The document discusses bioenergetics and the three biological energy systems that replenish ATP in human skeletal muscle during exercise: (1) the phosphagen system provides ATP primarily for short-term, high-intensity activities; (2) glycolysis breaks down carbohydrates to resynthesize ATP; (3) the oxidative system uses primarily carbohydrates and fats as substrates to provide ATP at rest and during low-intensity activities. The extent to which each system contributes depends on the intensity and duration of muscular activity, with the phosphagen system supplying ATP for short, high-intensity activities and the oxidative system for long, low-intensity activities.
Chapter 1 structure and function of the muscular, neuromuscular, cardiovasc...Leesah Mapa
The document provides an overview of the structure and function of the muscular, neuromuscular, cardiovascular, and respiratory systems. It describes the macrostructure and microstructure of muscle and the sliding filament theory of muscle contraction. It discusses the characteristics of different muscle fiber types and the activation of muscles via motor neurons. It also summarizes the structure and function of the cardiovascular system, including the heart, blood vessels, and blood, as well as the conduction system and electrocardiogram.
This document provides an overview of the muscular, neuromuscular, cardiovascular, and respiratory systems. It describes the structure and function of skeletal muscle fibers and motor units. It explains the sliding filament theory of muscle contraction. It also describes the structure and function of the heart and blood vessels, the conduction system that controls heart rate, electrocardiograms, and blood composition. Finally, it outlines gas exchange that occurs in the lungs through the process of inspiration and expiration.
The chapter discusses exercise metabolism and several key concepts:
1. During rest, ATP is produced aerobically, while during exercise transitions ATP is initially produced anaerobically through the phosphocreatine and glycolysis pathways due to a lag in oxygen uptake.
2. The lactate threshold occurs when blood lactate levels rise systematically during incremental exercise, around 50-60% of VO2 max in untrained individuals, and is likely due to low muscle oxygen levels and accelerated glycolysis.
3. Fuel selection during exercise is dependent on intensity and duration, with low intensity exercise relying more on fat oxidation and high intensity relying more on carbohydrates due to faster fiber recruitment and increased epinephrine levels.
Organisms obtain energy through chemical reactions. Autotrophs like plants produce their own food through photosynthesis, an endothermic reaction that stores energy. Heterotrophs obtain energy by consuming other organisms. All organisms must obtain energy from outside sources according to the first law of thermodynamics. Chemical reactions are catalyzed by enzymes to make them fast enough to support life. Energy is required for synthesis reactions and released by decomposition reactions like cellular respiration. ATP is used to store and transport energy in cells.
The document discusses three energy systems that the body uses to produce ATP for muscle contraction and movement. The ATP-PC or alactic system uses phosphocreatine to rapidly resynthesize ATP for high-intensity bursts lasting 3-10 seconds. When phosphocreatine stores are depleted, the lactic anaerobic system breaks down glycogen via anaerobic glycolysis to produce ATP for up to 3 minutes, producing lactic acid as a byproduct. For longer duration lower intensity exercise, the aerobic system uses oxygen to fully break down glycogen and fat stores to efficiently resynthesize ATP.
This document discusses the bioenergetics of exercise and training. It describes the three main energy systems in the body - the phosphagen, glycolytic, and oxidative systems. The phosphagen system provides energy for short bursts of high intensity exercise. Glycolysis breaks down carbohydrates to replenish ATP and can produce lactate. The oxidative system uses fats and carbohydrates during lower intensity exercise. Training can target specific energy systems through interval training and combination training approaches.
Fatigue during exercise is caused by multiple factors including fuel depletion, accumulation of metabolic by-products, and neuromuscular events. Specifically, fatigue results from the depletion of ATP and phosphocreatine stores as well as glycogen. The buildup of lactic acid and other products like inorganic phosphate and ADP also contribute to muscle fatigue by interfering with muscle contraction. Elevated body temperature from exercise can further increase fatigue. Recovery methods aim to replenish energy stores and remove waste products through rest, active recovery, hydrotherapies, massage, and other techniques.
This document summarizes the effects of exercise on the cardiovascular system. It describes how the heart, blood vessels, blood flow, and other cardiovascular components respond and adapt to exercise. The cardiovascular system increases cardiac output to deliver more oxygen and nutrients to working muscles. It redistributes blood flow from organs to muscles. Regular exercise lowers resting heart rate and blood pressure over time through cardiovascular adaptations.
Chapter 1 structure and function of the muscular, neuromuscular, cardiovasc...Leesah Mapa
The document provides an overview of the structure and function of the muscular, neuromuscular, cardiovascular, and respiratory systems. It describes the macrostructure and microstructure of muscle and the sliding filament theory of muscle contraction. It discusses the characteristics of different muscle fiber types and the activation of muscles via motor neurons. It also summarizes the structure and function of the cardiovascular system, including the heart, blood vessels, and blood, as well as the conduction system and electrocardiogram.
This document provides an overview of the muscular, neuromuscular, cardiovascular, and respiratory systems. It describes the structure and function of skeletal muscle fibers and motor units. It explains the sliding filament theory of muscle contraction. It also describes the structure and function of the heart and blood vessels, the conduction system that controls heart rate, electrocardiograms, and blood composition. Finally, it outlines gas exchange that occurs in the lungs through the process of inspiration and expiration.
The chapter discusses exercise metabolism and several key concepts:
1. During rest, ATP is produced aerobically, while during exercise transitions ATP is initially produced anaerobically through the phosphocreatine and glycolysis pathways due to a lag in oxygen uptake.
2. The lactate threshold occurs when blood lactate levels rise systematically during incremental exercise, around 50-60% of VO2 max in untrained individuals, and is likely due to low muscle oxygen levels and accelerated glycolysis.
3. Fuel selection during exercise is dependent on intensity and duration, with low intensity exercise relying more on fat oxidation and high intensity relying more on carbohydrates due to faster fiber recruitment and increased epinephrine levels.
Organisms obtain energy through chemical reactions. Autotrophs like plants produce their own food through photosynthesis, an endothermic reaction that stores energy. Heterotrophs obtain energy by consuming other organisms. All organisms must obtain energy from outside sources according to the first law of thermodynamics. Chemical reactions are catalyzed by enzymes to make them fast enough to support life. Energy is required for synthesis reactions and released by decomposition reactions like cellular respiration. ATP is used to store and transport energy in cells.
The document discusses three energy systems that the body uses to produce ATP for muscle contraction and movement. The ATP-PC or alactic system uses phosphocreatine to rapidly resynthesize ATP for high-intensity bursts lasting 3-10 seconds. When phosphocreatine stores are depleted, the lactic anaerobic system breaks down glycogen via anaerobic glycolysis to produce ATP for up to 3 minutes, producing lactic acid as a byproduct. For longer duration lower intensity exercise, the aerobic system uses oxygen to fully break down glycogen and fat stores to efficiently resynthesize ATP.
This document discusses the bioenergetics of exercise and training. It describes the three main energy systems in the body - the phosphagen, glycolytic, and oxidative systems. The phosphagen system provides energy for short bursts of high intensity exercise. Glycolysis breaks down carbohydrates to replenish ATP and can produce lactate. The oxidative system uses fats and carbohydrates during lower intensity exercise. Training can target specific energy systems through interval training and combination training approaches.
Fatigue during exercise is caused by multiple factors including fuel depletion, accumulation of metabolic by-products, and neuromuscular events. Specifically, fatigue results from the depletion of ATP and phosphocreatine stores as well as glycogen. The buildup of lactic acid and other products like inorganic phosphate and ADP also contribute to muscle fatigue by interfering with muscle contraction. Elevated body temperature from exercise can further increase fatigue. Recovery methods aim to replenish energy stores and remove waste products through rest, active recovery, hydrotherapies, massage, and other techniques.
This document summarizes the effects of exercise on the cardiovascular system. It describes how the heart, blood vessels, blood flow, and other cardiovascular components respond and adapt to exercise. The cardiovascular system increases cardiac output to deliver more oxygen and nutrients to working muscles. It redistributes blood flow from organs to muscles. Regular exercise lowers resting heart rate and blood pressure over time through cardiovascular adaptations.
The document provides an overview of the three energy systems - ATP-PC, lactic acid, and aerobic. It defines each system, how they generate ATP, their advantages and disadvantages, and the types of exercises or durations they are used for. The ATP-PC system generates ATP very quickly but has a limited duration around 8-10 seconds. The lactic acid system can be used for intensities from 2-3 minutes and produces lactic acid. The aerobic system is the most efficient but slowest, generating ATP in the presence of oxygen for durations over 5 minutes.
The document discusses exercise physiology and how the body's systems respond to exercise. It describes exercise physiology as the study of how the human body functions during and after physical activity. Key body systems that are involved in exercise include the muscular, cardiovascular, and respiratory systems. During exercise, the cardiovascular system works to deliver more oxygen to active muscles via increased heart rate and blood flow. The respiratory system increases breathing rate and volume to take in more oxygen. Regular exercise leads to long-term adaptations like increased heart and lung capacity and stronger, more efficient muscles.
The document discusses the three main energy systems - ATP-PCr system, lactic acid system, and oxygen system - that provide energy for human movement. It explains that each system generates ATP at different rates and is optimized for different durations and intensities of exercise. The ATP-PCr system provides rapid energy but can only be used for up to 10 seconds of high-intensity activity. The lactic acid system takes over to fuel activities lasting 30-120 seconds. The oxygen system generates the most ATP but more slowly, to fuel endurance activities lasting minutes or hours. Proper nutrition, including carbohydrates, fats, proteins, vitamins and minerals, supports optimal function of these bioenergetic systems.
The document discusses how the body produces energy through different energy systems using carbohydrates, fats, and proteins. There are three main energy systems: 1) the phosphocreatine system which produces ATP very rapidly but has limited capacity, 2) the lactic acid system which produces ATP rapidly but leads to lactic acid buildup and fatigue, and 3) the aerobic system which produces ATP slowly through oxygen but has unlimited capacity. The type of energy system used depends on the intensity and duration of exercise.
1. Exercise increases energy expenditure through increased fuel consumption and oxygen usage, reflected by higher oxygen consumption and carbon dioxide production.
2. Increased oxygen delivery and carbon dioxide removal in tissues during exercise is achieved through cardiovascular and respiratory responses.
3. Types of exercise include static, which involves constant muscle tension, and dynamic, which involves rhythmic contraction and relaxation with changing muscle length. Aerobic exercise uses oxygen and fuels stored in muscles, while anaerobic exercise occurs without oxygen, using stored creatine phosphate and glycogen.
This document discusses the three energy systems - ATP-PC, anaerobic glycolysis, and aerobic - that produce ATP to enable muscle contractions. The ATP-PC and anaerobic glycolysis systems produce ATP quickly but in small amounts and can only be used for short durations before causing muscle fatigue. The aerobic system produces large amounts of ATP over long durations without causing fatigue but takes longer to produce ATP. The energy system used depends on the activity duration, intensity, fitness level, and recovery time between efforts.
Chronic training adaptations occur through long-term physiological changes in response to training loads. Aerobic training increases cardiovascular endurance through increased stroke volume, capillarization and mitochondria. Anaerobic training increases strength and power through increased contractile proteins, glycogen stores, and glycolytic enzymes. Both training types cause muscular hypertrophy but through different fiber recruitment patterns.
Muscle fatigue is caused by several factors and results in a decline in muscle force over time. The main causes are ion imbalance within muscles, nervous system fatigue, metabolic fatigue from lactic acid accumulation, and effects of exercise and aging. Symptoms include muscle aches, burning sensation, rapid breathing, nausea, and stomach pain. Lactic acid builds up when intense exercise exceeds oxygen availability, turning pyruvate into lactic acid instead of entering the Krebs cycle. This lactic acid accumulation lowers pH in muscles and contributes to the sensation of fatigue. Warm-ups and cool-downs help prepare and recover muscles to prevent injury and fatigue.
Muscle metabolism relies on ATP as the direct source of energy for contraction. ATP stores are quickly depleted after 4-6 seconds of contraction and must be regenerated through creatine phosphate interaction, anaerobic glycolysis, and aerobic respiration. When muscle activity reaches 70% of maximum, oxygen delivery is impaired and lactic acid builds up, diffusing into the bloodstream. Muscle fatigue occurs when ATP production cannot keep up with demand, leading to relative ATP deficit, contractures, and lactic acid accumulation.
The document provides an introduction to exercise physiology, defining key terms like physical activity, exercise, and physical fitness. It discusses the acute and chronic adaptations to exercise training and how exercise physiology principles can be applied to fields like cardiology, endocrinology, and physical therapy. The summary also outlines the history of exercise physiology laboratories and professional organizations in the field.
This document provides an overview of exercise physiology by discussing key topics such as the history of the field, energy systems, the nervous system, endocrine system, and skeletal muscle system. It traces the evolution of exercise physiology through the work of scientists from the 1700s to present day. It also explains how the body produces energy during exercise through three main pathways and how training can enhance these pathways.
This document discusses the characteristics and functions of skeletal muscle. It covers common muscle features like nervous control, contractibility, and elasticity. It also describes the different types of muscular contractions including isometric, isotonic, eccentric, and isokinetic. Additionally, it explains how musculoskeletal movements are possible through muscle origin and insertion points and the roles of agonist, antagonist, fixator, and synergist muscles. Finally, it discusses muscle fiber arrangement, types, gender differences, and how the muscle system responds to physical activity.
Effects of exercise on skeletal and muscular systemSandeepGautam72
In is you can see about--
The Effects of Exercise on the Skeletal System-
Improve Bone Density
Range of Movement in the Joints-
Range of Movement in the Joints-
Short term effects of exercise on skeletal system
Short term effects of exercise on skeletal system
And also
Effect of exercise on muscular system-
Short-Term Effects
Long-Term Effects
Hemoglobin is a protein in red blood cells that transports oxygen from the lungs to tissues throughout the body. It binds oxygen when levels are high, such as in the lungs, and releases it where levels are low, such as in muscles. This binding and releasing of oxygen is an example of chemical bonding. Hemoglobin allows oxygen transport even during strenuous activities like climbing Mount Everest where oxygen levels are low. The pH level also affects hemoglobin's ability to bind and release oxygen. Blood doping artificially increases red blood cell counts to enhance oxygen delivery to muscles during exercise.
This document discusses the psychological benefits of exercise. It outlines several common benefits such as improved mood, reduced stress, increased self-esteem, and improved body image. It also examines specific psychological variables like depression, anxiety, stress, and mood states. The literature shows that both aerobic and anaerobic exercise can positively impact these mental health factors. Overall, the document advocates that personal trainers promote both the physical and psychological advantages of exercise to their clients.
This document discusses the three main types of skeletal muscle fibers:
1) Slow oxidative fibers (SO) are dark red, contain many mitochondria and blood vessels, generate ATP through aerobic respiration, and contract slowly but resist fatigue well. They are suited for endurance activities like marathon running.
2) Fast oxidative-glycolytic fibers (FOG) are also dark red but generate ATP through both aerobic respiration and anaerobic glycolysis. They contract faster than SO fibers but more slowly than FG fibers. They are suited for activities like walking and sprinting.
3) Fast glycolytic fibers (FG) are white, rely primarily on anaerobic glycolysis to generate
This document discusses the effect of exercise on the cardiovascular system. It begins with defining the cardiovascular system and its key components like the heart, arteries, veins, blood, and pulmonary and circulatory systems. It then explains how exercise affects aspects of the cardiovascular system like heart size, plasma volume, stroke volume, heart rate, cardiac output, oxygen extraction, blood flow and distribution, and blood pressure. Finally, it provides examples of aerobic exercises like walking, jogging, swimming and bicycling that provide maximum cardiovascular benefits.
This document discusses the neuromuscular system, including the muscular system and its three main types of muscle - smooth, cardiac, and skeletal muscle. It describes the sliding filament theory of muscle contraction and explores muscle fiber recruitment. It also examines the roles of agonist, antagonist, and synergist muscles, and types of muscle contractions. Finally, it outlines principles of training such as overload, specificity, reversibility, progression, and adaptation.
All about ATP(Adenosine Tri-Phosphate), how body gets energy from it (molecular formula) and its working in sports. Moreover Creatine Phosphate and Re-synthesis of ATP also know as ATP-CP system.(ATP-PC) (ATP-PCr) or Anaerobic system.
This document provides information about the three major energy systems - ATP-PCr, glycolysis, and oxidative phosphorylation - that produce energy for muscle contraction during exercise. It describes the key components, chemical reactions, and substrates involved in each system. The ATP-PCr system provides energy for up to 10 seconds of high-intensity exercise. Glycolysis can fuel exercise from 10 seconds to a few minutes by breaking down glycogen or glucose. Aerobic metabolism via the citric acid cycle and electron transport chain can sustain energy production for hours by oxidizing carbohydrates, fats, and proteins, yielding the most ATP. The document also discusses how these three systems interact to meet energy demands depending on exercise intensity and duration.
Carbohydrate metabolism denotes the various biochemical processes responsible for the formation, breakdown and interconversion of carbohydrates in living organisms. The most important carbohydrate is glucose, a simple sugar (monosaccharide) that is metabolized by nearly all known organisms.
The document provides an overview of the three energy systems - ATP-PC, lactic acid, and aerobic. It defines each system, how they generate ATP, their advantages and disadvantages, and the types of exercises or durations they are used for. The ATP-PC system generates ATP very quickly but has a limited duration around 8-10 seconds. The lactic acid system can be used for intensities from 2-3 minutes and produces lactic acid. The aerobic system is the most efficient but slowest, generating ATP in the presence of oxygen for durations over 5 minutes.
The document discusses exercise physiology and how the body's systems respond to exercise. It describes exercise physiology as the study of how the human body functions during and after physical activity. Key body systems that are involved in exercise include the muscular, cardiovascular, and respiratory systems. During exercise, the cardiovascular system works to deliver more oxygen to active muscles via increased heart rate and blood flow. The respiratory system increases breathing rate and volume to take in more oxygen. Regular exercise leads to long-term adaptations like increased heart and lung capacity and stronger, more efficient muscles.
The document discusses the three main energy systems - ATP-PCr system, lactic acid system, and oxygen system - that provide energy for human movement. It explains that each system generates ATP at different rates and is optimized for different durations and intensities of exercise. The ATP-PCr system provides rapid energy but can only be used for up to 10 seconds of high-intensity activity. The lactic acid system takes over to fuel activities lasting 30-120 seconds. The oxygen system generates the most ATP but more slowly, to fuel endurance activities lasting minutes or hours. Proper nutrition, including carbohydrates, fats, proteins, vitamins and minerals, supports optimal function of these bioenergetic systems.
The document discusses how the body produces energy through different energy systems using carbohydrates, fats, and proteins. There are three main energy systems: 1) the phosphocreatine system which produces ATP very rapidly but has limited capacity, 2) the lactic acid system which produces ATP rapidly but leads to lactic acid buildup and fatigue, and 3) the aerobic system which produces ATP slowly through oxygen but has unlimited capacity. The type of energy system used depends on the intensity and duration of exercise.
1. Exercise increases energy expenditure through increased fuel consumption and oxygen usage, reflected by higher oxygen consumption and carbon dioxide production.
2. Increased oxygen delivery and carbon dioxide removal in tissues during exercise is achieved through cardiovascular and respiratory responses.
3. Types of exercise include static, which involves constant muscle tension, and dynamic, which involves rhythmic contraction and relaxation with changing muscle length. Aerobic exercise uses oxygen and fuels stored in muscles, while anaerobic exercise occurs without oxygen, using stored creatine phosphate and glycogen.
This document discusses the three energy systems - ATP-PC, anaerobic glycolysis, and aerobic - that produce ATP to enable muscle contractions. The ATP-PC and anaerobic glycolysis systems produce ATP quickly but in small amounts and can only be used for short durations before causing muscle fatigue. The aerobic system produces large amounts of ATP over long durations without causing fatigue but takes longer to produce ATP. The energy system used depends on the activity duration, intensity, fitness level, and recovery time between efforts.
Chronic training adaptations occur through long-term physiological changes in response to training loads. Aerobic training increases cardiovascular endurance through increased stroke volume, capillarization and mitochondria. Anaerobic training increases strength and power through increased contractile proteins, glycogen stores, and glycolytic enzymes. Both training types cause muscular hypertrophy but through different fiber recruitment patterns.
Muscle fatigue is caused by several factors and results in a decline in muscle force over time. The main causes are ion imbalance within muscles, nervous system fatigue, metabolic fatigue from lactic acid accumulation, and effects of exercise and aging. Symptoms include muscle aches, burning sensation, rapid breathing, nausea, and stomach pain. Lactic acid builds up when intense exercise exceeds oxygen availability, turning pyruvate into lactic acid instead of entering the Krebs cycle. This lactic acid accumulation lowers pH in muscles and contributes to the sensation of fatigue. Warm-ups and cool-downs help prepare and recover muscles to prevent injury and fatigue.
Muscle metabolism relies on ATP as the direct source of energy for contraction. ATP stores are quickly depleted after 4-6 seconds of contraction and must be regenerated through creatine phosphate interaction, anaerobic glycolysis, and aerobic respiration. When muscle activity reaches 70% of maximum, oxygen delivery is impaired and lactic acid builds up, diffusing into the bloodstream. Muscle fatigue occurs when ATP production cannot keep up with demand, leading to relative ATP deficit, contractures, and lactic acid accumulation.
The document provides an introduction to exercise physiology, defining key terms like physical activity, exercise, and physical fitness. It discusses the acute and chronic adaptations to exercise training and how exercise physiology principles can be applied to fields like cardiology, endocrinology, and physical therapy. The summary also outlines the history of exercise physiology laboratories and professional organizations in the field.
This document provides an overview of exercise physiology by discussing key topics such as the history of the field, energy systems, the nervous system, endocrine system, and skeletal muscle system. It traces the evolution of exercise physiology through the work of scientists from the 1700s to present day. It also explains how the body produces energy during exercise through three main pathways and how training can enhance these pathways.
This document discusses the characteristics and functions of skeletal muscle. It covers common muscle features like nervous control, contractibility, and elasticity. It also describes the different types of muscular contractions including isometric, isotonic, eccentric, and isokinetic. Additionally, it explains how musculoskeletal movements are possible through muscle origin and insertion points and the roles of agonist, antagonist, fixator, and synergist muscles. Finally, it discusses muscle fiber arrangement, types, gender differences, and how the muscle system responds to physical activity.
Effects of exercise on skeletal and muscular systemSandeepGautam72
In is you can see about--
The Effects of Exercise on the Skeletal System-
Improve Bone Density
Range of Movement in the Joints-
Range of Movement in the Joints-
Short term effects of exercise on skeletal system
Short term effects of exercise on skeletal system
And also
Effect of exercise on muscular system-
Short-Term Effects
Long-Term Effects
Hemoglobin is a protein in red blood cells that transports oxygen from the lungs to tissues throughout the body. It binds oxygen when levels are high, such as in the lungs, and releases it where levels are low, such as in muscles. This binding and releasing of oxygen is an example of chemical bonding. Hemoglobin allows oxygen transport even during strenuous activities like climbing Mount Everest where oxygen levels are low. The pH level also affects hemoglobin's ability to bind and release oxygen. Blood doping artificially increases red blood cell counts to enhance oxygen delivery to muscles during exercise.
This document discusses the psychological benefits of exercise. It outlines several common benefits such as improved mood, reduced stress, increased self-esteem, and improved body image. It also examines specific psychological variables like depression, anxiety, stress, and mood states. The literature shows that both aerobic and anaerobic exercise can positively impact these mental health factors. Overall, the document advocates that personal trainers promote both the physical and psychological advantages of exercise to their clients.
This document discusses the three main types of skeletal muscle fibers:
1) Slow oxidative fibers (SO) are dark red, contain many mitochondria and blood vessels, generate ATP through aerobic respiration, and contract slowly but resist fatigue well. They are suited for endurance activities like marathon running.
2) Fast oxidative-glycolytic fibers (FOG) are also dark red but generate ATP through both aerobic respiration and anaerobic glycolysis. They contract faster than SO fibers but more slowly than FG fibers. They are suited for activities like walking and sprinting.
3) Fast glycolytic fibers (FG) are white, rely primarily on anaerobic glycolysis to generate
This document discusses the effect of exercise on the cardiovascular system. It begins with defining the cardiovascular system and its key components like the heart, arteries, veins, blood, and pulmonary and circulatory systems. It then explains how exercise affects aspects of the cardiovascular system like heart size, plasma volume, stroke volume, heart rate, cardiac output, oxygen extraction, blood flow and distribution, and blood pressure. Finally, it provides examples of aerobic exercises like walking, jogging, swimming and bicycling that provide maximum cardiovascular benefits.
This document discusses the neuromuscular system, including the muscular system and its three main types of muscle - smooth, cardiac, and skeletal muscle. It describes the sliding filament theory of muscle contraction and explores muscle fiber recruitment. It also examines the roles of agonist, antagonist, and synergist muscles, and types of muscle contractions. Finally, it outlines principles of training such as overload, specificity, reversibility, progression, and adaptation.
All about ATP(Adenosine Tri-Phosphate), how body gets energy from it (molecular formula) and its working in sports. Moreover Creatine Phosphate and Re-synthesis of ATP also know as ATP-CP system.(ATP-PC) (ATP-PCr) or Anaerobic system.
This document provides information about the three major energy systems - ATP-PCr, glycolysis, and oxidative phosphorylation - that produce energy for muscle contraction during exercise. It describes the key components, chemical reactions, and substrates involved in each system. The ATP-PCr system provides energy for up to 10 seconds of high-intensity exercise. Glycolysis can fuel exercise from 10 seconds to a few minutes by breaking down glycogen or glucose. Aerobic metabolism via the citric acid cycle and electron transport chain can sustain energy production for hours by oxidizing carbohydrates, fats, and proteins, yielding the most ATP. The document also discusses how these three systems interact to meet energy demands depending on exercise intensity and duration.
Carbohydrate metabolism denotes the various biochemical processes responsible for the formation, breakdown and interconversion of carbohydrates in living organisms. The most important carbohydrate is glucose, a simple sugar (monosaccharide) that is metabolized by nearly all known organisms.
Glycolysis is the breakdown of glucose into pyruvate to produce energy in the form of ATP. It occurs in the cytosol of cells. The end products of glycolysis are pyruvate, which enters the mitochondria for aerobic respiration, or lactate, produced under anaerobic conditions. Glycolysis generates 2 ATP per glucose molecule during anaerobic conditions and up to 38 ATP during aerobic respiration through subsequent pathways. Key enzymes regulate glycolysis through allosteric and covalent modification mechanisms. Deficiencies in glycolytic enzymes can cause genetic disorders like pyruvate kinase deficiency which leads to hemolytic anemia.
1. The body uses three main energy systems - ATP-PCr, glycolysis, and oxidative phosphorylation - to break down carbohydrates, fats, and proteins into ATP for energy.
2. The ATP-PCr system provides energy for up to 15 seconds, glycolysis for up to 2 minutes, and oxidative phosphorylation can provide steady energy for hours by breaking down fuels in the mitochondria.
3. Carbohydrates yield about 32 ATP per molecule, while fats yield over 100 ATP, making fats a more efficient long-term fuel though slower to break down. Protein is rarely used as a fuel source.
This document discusses cellular respiration and the processes involved in breaking down glucose to generate energy in the form of ATP. It covers the key steps of glycolysis, which takes place in the cytoplasm, the Krebs cycle (also called the citric acid cycle), which occurs in the mitochondria, and the electron transport chain. The document outlines the learning objectives, provides an overview of cellular respiration, and describes in detail each step in breaking down glucose, including the generation of NADH and FADH2 to carry energy to the electron transport chain for oxidative phosphorylation to produce ATP.
This document provides an overview of cellular metabolism, including cellular respiration and photosynthesis. It discusses various topics such as metabolism, energy, endergonic and exergonic reactions, ATP, enzymes, cellular respiration, glycolysis, the Krebs cycle, the electron transport chain, and chemiosmosis. The key points covered are that cellular respiration converts glucose into ATP through glycolysis, the Krebs cycle, and the electron transport chain. Glycolysis produces 2 ATP per glucose and occurs in the cytoplasm, while the other stages occur in the mitochondria and produce much more ATP through oxidative phosphorylation as electrons are transferred through the electron transport chain.
Glycolysis is a central pathway for glucose catabolism that converts glucose into pyruvate through a series of 10 enzyme-catalyzed reactions. It occurs in most organisms and tissues as a source of energy. The first phase activates glucose through phosphorylation, while the second phase generates ATP and NADH through substrate-level phosphorylation and hydride transfer. Pyruvate produced can then undergo aerobic or anaerobic fates including fermentation to regenerate NAD+ under anaerobic conditions.
Chapter 14 - Glucose utilization and biosynthesis - BiochemistryAreej Abu Hanieh
Glycolysis is a central pathway for glucose catabolism that converts glucose into pyruvate through a series of 10 enzyme-catalyzed reactions. It occurs in most organisms and tissues as a source of energy. The first phase activates glucose through phosphorylation, while the second phase generates ATP and NADH through substrate-level phosphorylation and hydride transfer. Pyruvate produced can then undergo aerobic or anaerobic fates including fermentation to regenerate NAD+ under anaerobic conditions.
Metabolic Fate of Pyruvate and Cori cycle and Alanine cycle Cori & Alanine cy...Amany Elsayed
Metabolic Fate of Pyruvate and Cori cycle and Alanine cycle Cori & Alanine cycle and Lactate Dehydrogenase Deficiency (LDHA) and Malate aspartate shuttle (cycle) and Glycerol phosphate shuttle and Mitochondrial shuttle
The document discusses the aerobic system of energy production for exercise. It involves 3 main stages: 1) Glycolysis, 2) Krebs cycle, and 3) Electron transport chain. During these stages, glycogen and fats are broken down to produce ATP through oxidative phosphorylation. The aerobic system is efficient and can sustain low to moderate exercise for long periods due to high oxygen availability and energy yield.
The document discusses the aerobic system of energy production for exercise. It involves 3 main stages: 1) Glycolysis, 2) Krebs cycle, and 3) Electron transport chain. During these stages, glycogen and fats are broken down to produce ATP through oxidative phosphorylation. The aerobic system is efficient and can sustain low to moderate exercise for long periods due to high oxygen availability and energy yield.
Biochemistry lecture notes metabolism_glycolysis & pentose phosphate pathwayRengesh Balakrishnan
This document provides information on metabolic pathways and glycolysis. It discusses how metabolism involves enzyme-catalyzed reactions that make up metabolic pathways, converting precursors into products. Catabolic pathways break down molecules to release energy while anabolic pathways use this energy to build complex molecules. Glycolysis involves the breakdown of glucose into pyruvate, producing a small amount of ATP along with NADH. The fate of pyruvate depends on oxygen conditions, being oxidized to acetyl-CoA aerobically or reduced to lactate or ethanol anaerobically.
This document provides an overview of exercise physiology concepts related to energy storage and metabolism during exercise. It discusses:
- The primary energy systems (phosphocreatine, anaerobic and aerobic glycolysis, beta-oxidation) and the substrates and timescales associated with each.
- Where fuel in the form of carbohydrates, fats, and proteins are stored in the body and how much is available.
- The metabolic pathways that breakdown carbohydrates and fats to produce ATP aerobically and anaerobically.
- Gender differences in substrate utilization during exercise and how training can shift metabolism.
1) The document discusses glucose metabolism and its importance as the preferred energy source for most tissues. It describes the normal ranges for fasting and post-meal blood glucose levels.
2) Glucose is used through several pathways - the major pathways of glycolysis and the citric acid cycle produce energy, while minor pathways produce other biologically active substances. Glucose can also be stored as glycogen or triglycerides, or excreted in urine when levels are too high.
3) Glycolysis and the citric acid cycle are described in detail, including their regulation and importance for energy production. Glycolysis occurs in the cytoplasm and is the first step for complete oxidation of glucose. The cit
The document summarizes the three stages of catabolism:
1. Pyruvate is converted to acetyl-CoA in the mitochondria by the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex. This is the committed step to the citric acid cycle.
2. The pyruvate dehydrogenase complex contains three enzymes and requires five cofactors including thiamine pyrophosphate and Coenzyme A.
3. Acetyl-CoA then enters the citric acid cycle, which occurs in the mitochondrial matrix and fully oxidizes acetyl-CoA, producing carbon dioxide and reducing equivalents like NADH and FADH2.
1. The document discusses glucose metabolism and its importance as the preferred energy source for most tissues. It describes the major pathways of glucose oxidation including glycolysis and the citric acid cycle.
2. Glycolysis converts glucose to pyruvate, producing a small amount of energy. It is an important pathway that occurs in all cells. The citric acid cycle further oxidizes pyruvate and acetyl-CoA to carbon dioxide, producing more energy through ATP.
3. Hormones and enzymes regulate glycolysis, with insulin stimulating it and glucagon inhibiting it. Pyruvate occupies an important junction between metabolic pathways as it can enter the citric acid cycle or be used for other processes. Glucone
Bioenergetics is the study of energy transformation within living organisms. The human body converts chemical energy from nutrients like carbohydrates, fats, and proteins into ATP through three main energy systems. The ATP-PCr system produces ATP for the first 5 seconds of exercise. Anaerobic glycolysis produces ATP without oxygen for 30-45 seconds through the breakdown of glucose. The aerobic system continuously produces ATP through slow glycolysis, the Krebs cycle, electron transport chain, and beta oxidation of fats, providing energy for sustained activity lasting longer than 45 seconds.
The document summarizes bioenergetics and metabolism. It discusses:
1) Metabolism, including catabolism which breaks down molecules to generate energy, and anabolism which builds molecules. The citric acid cycle and oxidative phosphorylation are described as the main catabolic pathways.
2) Glycolysis and how it feeds into the citric acid cycle, producing pyruvate. Fatty acid and amino acid oxidation also feed into the citric acid cycle.
3) The citric acid cycle which oxidizes acetyl-CoA completely to carbon dioxide, producing ATP, NADH, FADH2, and GTP. The cycle provides precursors for other processes.
This document discusses cellular respiration and metabolism. It explains glycolysis, which converts glucose to pyruvic acid, generating a small amount of ATP. Aerobic respiration fully oxidizes pyruvic acid through the Krebs cycle and electron transport chain, producing much more ATP. The Krebs cycle generates electron carriers that fuel the electron transport chain, where energy released is used to pump protons and generate ATP through oxidative phosphorylation. Anaerobic respiration converts pyruvic acid to lactic acid via lactic acid fermentation, producing less ATP than aerobic respiration.
This document provides photos and descriptions of various static and dynamic stretching techniques. It includes over 20 static stretching exercises that focus on different muscle groups, such as the legs, back, shoulders, and hips. Additionally, it outlines several dynamic stretching movements, such as arm swings, lunges, and heel-to-toe walks, which gently move the joints through their range of motion.
This document summarizes two studies on aging research at Tufts University. The first study found that high-intensity strength training significantly increased muscle strength in nonagenarians (people in their 90s) living in a long-term care facility, with some participants showing functional improvements. The second study found that leg extensor power, a measure of muscle strength and speed, predicted performance on tasks like chair rising, stair climbing, and walking in very old adults, and identified gender differences and thresholds related to independence. Both studies demonstrated the feasibility and benefits of resistance training for frail elderly populations.
Theories of aging include psychological, sociological, and biological perspectives. Psychological theories focus on personal development and success, like Erikson's stages of psychosocial development. Sociological theories emphasize engagement through activities, relationships, and experiences. Biological theories propose that aging results from damage accumulation over time, such as from free radicals, genetic factors like telomere shortening, or gradual imbalance between systems. While no single theory explains all aspects of aging, maintaining overall wellness through nutrition, exercise, social engagement and calorie restriction may help optimize health and function in late life.
The document discusses guidelines for exercise during pregnancy. It recommends cardiorespiratory exercise 3-4 days per week at a moderate intensity for at least 15 minutes, increasing up to 30 minutes per day. Resistance training 2-3 days per week focusing on large muscle groups is also recommended. Exercise should be low impact and avoid activities in a supine position. Intensity should allow for conversation and progression should occur after the first trimester.
Principles of fitness assessment studentLeesah Mapa
1. Conduct a thorough medical evaluation and obtain physician clearance due to his high risk status.
2. Begin with a low-intensity walking program and slowly progress the duration over weeks to minimize risk.
3. Closely monitor Spencer's symptoms and vital signs during exercise for safety.
4. Reassess his risk profile regularly and adjust the program under medical supervision.
The document discusses the anatomy of the leg, ankle, and foot. It describes several muscles and their origins, insertions, actions, and locations, including the popliteus, plantaris, gastrocnemius, soleus, tibialis anterior, peroneus longus, peroneus brevis, tibialis posterior, flexor digitorum longus, extensor digitorum longus, and extensor hallucis longus muscles. It also briefly discusses shin splints and muscles involved in foot eversion.
The document discusses the thigh adductors and knee joint. It names five thigh adductors - pectineus, adductor brevis, adductor longus, adductor magnus, and gracilis - and provides details on their origins, insertions, locations and actions. It then reviews the bones and bony landmarks of the knee joint, its movements, supporting ligaments including the ACL and PCL, and surrounding musculature.
The document discusses the anatomy and biomechanics of the pelvis and hip. It describes muscles like the transverse abdominis, iliopsoas, and external hip rotators. It also covers common injuries to the pelvis like tendinitis, bursitis, and sciatica. The sciatic nerve is defined as the longest single nerve in the body. Total hip replacement surgery is briefly mentioned.
The document discusses the muscles involved in hip and knee flexion and extension. It provides details on the origin, insertion, action and how to strengthen key muscles like the gluteus maximus, quadriceps, and hamstrings. The two most powerful external rotators of the hip are identified as the piriformis and gemellus superior muscles. Stretching exercises are recommended for both the knee extensors and flexors.
This document discusses the muscles involved in ventilation and respiration. It describes the diaphragm and external intercostals as the primary muscles of resting ventilation that expand the thoracic cavity to drive air into the lungs. Expiration is a passive process when these muscles relax and the thoracic cavity recoils. Additional muscles assist inspiration during exercise, including the scalenes, sternocleidomastoid, trapezius, and serratus anterior to lift the ribs and clavicle. The abdominal muscles, internal intercostals, and relaxation of the diaphragm facilitate expiration during exercise.
The document describes the anatomy and movement of the pelvis and hip joint. It discusses the bones that make up the pelvis, including the ilium, ischium, pubis and sacrum. It then describes the major ligaments and joints of the pelvis and hip, including the sacroiliac, pubic symphysis and hip joints. It outlines the movements that occur at the pelvis and hip, such as flexion, extension, abduction and rotation. Key muscles that act on the pelvis and hip like the psoas major, iliacus and gluteus maximus are also identified.
This document discusses various topics related to the structure and function of the vertebral column and associated muscles. It describes the intervertebral discs, ribs, muscles of the back like the erector spinae, and cervical spine joints. It also lists common injuries such as strains, sprains, tendinitis, and herniated discs. Conditions affecting the spine like scoliosis, kyphosis, lordosis, and spinal stenosis are defined.
This document provides information about muscles of the shoulder girdle, back, abdomen, and vertebral column. It describes the origin, insertion, location, and movements of muscles like the trapezius, rhomboid major and minor, levator scapulae, erector spinae, rectus abdominis, external and internal obliques. It also discusses bony landmarks, curves of the vertebral column, cervical and lumbar joints, and layers of intrinsic back muscles.
This document provides information about muscles of the shoulder girdle, back, abdomen, and vertebral column. It describes the origin, insertion, location, and movements of muscles like the trapezius, rhomboid major and minor, levator scapulae, erector spinae, rectus abdominis, external and internal obliques. It also discusses bony landmarks, curves of the vertebral column, cervical and lumbar joints, and layers of intrinsic back muscles.
This document provides information about the shoulder and related kinesiology topics. It discusses the bones and joints of the shoulder, including the humerus, scapula, clavicle, glenohumeral joint, and shoulder girdle joints. The document outlines the major muscles involved in shoulder movement, organizing them by location and action. Plane movements of the shoulder are defined along with examples of prime mover muscles. Examples like the barbell press are provided to demonstrate muscle actions.
The document describes the bones, joints, muscles, and motions of the elbow, forearm, wrist, and hand. It notes that the elbow is a hinge joint that allows flexion and extension. The radioulnar joint allows rotation of the radius around the ulna during pronation and supination. The wrist is a condyloid joint that flexes, extends, abducts, and adducts. Key muscles that act on these areas are also outlined.
The document describes the bones and muscles of the upper limb, with a focus on the humerus, elbow, forearm, wrist, and hand. It details the bones that make up each region, including the humerus, radius, ulna, carpals, metacarpals, and phalanges. The major muscles that flex and extend the elbow, pronate and supinate the forearm, flex and extend the wrist, and flex and extend the fingers are identified. Key movements like elbow flexion/extension, forearm pronation/supination, wrist flexion/extension, and finger flexion/extension are also summarized.
This document contains definitions and descriptions of important concepts in structural kinesiology including:
- The three types of muscle contractions: isometric, isotonic, and isokinetic. Isotonic contractions can be both concentric and eccentric.
- The four properties of skeletal muscle: excitability, contractility, extensibility and elasticity. Elasticity allows muscles to return to their original length after contraction while plasticity results in a permanent change in length.
- The three types of synovial joints that allow varying degrees of movement: synarthrosis (no movement), amphiarthrosis (little movement) and diarthrosis (free movement).
- The structural components that make up skeletal muscle:
1. The document discusses planes of motion, axes of rotation, and the cardinal planes which are the three basic planes used to describe human movement.
2. It also covers muscle terminology including names based on appearance, location, function, and fiber arrangement of muscles.
3. The types of muscle contractions - isometric, concentric, and eccentric - and the roles of agonist, antagonist, synergist and other muscles are defined.
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These lecture slides, by Dr Sidra Arshad, offer a quick overview of the physiological basis of a normal electrocardiogram.
Learning objectives:
1. Define an electrocardiogram (ECG) and electrocardiography
2. Describe how dipoles generated by the heart produce the waveforms of the ECG
3. Describe the components of a normal electrocardiogram of a typical bipolar lead (limb II)
4. Differentiate between intervals and segments
5. Enlist some common indications for obtaining an ECG
6. Describe the flow of current around the heart during the cardiac cycle
7. Discuss the placement and polarity of the leads of electrocardiograph
8. Describe the normal electrocardiograms recorded from the limb leads and explain the physiological basis of the different records that are obtained
9. Define mean electrical vector (axis) of the heart and give the normal range
10. Define the mean QRS vector
11. Describe the axes of leads (hexagonal reference system)
12. Comprehend the vectorial analysis of the normal ECG
13. Determine the mean electrical axis of the ventricular QRS and appreciate the mean axis deviation
14. Explain the concepts of current of injury, J point, and their significance
Study Resources:
1. Chapter 11, Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, 14th edition
2. Chapter 9, Human Physiology - From Cells to Systems, Lauralee Sherwood, 9th edition
3. Chapter 29, Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology, 26th edition
4. Electrocardiogram, StatPearls - https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK549803/
5. ECG in Medical Practice by ABM Abdullah, 4th edition
6. Chapter 3, Cardiology Explained, https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK2214/
7. ECG Basics, http://www.nataliescasebook.com/tag/e-c-g-basics
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These lecture slides, by Dr Sidra Arshad, offer a simplified look into the mechanisms involved in the regulation of respiration:
Learning objectives:
1. Describe the organisation of respiratory center
2. Describe the nervous control of inspiration and respiratory rhythm
3. Describe the functions of the dorsal and respiratory groups of neurons
4. Describe the influences of the Pneumotaxic and Apneustic centers
5. Explain the role of Hering-Breur inflation reflex in regulation of inspiration
6. Explain the role of central chemoreceptors in regulation of respiration
7. Explain the role of peripheral chemoreceptors in regulation of respiration
8. Explain the regulation of respiration during exercise
9. Integrate the respiratory regulatory mechanisms
10. Describe the Cheyne-Stokes breathing
Study Resources:
1. Chapter 42, Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, 14th edition
2. Chapter 36, Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology, 26th edition
3. Chapter 13, Human Physiology by Lauralee Sherwood, 9th edition
2. Chapter Objectives
• Understand the terminology of bioenergetics and
metabolism related to exercise and training.
• Discuss the central role of ATP in muscular activity.
• Explain the basic energy systems present in human
skeletal muscle.
• Recognize the substrates used by each energy
system.
• Develop training programs that demonstrate an
understanding of bioenergetics and metabolism.
4. Key Terms
• bioenergetics: The flow of energy in a biological
system; the conversion of macronutrients into
biologically usable forms of energy.
• catabolism: The breakdown of large molecules into
smaller molecules, associated with the release of
energy.
• anabolism: The synthesis of larger molecules from
smaller molecules; can be accomplished using the
energy released from catabolic reactions.
(continued)
5. Key Terms (continued)
• exergonic reactions: Energy-releasing reactions that
are generally catabolic.
• endergonic reactions: Require energy and include
anabolic processes and the contraction of muscle.
• metabolism: The total of all the catabolic or exergonic
and anabolic or endergonic reactions in a biological
system.
• adenosine triphosphate (ATP): Allows the transfer of
energy from exergonic to endergonic reactions.
6. Chemical Structure
of an ATP Molecule
• Figure 2.1 (next slide)
– (a) The chemical structure of an ATP molecule
including adenosine (adenine + ribose), triphosphate
group, and locations of the high-energy chemical
bonds.
– (b) The hydrolysis of ATP breaks the terminal
phosphate bond, releases energy, and leaves ADP,
an inorganic phosphate (Pi), and a hydrogen ion (H+).
– (c) The hydrolysis of ADP breaks the terminal
phosphate bond, releases energy, and leaves AMP,
Pi, and H+.
8. Section Outline
• Biological Energy Systems
– Phosphagen System
• ATP Stores
• Control of the Phosphagen System
– Glycolysis
•
•
•
•
•
Glycolysis and the Formation of Lactate
Glycolysis Leading to the Krebs Cycle
Energy Yield of Glycolysis
Control of Glycolysis
Lactate Threshold and Onset of Blood Lactate
(continued)
9. Section Outline (continued)
• Biological Energy Systems
– The Oxidative (Aerobic) System
•
•
•
•
Glucose and Glycogen Oxidation
Fat Oxidation
Protein Oxidation
Control of the Oxidative (Aerobic) System
– Energy Production and Capacity
10. Biological Energy Systems
• Three basic energy systems exist in muscle
cells to replenish ATP:
– The phosphagen system
– Glycolysis
– The oxidative system
11. Key Point
• Energy stored in the chemical bonds of
adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is used to
power muscular activity. The replenish-ment
of ATP in human skeletal muscle is
accomplished by three basic energy
systems: (1) phosphagen, (2) glycolytic,
and (3) oxidative.
12. Biological Energy Systems
• Phosphagen System
– Provides ATP primarily for short-term, high-intensity
activities (e.g., resistance training and sprinting) and
is active at the start of all exercise regardless of
intensity
13. Biological Energy Systems
• Phosphagen System
– ATP Stores
• The body does not store enough ATP for exercise.
• Some ATP is needed for basic cellular function.
• The phosphagen system uses the creatine kinase
reaction to maintain the concentration of ATP.
• The phosphagen system replenishes ATP rapidly.
– Control of the Phosphagen System
• Law of mass action: The concentrations of reactants or
products (or both) in solution will drive the direction of the
reactions.
14. Biological Energy Systems
• Glycolysis
– The breakdown of carbohydrates—either glycogen
stored in the muscle or glucose delivered in the
blood—to resynthesize ATP
17. Biological Energy Systems
• Glycolysis
– The end result of glycolysis (pyruvate) may proceed
in one of two directions:
1) Pyruvate can be converted to lactate.
• ATP resynthesis occurs at a faster rate but is limited in
duration.
• This process is sometimes called anaerobic glycolysis (or
fast glycolysis).
(continued)
18. Biological Energy Systems
• Glycolysis
– The end result of glycolysis (pyruvate) may proceed
in one of two directions (continued):
2) Pyruvate can be shuttled into the mitochondria.
• When pyruvate is shuttled into the mitochondria to undergo
the Krebs cycle, the ATP resynthesis rate is slower, but it
can occur for a longer duration if the exercise intensity is
low enough.
• This process is often referred to as aerobic glycolysis (or
slow glycolysis).
19. Biological Energy Systems
• Glycolysis
– Glycolysis and the Formation of Lactate
• The formation of lactate from pyruvate is catalyzed by the
enzyme lactate dehydrogenase.
• The end result is not lactic acid.
• Lactate is not the cause of fatigue.
• Glucose + 2Pi + 2ADP → 2Lactate + 2ATP + H2O
20. Cori Cycle
• Figure 2.3 (next slide)
– Lactate can be transported in the blood to the liver,
where it is converted to glucose.
– This process is referred to as the Cori cycle.
22. Biological Energy Systems
• Glycolysis
– Glycolysis Leading to the Krebs Cycle
• Pyruvate that enters the mitochondria is converted to
acetyl-CoA.
• Acetyl-CoA can then enter the Krebs cycle.
• The NADH molecules enter the electron transport system,
where they can also be used to resynthesize ATP.
• Glucose + 2Pi + 2ADP + 2NAD+ → 2Pyruvate + 2ATP +
2NADH + 2H2O
23. Biological Energy Systems
• Glycolysis
– Energy Yield of Glycolysis
• Glycolysis from one molecule of blood glucose yields a net
of two ATP molecules.
• Glycolysis from muscle glycogen yields a net of three ATP
molecules.
24. Biological Energy Systems
• Glycolysis
– Control of Glycolysis
• Stimulated by high concentrations of ADP, Pi, and ammonia
and by a slight decrease in pH and AMP
• Inhibited by markedly lower pH, ATP, CP, citrate, and free
fatty acids
• Also affected by hexokinase, phosphofructokinase, and
pyruvate kinase
– Lactate Threshold and Onset of Blood Lactate
• Lactate threshold (LT) represents an increasing reliance on
anaerobic mechanisms.
• LT is often used as a marker of the anaerobic threshold.
25. Key Term
• lactate threshold (LT): The exercise intensity
or relative intensity at which blood lactate
begins an abrupt increase above the baseline
concentration.
26. Lactate Threshold (LT) and OBLA
• Figure 2.4 (next slide)
– Lactate threshold (LT) and onset of blood lactate
accumulation (OBLA)
28. Biological Energy Systems
• Glycolysis
– Lactate Threshold and Onset of Blood Lactate
• LT begins at 50% to 60% of maximal oxygen uptake
in untrained individuals.
• It begins at 70% to 80% in trained athletes.
• OBLA is a second increase in the rate of lactate
accumulation.
• It occurs at higher relative intensities of exercise.
• It occurs when the concentration of blood lactate reaches
4 mmol/L.
29. Biological Energy Systems
• The Oxidative (Aerobic) System
– Primary source of ATP at rest and during lowintensity activities
– Uses primarily carbohydrates and fats as substrates
30. Biological Energy Systems
• The Oxidative (Aerobic) System
– Glucose and Glycogen Oxidation
• Metabolism of blood glucose and muscle glycogen begins
with glycolysis and leads to the Krebs cycle. (Recall: If
oxygen is present in sufficient quantities, the end product
of glycolysis, pyruvate, is not converted to lactate but is
transported to the mitochondria, where it is taken up and
enters the Krebs cycle.)
• NADH and FADH2 molecules transport hydrogen atoms to
the electron transport chain, where ATP is produced from
ADP.
36. Biological Energy Systems
• The Oxidative (Aerobic) System
– Fat Oxidation
• Triglycerides stored in fat cells can be broken down by
hormone-sensitive lipase. This releases free fatty acids
from the fat cells into the blood, where they can circulate
and enter muscle fibers.
• Some free fatty acids come from intramuscular sources.
• Free fatty acids enter the mitochondria, are broken down,
and form acetyl-CoA and hydrogen protons.
– The acetyl-CoA enters the Krebs cycle.
– The hydrogen atoms are carried by NADH and FADH2 to the
electron transport chain.
38. Biological Energy Systems
• The Oxidative (Aerobic) System
– Protein Oxidation
• Protein is not a significant source of energy for most activities.
• Protein is broken down into amino acids, and the amino acids are
converted into glucose, pyruvate, or various Krebs cycle intermediates to produce ATP.
– Control of the Oxidative (Aerobic) System
• Isocitrate dehydrogenase is stimulated by ADP and inhibited by
ATP.
• The rate of the Krebs cycle is reduced if NAD+ and FAD2+ are not
available in sufficient quantities to accept hydrogen.
• The ETC is stimulated by ADP and inhibited by ATP.
39. Metabolism of Fat,
Carbohydrate, and Protein
• Figure 2.7 (next slide)
– The metabolism of fat and that of carbohydrate and
protein share some common pathways. Note that all
are reduced to acetyl-CoA and enter the Krebs
cycle.
41. Biological Energy Systems
• Energy Production and Capacity
– In general, there is an inverse relationship between
a given energy system’s maximum rate of ATP
production (i.e., ATP produced per unit of time) and
the total amount of ATP it is capable of producing
over a long period.
– As a result, the phosphagen energy system primarily
supplies ATP for high-intensity activities of short
duration, the glycolytic system for moderate- to highintensity activities of short to medium duration, and
the oxidative system for low-intensity activities of
long duration.
44. Key Point
• The extent to which each of the three energy
systems contributes to ATP production
depends primarily on the intensity of
muscular activity and secondarily on the
duration. At no time, during either exercise
or rest, does any single energy system
provide the complete supply of energy.
46. Substrate Depletion and Repletion
• Phosphagens
– Creatine phosphate can decrease markedly
(50-70%) during the first stage (5-30 seconds) of
high-intensity exercise and can be almost eliminated
as a result of very intense exercise to exhaustion.
– Postexercise phosphagen repletion can occur in a
relatively short period; complete resynthesis of ATP
appears to occur within 3 to 5 minutes, and
complete creatine phosphate resynthesis can occur
within 8 minutes.
47. Substrate Depletion and Repletion
• Glycogen
– The rate of glycogen depletion is related to exercise
intensity.
• At relative intensities of exercise above 60% of maximal
oxygen uptake, muscle glycogen becomes an increasingly
important energy substrate; the entire glycogen content of
some muscle cells can become depleted during exercise.
48. Substrate Depletion and Repletion
• Glycogen
– Repletion of muscle glycogen during recovery is
related to postexercise carbohydrate ingestion.
• Repletion appears to be optimal if 0.7 to 3.0 g of
carbohydrate per kg of body weight is ingested every
2 hours following exercise.
54. Key Term
• excess postexercise oxygen consumption
(EPOC): Oxygen uptake above resting values
used to restore the body to the preexercise
condition; also called postexercise oxygen
uptake, oxygen debt, or recovery O2.
55. High-Intensity, Non-Steady-State
Exercise Metabolism
• Figure 2.9 (next slide)
– 80% of maximum power output
.
– The required VO2 here is the oxygen uptake that
would be required to sustain the exercise if such an
uptake were possible to attain. Because it is not
possible, the oxygen deficit lasts for the duration of
the exercise.
– EPOC = excess postexercise oxygen consumption
.
– VO2max = maximal oxygen uptake
59. Metabolic Specificity of Training
• The use of appropriate exercise intensities
and rest intervals allows for the “selection”
of specific energy systems during training
and results in more efficient and productive
regimens for specific athletic events with
various metabolic demands.
60. Metabolic Specificity of Training
• Interval Training
– Interval training is a method that emphasizes
bioenergetic adaptations for a more efficient energy
transfer within the metabolic pathways by using
predetermined intervals of exercise and rest periods.
• Much more training can be accomplished at higher
intensities
• Difficult to establish definitive guidelines for choosing
specific work-to-rest ratios
62. Metabolic Specificity of Training
• Combination Training
– Combination training adds aerobic endurance
training to the training of anaerobic athletes in order
to enhance recovery (because recovery relies
primarily on aerobic mechanisms).
• May reduce anaerobic performance capabilities, particularly
high-strength, high-power performance
• Can reduce the gain in muscle girth, maximum strength,
and speed- and power-related performance
• May be counterproductive in most strength and power
sports