Content analysis

1. An Introduction

2.  Content analysis is a research technique for the
objective, systematic & quantitative description of the
manifest content of communication.

3.  Objectivity: It is achieved by having the categories of
analysis defined so precisely that different persons can
apply them to the same content & get the same results.
 Systematic: It means that a set procedure is applied in
the same way to all the contents being analyzed.

4.  Quantitative: It means simply the recording of
numeral values or the frequencies with which the
various defined types of content occur.
 Manifest content: It means the apparent content,
which means that content must be coded as it appears
rather than as the content analysis feels it is intended.

5.  Content analysis is a documentary method that aims at
a qualitative &/ or quantitative analysis of the content
of text, pictures, films, & other forms of verbal, visual
or written communication.

6.  1. Manifest content (visible contents)
 2. Latent content (what is said between the lines)

7.  Formulation of research question.
 Defining population
 Selection of appropriate sample from the population
 Selection & defining unit of analysis.
 Construction of categories of contents to be analyzed.
 Establishment of quantitative system.

8.  Train coders & conduct pilot study.
 Code the contents according to established definition.
 Analyze the collected data.
 Draw conclusion.

9.  While forming research question, following things
should be under consideration.
 Technical & statistical terms should be clearly defined.
 Assumptions should be clearly defined.
 Scope should be clearly defined.
 For example sensational language

10.  It means to define the universe;
 to clearly specify the topic area & time period.
 For example: to study the treatment of Swat Crisis by
Urdu Dailies form 1st Jan to 31th May

11.  A subset of the whole population is sample.
 For example: in the previous example Urdu newspapers
like Jung, Express will be sample.
 There are two types of sampling
 i) Probability
 ii) Non-probability

12.  The unit of analysis is the thing which is actually counted.
 It is smallest element but also one of the most important
element.
 In written words unit of analysis can be written words & in
TV or film it can be characters, acts or the entire program.
 For example: advertisements in English newspapers are
promoting Western Culture. Here ads are unit of analysis.
 In previous example news item on Swat crisis is unit of
analysis.

13.  It is at the heart of any content analysis.
 All categories should be mutually exclusive & reliable.
Means that a category system is exclusive if a unit of
analysis can be placed in one & only one category.

14.  It involves all the four levels of measurement.
 For example ratio level measurement in mass media are
generally applied to space & time.
 For example: In print media column-inch measurement
for analyzing editorial, advertisements, stories about
events.
 In electronic media ratio level is used in time or no. of
commercials, type of program on the air etc.

15.  Individuals who do the coding are called coders.
 Then the coders are trained to code the contents.
 A pre-test is done to check whether they have
understood the procedure or not.

16.  Placing the unit of analysis into a category is called
coding.
 It is the most time consuming process.
 In this process the responses can be assigned specific
numbers or symbols.
 Acc to some researchers coding refers to the process of
assigning numerals (namely; 1,2,3,4 or a, b,
c,……………..) or other symbols like
or ……… .

17.  Percentages, mean, modes & medians are appropriate
for content analysis.

18.  If there is a hypothesis concerning relationship between
variables then the interpretations will be fairly evident.
 Appropriate figures should be cited in the text &
references should be made to appropriate tables.