It is used to determine the presence of certain
words, concepts, themes, phrases, characters, or
sentences within texts or sets of texts and to
quantify this presence in an objective manner.
Texts can be defined broadly as books, book
chapters, essays, interviews, discussions,
newspaper headlines and articles, historical
documents, speeches, conversations, advertising,
theater, informal conversation, films, photos,
websites or really any occurrence of
communicative language.
Content analysis is a term sometimes used to
describe both quantitative and qualitative
approaches to analyzing content.

5. "content analysis" refers to a family of
techniques oriented to the study of texts and
artifacts. Texts come from communication
processes in a narrow sense of that phrase
(i.e. types of communication intentionally
activated by a sender, using a code
sufficiently shared with the receiver).

6. There are 5 types of texts in content analysis:
written texts (books, papers, etc.),
oral texts (speech, theatre plays, etc.),
iconic texts (drawings, paintings, icons, etc.),
audio-visual texts (TV programs, movies,
videos, etc.),
hypertexts (can be one or more of the texts
above, on the Internet).

7. "content analysis" method implies
a series of transformation procedures,
equipped with a different degree of
formalisation depending on the type of
technique used, but which share the scientific
re-elaboration of the object examined.

8.  Content analysis has known an increasing
use to deeply analyse and understand media
content and media logic.
Harold Lasswell formulated the core
questions of content analysis- "Who says
what, to whom, why, to what extent and with
what effect?".

9.  “Father" of content analysis, Bernard
Berelson, proposed a definition of content
analysis- a research technique for the
objective, systematic and quantitative
description of the manifest content of
communication
Content analysis has indeed come across huge
amount of textual big data as a consequence
of the recent spread of new media,
particularly social media and mobile devices.

10. The method of content analysis enables the
researcher to include large amounts of textual
information and systematically identify its
properties, such as the frequencies of most
used keywords by locating the more
important structures of its communication
content.

11. Steps of content analysis:
To conduct a content analysis on a text, the
text is coded, or broken down, into
manageable categories on a variety of levels--
word, word sense, phrase, sentence, or theme-
- and then examined using one of content
analysis' basic methods: conceptual analysis
or relational analysis.
The results are then used to make inferences
about the messages within the text(s), the
writer(s), the audience, and even the culture
and time of which these are a part.

12. Uses of content analysis
Holsti groups fifteen uses of content analysis
into three basic categories:
make inferences about the antecedents of a
communication
describe and make inferences about
characteristics of a communication
make inferences about the effects of a
communication.

13. Purpose Element Question Use
Make inferences
about the
antecedents of
communications
Source Who?  Answer questions of disputed authorship
(authorship analysis)
Encoding
process
Why?  Secure political & military intelligence
 Analyse traits of individuals
 Infer cultural aspects & change
Provide legal & evaluative evidence
Describe & make
inferences about
the characteristics
of communications
Channel How?  Analyse techniques of persuasion
 Analyse style
Message What?  Describe trends in communication content
 Relate known characteristics of sources to
messages they produce
 Compare communication content to standards
Recipient To whom?  Relate known characteristics of audiences to
messages produced for them
 Describe patterns of communication
Make inferences
about the
consequences of
communications
Decoding
process
With what
effect?
 Measure readability
 Analyse the flow of information
 Assess responses to communications

14. The process of a content analysis
According to Dr. Klaus Krippendorff, six
questions must be addressed in every content
analysis:
Which data are analysed?
How are they defined?
What is the population from which they are
drawn?
What is the context relative to which the data
are analysed?
What are the boundaries of the analysis?
What is the target of the inferences?

15. words and phrases reflect important concerns in
every communication.
Quantitative content analysis starts with word
frequencies, space measurements (column
centimeters/inches in the case of newspapers),
time counts (for radio and television time) and
keyword frequencies.
content analysis extends far beyond plain word
counts
Qualitatively, content analysis can involve any
kind of analysis where communication content
(speech, written text, interviews, images ...) is
categorised and classified.

16. In its beginnings analysis was done manually
by measuring the number of lines and amount
of space given a subject.
With the rise of common computing facilities
like PCs, computer-based methods of analysis
are growing in popularity.
Robert Weber notes: "To make valid
inferences from the text, it is important that
the classification procedure be reliable in the
sense of being consistent: Different people
should code the same text in the same way".

17. Steps of content analysis in teaching
Planning of teaching and learning
Task analysis
Identification of objectives
Writing objectives in behavioural terms
Organizing of teaching and learning
Selection of teaching strategies
Selection of teaching tactics
Selection of teaching aids
Decision for rules and techniques of
instruction

18. Leading teaching and learning
Arranging for student’s motivation
Deciding techniques for motivation
Use of teaching skills
Use of communication strategies
Controlling of teaching and learning
Evaluation of learning activities
Evaluation of learning outcomes
Organising learning objectives
Providing feedback to earlier steps

19. use content analysis
To reduce large amounts of unstructured content.
To describe characteristics of the content.
To Identify important aspects of the content.
To present important aspects of the content
clearly and effectively.
To support of some argument.
Content analysis is used in large number of
fields, ranging from marketing and media
studies, to literature, rhetoric, information
studies, sociology and political science,
psychology science, as well as other fields of
inquiry.

20. Goals of content analysis:
To examine trends and relationships in the
text and multimedia produced or used in the
fields context to provide an insight into it.
To identify the intentions, focus or
communication trends of an individual, group
or institution.
To describe attitudinal and behavioral
responses to communications
To determine psychological or emotional state
of persons or groups.

21. Content analysis is the analysis of text
documents. The analysis can be quantitative,
qualitative or both. Typically, the major
purpose of content analysis is to identify
patterns in text. Content analysis is an
extremely broad area of research. It includes:
Thematic analysis of text
Indexing
Quantitative descriptive analysis

22. Thematic analysis of text
The identification of themes or major ideas in
a document or set of documents. The
documents can be any kind of text including
field notes, newspaper articles, technical
papers or organizational memos.
Indexing

23.  There are a wide variety of automated methods for rapidly
indexing text documents.
 For instance, Key Words in Context (KWIC) analysis is a
computer analysis of text data.
 A computer program scans the text and indexes all key words.
 A key word is any term in the text that is not included in an
exception dictionary.
 Typically you would set up an exception dictionary that includes
all non-essential words like "is", "and", and "of".
 All key words are alphabetized and are listed with the text that
precedes and follows it so the researcher can see the word in the
context in which it occurred in the text.
 In an analysis of interview text, for instance, one could easily
identify all uses of the term "abuse" and the context in which they
were used.

24.  Quantitative descriptive analysis
 Here the purpose is to describe features of the text
quantitatively. For instance, you might want to find
out which words or phrases were used most frequently
in the text. Again, this type of analysis is most often
done directly with computer programs.
 problems of Content analysis
 limited to the types of information available in text
form.
 careful with sampling in order to avoid bias
interpreting results of automated content analyses
 advantage: unobtrusive and, depending on whether
automated methods exist, can be a relatively rapid
method for analyzing large amounts of text.