Content analysis is an objective, systematic, and quantitative analysis of communicated content. It involves defining categories of analysis precisely so that different coders will categorize content the same way. Categories should be mutually exclusive. The process involves selecting a sample from the population, defining the unit of analysis, creating categories, establishing a coding scheme, coding the content, analyzing the results, and drawing conclusions.

1. An Introduction

2.  Content analysis is a research technique for the
objective, systematic & quantitative description of the
manifest content of communication.

3.  Objectivity: It is achieved by having the categories of
analysis defined so precisely that different persons can
apply them to the same content & get the same results.
 Systematic: It means that a set procedure is applied in
the same way to all the contents being analyzed.

4.  Quantitative: It means simply the recording of
numeral values or the frequencies with which the
various defined types of content occur.
 Manifest content: It means the apparent content,
which means that content must be coded as it appears
rather than as the content analysis feels it is intended.

5.  Content analysis is a documentary method that aims at
a qualitative &/ or quantitative analysis of the content
of text, pictures, films, & other forms of verbal, visual
or written communication.

6.  1. Manifest content (visible contents)
 2. Latent content (what is said between the lines)

7.  Formulation of research question.
 Defining population
 Selection of appropriate sample from the population
 Selection & defining unit of analysis.
 Construction of categories of contents to be analyzed.
 Establishment of quantitative system.

8.  Train coders & conduct pilot study.
 Code the contents according to established definition.
 Analyze the collected data.
 Draw conclusion.

9.  While forming research question, following things
should be under consideration.
 Technical & statistical terms should be clearly defined.
 Assumptions should be clearly defined.
 Scope should be clearly defined.
 For example sensational language

10.  It means to define the universe;
 to clearly specify the topic area & time period.
 For example: to study the treatment of Swat Crisis by
Urdu Dailies form 1st Jan to 31th May

11.  A subset of the whole population is sample.
 For example: in the previous example Urdu newspapers
like Jung, Express will be sample.
 There are two types of sampling
 i) Probability
 ii) Non-probability

12.  The unit of analysis is the thing which is actually counted.
 It is smallest element but also one of the most important
element.
 In written words unit of analysis can be written words & in
TV or film it can be characters, acts or the entire program.
 For example: advertisements in English newspapers are
promoting Western Culture. Here ads are unit of analysis.
 In previous example news item on Swat crisis is unit of
analysis.

13.  It is at the heart of any content analysis.
 All categories should be mutually exclusive & reliable.
Means that a category system is exclusive if a unit of
analysis can be placed in one & only one category.

14.  It involves all the four levels of measurement.
 For example ratio level measurement in mass media are
generally applied to space & time.
 For example: In print media column-inch measurement
for analyzing editorial, advertisements, stories about
events.
 In electronic media ratio level is used in time or no. of
commercials, type of program on the air etc.

15.  Individuals who do the coding are called coders.
 Then the coders are trained to code the contents.
 A pre-test is done to check whether they have
understood the procedure or not.

16.  Placing the unit of analysis into a category is called
coding.
 It is the most time consuming process.
 In this process the responses can be assigned specific
numbers or symbols.
 Acc to some researchers coding refers to the process of
assigning numerals (namely; 1,2,3,4 or a, b,
c,……………..) or other symbols like
or ……… .

17.  Percentages, mean, modes & medians are appropriate
for content analysis.

18.  If there is a hypothesis concerning relationship between
variables then the interpretations will be fairly evident.
 Appropriate figures should be cited in the text &
references should be made to appropriate tables.