This document describes the anatomy of the heart, including:
1. The layers of the pericardium and the pericardial space containing pericardial fluid.
2. The coronary arteries originating from the aortic root including the left and right coronary arteries.
3. The conduction system including the sinoatrial node, atrioventricular node, bundle of His, and Purkinje fibers.
4. The four chambers of the heart - right and left atria and right and left ventricles - and valves between the chambers.
Coronary arteries and veins DR NIKUNJ .R .SHRKHADA (MBBS,MS GEN SURG DNB CTS SR)DR NIKUNJ SHEKHADA
This document summarizes the anatomy of the coronary arteries and veins. It describes the origins and branches of the right coronary artery and left coronary artery. The right coronary artery arises from the right sinus of the aorta and branches to supply the right atrium, right ventricle, and portions of the left ventricle. The left main coronary artery arises from the left sinus and branches into the left anterior descending artery and circumflex artery to supply the left ventricle and portions of the right ventricle. It also briefly describes the cardiac veins that drain deoxygenated blood from the heart muscle.
The right and left coronary arteries originate from the right and left sinuses of the aortic root. The right coronary artery supplies the right ventricle while the left coronary artery supplies the anterior portion of the ventricular septum and left ventricle. The left main coronary artery bifurcates into the left anterior descending artery and left circumflex artery. The left anterior descending artery supplies the majority of the left ventricle while the left circumflex artery supplies the left ventricle free wall. In approximately 70% of cases, the right coronary artery is the dominant artery supplying the posterior portions of the heart.
This case study describes the repair of total anomalous pulmonary venous connection (TAPVC) in a 50-day-old baby. TAPVC is a congenital heart defect where the pulmonary veins do not connect normally to the left atrium. The baby underwent surgery to reroute the pulmonary veins and close an atrial septal defect. In the postoperative period, the baby developed pulmonary arterial hypertension crisis, which was treated with reintubation, vasoactive drugs, and sildenafil infusion through a pulmonary artery catheter. The baby's condition gradually improved and was extubated again after 48 hours of ventilation support.
Hemodynamics of cardiac tamponade, constrictive pericarditis & restrictive ca...Dr. Rajesh Das
The document provides information on the anatomy, physiology, and pathophysiology of the pericardium and pericardial diseases. It discusses the layers of the pericardium, functions of restraining cardiac volume and lubricating the heart. In pathophysiology, it describes cardiac tamponade, constrictive pericarditis, and their differences from restrictive cardiomyopathy. Diagnostic tools including echocardiography and cardiac catheterization are outlined for evaluating pericardial diseases and distinguishing constrictive pericarditis from restrictive cardiomyopathy.
This document discusses Ebstein's anomaly, a rare congenital heart disease characterized by maldevelopment of the tricuspid valve. It provides details on:
1) The characteristic anatomical features including apical displacement of the tricuspid valve leaflets.
2) The clinical presentations which range from cyanosis and heart failure in neonates to minimal symptoms in adults.
3) The diagnostic tools used including echocardiogram, which is key for diagnosis.
4) The various surgical and palliative options for treatment depending on the severity of symptoms and age of presentation.
1. The document discusses the embryology of the great venous system, including the development of the cardinal veins, azygos system, and inferior vena cava.
2. During the fifth week of development, the major veins include the vitelline veins, umbilical veins, and cardinal veins. The cardinal veins drain the body and later form parts of the great veins.
3. Anomalies of the superior vena cava are described, including bilateral superior vena cavae with normal drainage, bilateral superior vena cavae with an unroofed coronary sinus, and absent right superior vena cava in visceroatrial situs solitus.
Echocardiography is a key tool for diagnosing and evaluating mitral stenosis (MS). It is essential to use an integrative approach when grading MS severity by combining Doppler, 2D imaging, and measurements, rather than relying on one alone. Echocardiography plays a major role in MS by confirming diagnosis, quantifying severity, analyzing consequences, and examining valve anatomy. Mitral valve planimetry directly measures valve area and is considered the reference standard, but additional measurements like pressure gradient and half-time are also useful. Echocardiography aids clinical decision making for patients with MS.
Coronary arteries and veins DR NIKUNJ .R .SHRKHADA (MBBS,MS GEN SURG DNB CTS SR)DR NIKUNJ SHEKHADA
This document summarizes the anatomy of the coronary arteries and veins. It describes the origins and branches of the right coronary artery and left coronary artery. The right coronary artery arises from the right sinus of the aorta and branches to supply the right atrium, right ventricle, and portions of the left ventricle. The left main coronary artery arises from the left sinus and branches into the left anterior descending artery and circumflex artery to supply the left ventricle and portions of the right ventricle. It also briefly describes the cardiac veins that drain deoxygenated blood from the heart muscle.
The right and left coronary arteries originate from the right and left sinuses of the aortic root. The right coronary artery supplies the right ventricle while the left coronary artery supplies the anterior portion of the ventricular septum and left ventricle. The left main coronary artery bifurcates into the left anterior descending artery and left circumflex artery. The left anterior descending artery supplies the majority of the left ventricle while the left circumflex artery supplies the left ventricle free wall. In approximately 70% of cases, the right coronary artery is the dominant artery supplying the posterior portions of the heart.
This case study describes the repair of total anomalous pulmonary venous connection (TAPVC) in a 50-day-old baby. TAPVC is a congenital heart defect where the pulmonary veins do not connect normally to the left atrium. The baby underwent surgery to reroute the pulmonary veins and close an atrial septal defect. In the postoperative period, the baby developed pulmonary arterial hypertension crisis, which was treated with reintubation, vasoactive drugs, and sildenafil infusion through a pulmonary artery catheter. The baby's condition gradually improved and was extubated again after 48 hours of ventilation support.
Hemodynamics of cardiac tamponade, constrictive pericarditis & restrictive ca...Dr. Rajesh Das
The document provides information on the anatomy, physiology, and pathophysiology of the pericardium and pericardial diseases. It discusses the layers of the pericardium, functions of restraining cardiac volume and lubricating the heart. In pathophysiology, it describes cardiac tamponade, constrictive pericarditis, and their differences from restrictive cardiomyopathy. Diagnostic tools including echocardiography and cardiac catheterization are outlined for evaluating pericardial diseases and distinguishing constrictive pericarditis from restrictive cardiomyopathy.
This document discusses Ebstein's anomaly, a rare congenital heart disease characterized by maldevelopment of the tricuspid valve. It provides details on:
1) The characteristic anatomical features including apical displacement of the tricuspid valve leaflets.
2) The clinical presentations which range from cyanosis and heart failure in neonates to minimal symptoms in adults.
3) The diagnostic tools used including echocardiogram, which is key for diagnosis.
4) The various surgical and palliative options for treatment depending on the severity of symptoms and age of presentation.
1. The document discusses the embryology of the great venous system, including the development of the cardinal veins, azygos system, and inferior vena cava.
2. During the fifth week of development, the major veins include the vitelline veins, umbilical veins, and cardinal veins. The cardinal veins drain the body and later form parts of the great veins.
3. Anomalies of the superior vena cava are described, including bilateral superior vena cavae with normal drainage, bilateral superior vena cavae with an unroofed coronary sinus, and absent right superior vena cava in visceroatrial situs solitus.
Echocardiography is a key tool for diagnosing and evaluating mitral stenosis (MS). It is essential to use an integrative approach when grading MS severity by combining Doppler, 2D imaging, and measurements, rather than relying on one alone. Echocardiography plays a major role in MS by confirming diagnosis, quantifying severity, analyzing consequences, and examining valve anatomy. Mitral valve planimetry directly measures valve area and is considered the reference standard, but additional measurements like pressure gradient and half-time are also useful. Echocardiography aids clinical decision making for patients with MS.
Various coronary physiological measurements can be made in the cardiac catheterization laboratory using sensor-tipped guidewires; they include the measurement of poststenotic absolute coronary flow reserve, the relative coronary flow reserve, and the pressure-derived fractional flow reserve of the myocardium. Ambiguity regarding abnormal microcirculation has been reduced or eliminated with measurements of relative coronary flow reserve and fractional flow reserve. The role of microvascular flow impairment can be separately determined with coronary flow velocity reserve measurements. In addition to lesion assessment before and after intervention, emerging applications of coronary physiology include the determination of physiological responses to new pharmacological agents, such as glycoprotein IIb/IIIa blockers, in patients with acute myocardial infarction. Measurements of coronary physiology in the catheterization laboratory provide objective data that complement angiography for clinical decision-making
The aortic root connects the left ventricle to the systemic circulation and consists of four distinct components: 1) the aortic valve leaflets, which provide the main sealing mechanism; 2) the sinuses of Valsalva, which host the coronary arteries; 3) the sinotubular junction, which separates the aortic root from the ascending aorta; and 4) the aortic annulus, which defines the separation of ventricular and arterial hemodynamics. Each component contributes to the optimal structure and function of the aortic root, including unidirectional blood flow and maintaining laminar flow under varying cardiac demands.
HCM – Presentation, Hemodynamics and InterventionAnkur Gupta
This document describes a case of a 50-year-old female presenting with symptoms of breathlessness, angina, and presyncope. Echocardiography revealed asymmetric septal hypertrophy and systolic anterior motion of the mitral valve, consistent with hypertrophic obstructive cardiomyopathy (HOCM). The document then provides detailed background information on HOCM, including definitions, pathophysiology, clinical presentation, diagnostic testing, and treatment options such as beta-blockers, septal ablation, and disqualification from competitive sports in severe cases.
FULL WEB Interactive version
http://www.scribd.com/doc/182401977/Physiologic-and-Pathophysiologic-Function-of-the-Heart-Cardiac-Cycle-Graphs-Curves-Loops-and-CO-Calculations
The document discusses the development of the aorta and pulmonary trunk from embryonic structures. It notes that the arterial system develops from the pharyngeal arch arteries and primitive aortas. Specifically, it outlines that the aortic sac, left horn of the aortic sac, left fourth arch artery, and unfused left dorsal aorta develop into parts of the aorta. The right and left sixth arch arteries develop into the pulmonary trunk and ductus arteriosus. It provides details on derivatives of the pharyngeal arches and common congenital anomalies that can occur.
The document discusses the arterial supply of the gastrointestinal tract. It is divided into three sections - the foregut, midgut, and hindgut - based on their embryonic origin. The foregut receives its blood supply from the celiac trunk, the midgut from the superior mesenteric artery, and the hindgut from the inferior mesenteric artery. Each section specifically outlines the segments of the GI tract included and their primary arterial source.
Hemodynamic Assessment by EchocardiographyNishant Tyagi
This document discusses hemodynamic assessment using echocardiography. It describes how Doppler shift is used to calculate blood flow velocities and pressure gradients. Methods for quantifying stroke volume at the LV outflow tract and mitral annulus are covered. The use of pulmonary to systemic blood flow ratio and calculation of pressure gradients across valves are explained. Pitfalls related to alignment and imaging quality are addressed. Pressure half-time for assessing mitral stenosis severity is summarized. The document also discusses indicators of increased left ventricular end-diastolic pressure.
This document summarizes ventricular septal defects (VSDs), the most common congenital heart defect. It describes the embryological development of the ventricular septum and the process of septation. It provides details on the classification of VSDs based on anatomy (perimembranous, outlet, inlet, muscular) and physiology (size and pulmonary vascular resistance). The document also discusses associations with other heart defects and imaging views used to identify VSDs.
Arterial supply of the Abdomen : Abdominal AortaBitew Mekonnen
The document discusses the arterial supply of the gastrointestinal tract. It divides the tract into the foregut, midgut, and hindgut, and summarizes the primary arterial branch supplying each segment. The foregut is supplied by the celiac trunk, the midgut by the superior mesenteric artery, and the hindgut by the inferior mesenteric artery. It also provides details on the branching patterns and territories of the celiac trunk, superior mesenteric artery, and related vessels.
This document discusses persistent truncus arteriosus, a congenital heart defect where a single arterial trunk arises from the heart to provide blood flow to the systemic, pulmonary, and coronary circulations. It describes the embryology, anatomy, classification, presentation, diagnosis, and treatment of the condition. Surgical repair aims to close the ventricular septal defect, commit the common trunk to the left ventricle, and reconstruct the right ventricular outflow tract. Outcomes have improved with early corrective surgery, though additional anomalies increase mortality risk.
This document discusses various methods for quantifying intracardiac shunts in patients with congenital heart lesions. It describes invasive oximetry and indicator dilution techniques as well as noninvasive Doppler echocardiography methods. For echocardiography, it outlines techniques for quantifying left-to-right shunts using pulmonary and aortic flow measurements, as well as a simplified method using diameter ratios. It also discusses limitations and sources of error for these quantification methods.
D-Transposition, also known as dextro-Transposition of the great arteries (d-TGA), is a congenital heart defect where the ventricles are connected to the wrong great arteries. Specifically, the aorta arises from the right ventricle while the pulmonary artery arises from the left ventricle. This causes two parallel circulations instead of the normal series circulation. The basic embryological defect is abnormal development of the conus, which prevents normal septal formation between the great arteries. Untreated d-TGA is fatal in infancy due to lack of oxygenated blood to the body. Clinical presentation depends on the degree of mixing between the circulations.
The conotruncus comprises collectively two myocardial subsegments, the conus and the truncus.
Conus is the myocardial segment between ventricle and semi lunar valves which gives rise to sub arterial coni.
Truncus is the fibrous segment between semi lunar valves and aortic sac which gives rise to great arteries.
This document discusses hemodynamic principles and various cardiac pressures measured in the circulatory system. It begins by explaining how electrical activity leads to mechanical functions that generate pressure waves. It then discusses how to measure and interpret pressures in different parts of the heart including the aorta, pulmonary artery, right and left ventricles, and right atrium. Factors that influence pressures and common abnormalities are provided. Diagrams of normal pressure waveforms are displayed. The document concludes by defining pulmonary and systemic vascular resistances.
This document summarizes the management of single ventricle physiology from birth through surgery. It identifies how infants with this condition present, including shock, cyanosis, or heart failure. Key aspects of pre-operative stabilization include identifying obstructions to pulmonary or systemic blood flow and whether the atrial septum is restrictive. Surgical options like the Norwood procedure are described which aim to balance circulations prior to a Fontan-type completion. Post-operative care focuses on monitoring oxygen delivery and adjusting pulmonary and systemic resistances through ventilation or drugs.
Coronary angiography remains the gold standard for detecting coronary artery disease. The technique was first performed in 1958 and is used to visualize the coronary arteries and assess for stenosis. It can determine treatment options and prognosis. Complications are rare but include vascular injury and contrast reactions. Proper angiographic views are important for evaluating different coronary artery segments.
Contrast echocardiography uses microbubble ultrasound contrast agents to improve image quality. These microbubbles remain in the intravascular space and allow for assessment of cardiac structure, function, and perfusion. Second generation contrast agents use an inert gas encapsulated by albumin or phospholipid shells. They interact with ultrasound by reflecting at fundamental frequencies and resonating to produce harmonic frequencies. Continuous infusion provides steady contrast levels needed for perfusion assessment. Contrast echocardiography is a non-invasive technique that improves evaluation of the heart.
This document discusses techniques for coronary angiography including cannulating coronary arteries and grafts, angiographic views, and interpreting angiograms. Key points include different techniques for cannulating the left and right coronary arteries as well as grafts like saphenous veins and internal mammary arteries. Common angiographic views are described for visualizing different coronary segments. The document also covers quantitatively and visually assessing coronary narrowings and diagnosing coronary spasm.
Coronary cameral fistula is a rare congenital heart disease where there is an abnormal connection between one or more coronary arteries and a heart chamber, vessel, or sinus. It can cause a left-to-right shunt and myocardial ischemia. Diagnosis is typically made using echocardiography, CT, MRI, or coronary angiography. Treatment involves closure of the fistula via percutaneous or surgical methods, with the approach depending on factors like fistula size, location, and whether it is causing symptoms or heart issues. Both techniques usually result in residual fistula in 20-30% of patients.
1. Coarctation of the aorta causes obstruction to left ventricular outflow, resulting in elevated systolic blood pressure and hypertension in the upper body. It can lead to left ventricular hypertrophy and heart failure.
2. Echocardiography is useful for visualizing the coarctation segment and assessing the severity based on peak systolic velocity and diastolic flow. Chest x-rays may show rib notching from collateral circulation in older children.
3. In neonates, features of right ventricular hypertrophy may be seen on ECG due to ductal-dependent lower body circulation. Over time, left ventricular hypertrophy patterns emerge on ECG in children and adults with coarct
ECG LOCALISATION OF CULPRIT ARTERY IN STEMIPraveen Nagula
The document discusses coronary artery anatomy and ECG localization of the culprit vessel during acute myocardial infarction. It describes the typical blood supply and branches of the right coronary artery, left main coronary artery, left anterior descending artery, and left circumflex artery. It then covers how the ECG can be used to localize whether the right coronary artery, left circumflex artery, or other vessels are responsible for an acute MI based on the leads showing ST elevation and depression. Factors such as the ratio of ST changes in different leads help indicate whether proximal or distal vessels are involved.
The document summarizes coronary artery anatomy. It describes the origins and branches of the right coronary artery and left coronary artery. The right coronary artery typically arises from the right coronary sinus and supplies the right ventricle. The left main coronary artery bifurcates into the left anterior descending artery and circumflex artery. It also discusses common anatomical variations such as anomalous origins, fistulas, and intrinsic abnormalities like stenosis.
Various coronary physiological measurements can be made in the cardiac catheterization laboratory using sensor-tipped guidewires; they include the measurement of poststenotic absolute coronary flow reserve, the relative coronary flow reserve, and the pressure-derived fractional flow reserve of the myocardium. Ambiguity regarding abnormal microcirculation has been reduced or eliminated with measurements of relative coronary flow reserve and fractional flow reserve. The role of microvascular flow impairment can be separately determined with coronary flow velocity reserve measurements. In addition to lesion assessment before and after intervention, emerging applications of coronary physiology include the determination of physiological responses to new pharmacological agents, such as glycoprotein IIb/IIIa blockers, in patients with acute myocardial infarction. Measurements of coronary physiology in the catheterization laboratory provide objective data that complement angiography for clinical decision-making
The aortic root connects the left ventricle to the systemic circulation and consists of four distinct components: 1) the aortic valve leaflets, which provide the main sealing mechanism; 2) the sinuses of Valsalva, which host the coronary arteries; 3) the sinotubular junction, which separates the aortic root from the ascending aorta; and 4) the aortic annulus, which defines the separation of ventricular and arterial hemodynamics. Each component contributes to the optimal structure and function of the aortic root, including unidirectional blood flow and maintaining laminar flow under varying cardiac demands.
HCM – Presentation, Hemodynamics and InterventionAnkur Gupta
This document describes a case of a 50-year-old female presenting with symptoms of breathlessness, angina, and presyncope. Echocardiography revealed asymmetric septal hypertrophy and systolic anterior motion of the mitral valve, consistent with hypertrophic obstructive cardiomyopathy (HOCM). The document then provides detailed background information on HOCM, including definitions, pathophysiology, clinical presentation, diagnostic testing, and treatment options such as beta-blockers, septal ablation, and disqualification from competitive sports in severe cases.
FULL WEB Interactive version
http://www.scribd.com/doc/182401977/Physiologic-and-Pathophysiologic-Function-of-the-Heart-Cardiac-Cycle-Graphs-Curves-Loops-and-CO-Calculations
The document discusses the development of the aorta and pulmonary trunk from embryonic structures. It notes that the arterial system develops from the pharyngeal arch arteries and primitive aortas. Specifically, it outlines that the aortic sac, left horn of the aortic sac, left fourth arch artery, and unfused left dorsal aorta develop into parts of the aorta. The right and left sixth arch arteries develop into the pulmonary trunk and ductus arteriosus. It provides details on derivatives of the pharyngeal arches and common congenital anomalies that can occur.
The document discusses the arterial supply of the gastrointestinal tract. It is divided into three sections - the foregut, midgut, and hindgut - based on their embryonic origin. The foregut receives its blood supply from the celiac trunk, the midgut from the superior mesenteric artery, and the hindgut from the inferior mesenteric artery. Each section specifically outlines the segments of the GI tract included and their primary arterial source.
Hemodynamic Assessment by EchocardiographyNishant Tyagi
This document discusses hemodynamic assessment using echocardiography. It describes how Doppler shift is used to calculate blood flow velocities and pressure gradients. Methods for quantifying stroke volume at the LV outflow tract and mitral annulus are covered. The use of pulmonary to systemic blood flow ratio and calculation of pressure gradients across valves are explained. Pitfalls related to alignment and imaging quality are addressed. Pressure half-time for assessing mitral stenosis severity is summarized. The document also discusses indicators of increased left ventricular end-diastolic pressure.
This document summarizes ventricular septal defects (VSDs), the most common congenital heart defect. It describes the embryological development of the ventricular septum and the process of septation. It provides details on the classification of VSDs based on anatomy (perimembranous, outlet, inlet, muscular) and physiology (size and pulmonary vascular resistance). The document also discusses associations with other heart defects and imaging views used to identify VSDs.
Arterial supply of the Abdomen : Abdominal AortaBitew Mekonnen
The document discusses the arterial supply of the gastrointestinal tract. It divides the tract into the foregut, midgut, and hindgut, and summarizes the primary arterial branch supplying each segment. The foregut is supplied by the celiac trunk, the midgut by the superior mesenteric artery, and the hindgut by the inferior mesenteric artery. It also provides details on the branching patterns and territories of the celiac trunk, superior mesenteric artery, and related vessels.
This document discusses persistent truncus arteriosus, a congenital heart defect where a single arterial trunk arises from the heart to provide blood flow to the systemic, pulmonary, and coronary circulations. It describes the embryology, anatomy, classification, presentation, diagnosis, and treatment of the condition. Surgical repair aims to close the ventricular septal defect, commit the common trunk to the left ventricle, and reconstruct the right ventricular outflow tract. Outcomes have improved with early corrective surgery, though additional anomalies increase mortality risk.
This document discusses various methods for quantifying intracardiac shunts in patients with congenital heart lesions. It describes invasive oximetry and indicator dilution techniques as well as noninvasive Doppler echocardiography methods. For echocardiography, it outlines techniques for quantifying left-to-right shunts using pulmonary and aortic flow measurements, as well as a simplified method using diameter ratios. It also discusses limitations and sources of error for these quantification methods.
D-Transposition, also known as dextro-Transposition of the great arteries (d-TGA), is a congenital heart defect where the ventricles are connected to the wrong great arteries. Specifically, the aorta arises from the right ventricle while the pulmonary artery arises from the left ventricle. This causes two parallel circulations instead of the normal series circulation. The basic embryological defect is abnormal development of the conus, which prevents normal septal formation between the great arteries. Untreated d-TGA is fatal in infancy due to lack of oxygenated blood to the body. Clinical presentation depends on the degree of mixing between the circulations.
The conotruncus comprises collectively two myocardial subsegments, the conus and the truncus.
Conus is the myocardial segment between ventricle and semi lunar valves which gives rise to sub arterial coni.
Truncus is the fibrous segment between semi lunar valves and aortic sac which gives rise to great arteries.
This document discusses hemodynamic principles and various cardiac pressures measured in the circulatory system. It begins by explaining how electrical activity leads to mechanical functions that generate pressure waves. It then discusses how to measure and interpret pressures in different parts of the heart including the aorta, pulmonary artery, right and left ventricles, and right atrium. Factors that influence pressures and common abnormalities are provided. Diagrams of normal pressure waveforms are displayed. The document concludes by defining pulmonary and systemic vascular resistances.
This document summarizes the management of single ventricle physiology from birth through surgery. It identifies how infants with this condition present, including shock, cyanosis, or heart failure. Key aspects of pre-operative stabilization include identifying obstructions to pulmonary or systemic blood flow and whether the atrial septum is restrictive. Surgical options like the Norwood procedure are described which aim to balance circulations prior to a Fontan-type completion. Post-operative care focuses on monitoring oxygen delivery and adjusting pulmonary and systemic resistances through ventilation or drugs.
Coronary angiography remains the gold standard for detecting coronary artery disease. The technique was first performed in 1958 and is used to visualize the coronary arteries and assess for stenosis. It can determine treatment options and prognosis. Complications are rare but include vascular injury and contrast reactions. Proper angiographic views are important for evaluating different coronary artery segments.
Contrast echocardiography uses microbubble ultrasound contrast agents to improve image quality. These microbubbles remain in the intravascular space and allow for assessment of cardiac structure, function, and perfusion. Second generation contrast agents use an inert gas encapsulated by albumin or phospholipid shells. They interact with ultrasound by reflecting at fundamental frequencies and resonating to produce harmonic frequencies. Continuous infusion provides steady contrast levels needed for perfusion assessment. Contrast echocardiography is a non-invasive technique that improves evaluation of the heart.
This document discusses techniques for coronary angiography including cannulating coronary arteries and grafts, angiographic views, and interpreting angiograms. Key points include different techniques for cannulating the left and right coronary arteries as well as grafts like saphenous veins and internal mammary arteries. Common angiographic views are described for visualizing different coronary segments. The document also covers quantitatively and visually assessing coronary narrowings and diagnosing coronary spasm.
Coronary cameral fistula is a rare congenital heart disease where there is an abnormal connection between one or more coronary arteries and a heart chamber, vessel, or sinus. It can cause a left-to-right shunt and myocardial ischemia. Diagnosis is typically made using echocardiography, CT, MRI, or coronary angiography. Treatment involves closure of the fistula via percutaneous or surgical methods, with the approach depending on factors like fistula size, location, and whether it is causing symptoms or heart issues. Both techniques usually result in residual fistula in 20-30% of patients.
1. Coarctation of the aorta causes obstruction to left ventricular outflow, resulting in elevated systolic blood pressure and hypertension in the upper body. It can lead to left ventricular hypertrophy and heart failure.
2. Echocardiography is useful for visualizing the coarctation segment and assessing the severity based on peak systolic velocity and diastolic flow. Chest x-rays may show rib notching from collateral circulation in older children.
3. In neonates, features of right ventricular hypertrophy may be seen on ECG due to ductal-dependent lower body circulation. Over time, left ventricular hypertrophy patterns emerge on ECG in children and adults with coarct
ECG LOCALISATION OF CULPRIT ARTERY IN STEMIPraveen Nagula
The document discusses coronary artery anatomy and ECG localization of the culprit vessel during acute myocardial infarction. It describes the typical blood supply and branches of the right coronary artery, left main coronary artery, left anterior descending artery, and left circumflex artery. It then covers how the ECG can be used to localize whether the right coronary artery, left circumflex artery, or other vessels are responsible for an acute MI based on the leads showing ST elevation and depression. Factors such as the ratio of ST changes in different leads help indicate whether proximal or distal vessels are involved.
The document summarizes coronary artery anatomy. It describes the origins and branches of the right coronary artery and left coronary artery. The right coronary artery typically arises from the right coronary sinus and supplies the right ventricle. The left main coronary artery bifurcates into the left anterior descending artery and circumflex artery. It also discusses common anatomical variations such as anomalous origins, fistulas, and intrinsic abnormalities like stenosis.
The document summarizes the anatomy of the coronary arteries and veins. It discusses the four main parts of the coronary artery system: the left main coronary artery, left anterior descending artery, left circumflex artery, and right coronary artery. It provides details on the branches and blood supply territories of each. The coronary venous system is also summarized, including the coronary sinus and anterior, great, middle, small cardiac veins. Specialized areas supplied like the SA node, AV node are highlighted. Coronary dominance and variations are also mentioned.
The document discusses the history, anatomy, angiographic views, variations, and clinical relevance of coronary arteries. It provides a detailed overview of the typical anatomy and branches of the left main, left anterior descending, left circumflex, and right coronary arteries. It also describes common anatomical variations and anomalies seen in coronary arteries and their clinical implications. Angiographic classification methods for different coronary artery segments are presented.
The coronary arteries develop from three elements: sinusoids, an in situ endothelial network, and coronary buds on the aortic sinuses. The right coronary artery arises from the right sinus and the left coronary artery arises from the left sinus. The left main coronary artery bifurcates into the left anterior descending artery and left circumflex artery. The LAD supplies the anterior walls and septum. The LCx supplies the lateral and posterior walls. There are typically variations in the number of branches but the main coronary arteries maintain consistent vascular territories.
Multi detector CT can be used to evaluate coronary artery disease. It allows visualization of coronary artery anatomy and detection of anomalies. The coronary arteries normally arise from the sinuses of Valsalva and have variable branching patterns. Anomalies can involve abnormal origins, courses, or terminations of the arteries. MDCT is useful for distinguishing these anomalies from normal variants and assessing their clinical significance.
1) MDCT provides detailed images of coronary artery anatomy and is useful for evaluating common coronary pathologies.
2) The coronary arteries normally arise from the sinuses of Valsalva and have variable branching patterns. MDCT helps distinguish benign variants from potentially dangerous anomalies.
3) Coronary artery anomalies can involve abnormal origins, courses, or terminations and in some cases may lead to ischemia or sudden cardiac death. MDCT is well-suited to characterize these anomalies.
The document provides information on the embryogenesis, anatomy, variations, and anomalies of the coronary arteries. It discusses how the coronary arteries develop from an initial subepicardial plexus that invades the myocardium. The two main coronary arteries, the left and right, originate from the aortic sinus and have distinct branches that supply different regions of the heart. There are various anatomical variations in the origins, courses and distributions of the coronary arteries between individuals. Coronary artery anomalies can also occur during development.
The document discusses the arterial blood supply and venous drainage of the heart. It notes that the heart receives its blood supply from two coronary arteries - the right and left coronary arteries. These arteries branch further to supply different regions of the heart. The venous drainage occurs primarily via the coronary sinus, which drains into the right atrium. A few small veins also drain directly into the right atrium. The document outlines the branches and territories supplied by the right and left coronary arteries in detail.
The document describes the anatomy and physiology of the heart. It discusses the location and size of the heart, its chambers including the right and left atria and ventricles, and major blood vessels. It explains the coronary circulation including the right and left coronary arteries, areas of distribution, collateral circulation, and coronary dominance. It also covers the layers of the heart wall, conduction system, valves, coronary venous drainage and lymphatics. Finally, it summarizes the regulation of coronary blood flow including autoregulation, perfusion pressure, vascular resistance, and neural and humoral control.
The document provides an overview of heart anatomy including:
1. It describes the general characteristics of the heart such as its location in the mediastinum behind the sternum, that it lies within a fibrous pericardial sac, and that it has four chambers and a three-layered wall.
2. It outlines the four chambers of the heart - right atrium, left atrium, right ventricle, and left ventricle - as well as the conduction system and cardiac valves.
3. It discusses the coronary arteries including the left main, left anterior descending, and left circumflex arteries, as well as the coronary veins that drain deoxygenated blood from the heart muscle
The document summarizes the anatomy and physiology of the heart and circulatory system. It describes the structure and function of the heart chambers and valves. It explains how blood flows through the heart in two separate circuits for pulmonary and systemic circulation. It also discusses the coronary arteries and blood supply to the heart muscle itself.
The document discusses the venous anatomy of the heart, including the coronary sinus and persistent left superior vena cava (LSVC). It begins with the embryological development of the venous system. It then describes the various tributaries that drain into the coronary sinus and provides an overview of the venous drainage patterns. It discusses surgical implications of anomalies such as LSVC connection variations, coronary sinus atresia, and partial unroofing of the coronary sinus.
The heart receives its blood supply from two coronary arteries - the right and left coronary arteries. The right coronary artery supplies the right atrium, right ventricle, parts of the left atrium and ventricles. The left coronary artery is larger and divides into the anterior interventricular and circumflex arteries. These arteries and their branches supply the remaining parts of the heart. The arteries anastomose to allow for blood flow if one gets blocked. Most venous blood from the heart drains into the coronary sinus, which empties into the right atrium.
This document discusses coronary artery anomalies (CAAs). It begins by reviewing the embryological development of the coronary arteries. It then describes normal coronary anatomy and various normal variants. The majority of the document discusses different types of CAAs, including anomalies of the coronary ostia, anomalies of origin such as originating from the opposite sinus of Valsalva or the pulmonary artery, and anomalies of termination. CAAs are an important cause of sudden cardiac death in young athletes. Certain anomalies, such as an inter-arterial course, are associated with higher risk.
The document describes the blood supply and conduction system of the heart. It discusses the right and left coronary arteries, which are the main arteries that supply blood to the heart. It details the branches and territories supplied by each artery. It also describes the conduction system of the heart, including the sinoatrial node, atrioventricular node, bundle of His, and Purkinje fibers. It provides an overview of how electrical impulses are conducted through the heart to trigger contractions.
The document summarizes the anatomy and physiology of the coronary circulation. It describes:
1) The coronary arteries originate from the aorta and branch to form the right and left coronary arteries which further divide to supply the myocardium.
2) The left main coronary artery divides into the left anterior descending artery and left circumflex artery. The right coronary artery supplies the right side of the heart.
3) Coronary blood flow is highest in diastole when the heart muscle is relaxed to perfuse the subendocardial layers of the left ventricle. Various neural and chemical factors regulate blood flow to meet myocardial demand.
This document discusses the anatomy of the coronary circulation as visualized through angiography. It begins by outlining the coronary arterial anatomy, including the typical origins and branches of the right coronary artery and left coronary artery. It then discusses variations that can occur in coronary anatomy and notes the coronary venous anatomy. It concludes by describing the angiographic views used to visualize the coronary arteries.
This document discusses the coronary circulation, which supplies blood to the heart muscle, and the fetal circulation. It defines these circulations and provides details on the major coronary arteries - the right and left coronary arteries.
The right coronary artery is smaller and supplies the right atrium, portions of both ventricles, and parts of the interventricular septum. The left coronary artery is larger and supplies the left atrium, most of the left ventricle, parts of the right ventricle, and portions of the interventricular septum. Blockages in these arteries can cause heart attacks. The document also discusses collateral circulation between the arteries that can open up if one gets blocked.
This document discusses the history and guidelines for coronary artery bypass grafting (CABG). It provides:
1) Key events and innovations in the development of CABG, including the first successful procedures in the USSR, US, and Bulgaria.
2) Indications for CABG based on the number and location of diseased vessels and patient characteristics, as outlined in European and US guidelines.
3) Considerations for conduit choice, preoperative evaluation, and risk stratification prior to CABG.
4) An overview of how CABG differs from percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) in treating both present and future coronary lesions due to the placement of bypass grafts in the mid coronary arteries.
Acute aortic syndrome (AAS) refers to life-threatening pathologies of the thoracic aorta including aortic dissection, penetrating aortic ulcer, intramural hematoma, and leaking aortic aneurysm. Management of AAS involves surgery for ascending aorta pathologies and medical management or potential intervention for descending aorta issues depending on complications. Investigation options include TEE, CTA, MRI, and aortography but have limitations. Surgical and endovascular options aim to prevent complications like rupture but have significant mortality and morbidity risks.
Surgery has a long history, with the earliest known surgeries dating back over 7,000 years to trepanation procedures in Ukraine. Significant developments include ancient Egyptian brain surgery, Sushruta's pioneering of plastic surgery techniques in India in 600 BC, and advances made by Greek physicians like Hippocrates and Galen. In medieval times, surgery declined but was practiced by barbers and monks. Key historical figures helped establish modern surgical principles like controlling bleeding (Pare), understanding anatomy (Vesalius), anesthesia (Morton), antisepsis (Lister), and advances in multiple surgical specialties in the late 19th/early 20th centuries. Major 20th century developments include antibiotics, trans
Transplantology ( Basic terms & common drug regimens )Hristo Rahman
This document provides an overview of transplant surgery principles and history. It discusses how in ancient times, limb replacement was performed. In the 1950s, the first successful kidney transplant occurred between identical twins without immunosuppression. In the following decades, drugs like azathioprine and cyclosporine were discovered that allowed transplantation of other organs by preventing rejection. The document also describes the types of graft rejection, principles of immunosuppression therapy, complications of infection and malignancy, and definitions relevant to transplantation.
Malignant tumors can be classified based on their cell of origin and include carcinomas, sarcomas, and germ cell tumors. They are characterized by uncontrolled growth, invasion of surrounding tissues, and spread through lymphatics or bloodstream. Diagnosis is confirmed through biopsy and histopathological examination showing features of malignancy. While some genetic and environmental factors are known to increase cancer risk, the exact causes remain unclear. Staging systems help determine prognosis and appropriate treatment.
This document provides information on benign tumors, including their definition, differences between benign and malignant tumors, and descriptions of specific benign tumor types. Some key points:
- Benign tumors are slow-growing and do not invade other structures or spread to other parts of the body, while malignant tumors are rapidly growing and can invade nearby tissues and spread via lymphatics or bloodstream.
- Common benign tumor types described include lipomas, fibromas, papillomas, neurofibromas, and pigmented nevi. Specific features and classifications of lipomas and neurofibromas are outlined.
- Treatment options for benign tumors typically involve surgical excision to address cosmetic concerns or prevent complications from
The document discusses tricuspid valve disease, including causes of tricuspid regurgitation and stenosis. It describes how tricuspid regurgitation and stenosis are quantified by echocardiography. Surgical options for tricuspid valve annular dilatation are presented, including bicuspidization/plication, De Vega annuloplasty, and ring annuloplasty techniques. Risks of tricuspid valve surgery include damaging structures located in the triangle of Koch.
1. Cardiopulmonary bypass (CPB) was first successfully used by John Gibbon in 1953 and has since revolutionized cardiac surgery by allowing temporary replacement of heart and lung function.
2. CPB involves cannulating major vessels to establish bypass between the cardiopulmonary bypass machine and the patient, allowing the heart to be isolated from circulation.
3. Myocardial protection techniques like cardioplegic arrest and hypothermia are used during CPB to protect the heart from ischemic damage while it is stopped.
This document discusses several types of cyanotic congenital heart disease, including tetralogy of Fallot, transposition of the great arteries, total anomalous pulmonary venous connection, and Eisenmenger syndrome. It provides details on the pathophysiology, clinical presentation, diagnostic workup, and surgical treatment options for each condition. The standard of care has shifted from palliative procedures to complete anatomical repairs performed earlier in life to improve long-term outcomes.
This document discusses congenital heart disease (CHD), which are abnormalities in heart structure present from birth. CHDs arise during gestation and are the most common birth defect. While many CHDs cause increased blood flow to the lungs, some cause obstruction of blood flow. CHDs are classified as cyanotic if they involve deoxygenated blood in the arteries, or acyanotic. Common acyanotic defects include patent ductus arteriosus, atrial septal defect, and ventricular septal defect. Tetralogy of Fallot is a common cyanotic defect involving a right-to-left shunt.
1. Coronary artery disease is caused by atherosclerosis developing in three stages, culminating in plaque rupture and thrombosis.
2. Risk factors for atherosclerosis and CAD include smoking, hyperlipidemia, hypertension, diabetes, male gender, increasing age, and family history.
3. Acute coronary syndromes include unstable angina, NSTEMI, and STEMI, differentiated by cardiac enzymes and ECG changes. High-risk patients with ongoing symptoms should receive urgent angiography and revascularization.
Aortic stenosis and aortic valve replasementHristo Rahman
This document discusses aortic stenosis and aortic valve replacement. It begins by describing the causes of aortic stenosis as either congenital or acquired. For treatment, it discusses the guidelines for aortic valve replacement and compares mechanical versus biological prosthetic valves. The key surgical approaches are also summarized, including conventional surgery, Ross procedure, homografts, and newer transcatheter aortic valve implantation procedures. Overall, the document provides an overview of aortic stenosis and the current options for surgical and non-surgical management.
The document discusses mitral regurgitation (MR), including its natural history, pathophysiology, classification, causes, symptoms, signs, quantification via echocardiography, and indications for mitral valve surgery. It notes that asymptomatic patients with MR can have a long latent period before symptoms develop. Severe MR is classified based on criteria such as jet area, regurgitant volume, and effective regurgitant orifice area. Etiologies include myxomatous degeneration, rheumatic fever, and ischemic cardiomyopathy. Evaluation involves assessing left atrial and ventricular size and function along with MR severity. Surgery is indicated for severe, symptomatic MR or asymptomatic patients with good ventricular function and a high likelihood of
This document discusses aneurysms and dissections of the thoracic aorta. It begins by describing the anatomical layers of the thoracic aorta and then defines different types of aneurysms including true aneurysms, false aneurysms, fusiform aneurysms, saccular aneurysms, and dissecting aneurysms. It discusses causes, symptoms, natural history, risk factors, and investigations for thoracic aortic aneurysms. It also describes specific conditions like Marfan syndrome, Ehlers-Danlos syndrome, and Loeys-Dietz syndrome that are associated with aortic aneurysms. The principles and indications for surgery to treat thoracic aortic aneurysms are outlined.
This document discusses mechanical circulatory support devices (MCSDs) and artificial hearts. It begins by explaining heart failure and its stages. It then describes various types of temporary and permanent MCSDs, including their goals, energy sources, blood flow characteristics, and implantation methods. Examples of specific MCSDs are provided like the IABP, ECMO, Impella, TandemHeart, HeartMate XVE, HeartMate II, HeartWare, Jarvik 2000, and total artificial hearts from SynCardia and Carmat. Major complications of MCSDs and artificial hearts discussed are bleeding, infection, and thrombosis.
This document provides information on congenital heart disease. It discusses various types of acyanotic heart defects including atrial septal defects (ASD), ventricular septal defects (VSD), patent ductus arteriosus (PDA), and coarctation of the aorta (CoA). For each condition, it describes the pathophysiology, clinical presentation, diagnostic evaluation, and treatment options including surgical repair. Common anatomical variations are defined for different subtypes of each condition.
This document discusses varicose veins and their treatment. It begins by describing the anatomy and physiology of the venous system, including the roles of superficial, perforator, and deep veins as well as venous valves and the venous pump. It then discusses varicose veins specifically, including risk factors, classifications, and complications. Clinical features of varicose veins are outlined. The pathophysiology of varicose veins involves valve incompetence and chronic venous hypertension. Investigative tests for varicose veins are described. Surgical and non-surgical treatment options are presented.
Cardiac surgery departments and providers face significant challenges in treating patients during the COVID-19 pandemic. Patients undergoing cardiac surgery are often older with pre-existing health conditions, putting them at high risk for severe COVID-19 infections before and after procedures. While emergency cardiac surgeries and interventions should continue following strict safety protocols, elective procedures may need to be postponed to avoid risks to patients and conserve critical care resources that may be needed to treat COVID-19 patients. Cardiac surgery teams also need to take precautions to avoid exposure given the risk of working with intubated COVID-19 patients. The long term impacts of the pandemic on cardiac surgery capabilities and the healthcare system remain uncertain.
- Video recording of this lecture in English language: https://youtu.be/Pt1nA32sdHQ
- Video recording of this lecture in Arabic language: https://youtu.be/uFdc9F0rlP0
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These lecture slides, by Dr Sidra Arshad, offer a simplified look into the mechanisms involved in the regulation of respiration:
Learning objectives:
1. Describe the organisation of respiratory center
2. Describe the nervous control of inspiration and respiratory rhythm
3. Describe the functions of the dorsal and respiratory groups of neurons
4. Describe the influences of the Pneumotaxic and Apneustic centers
5. Explain the role of Hering-Breur inflation reflex in regulation of inspiration
6. Explain the role of central chemoreceptors in regulation of respiration
7. Explain the role of peripheral chemoreceptors in regulation of respiration
8. Explain the regulation of respiration during exercise
9. Integrate the respiratory regulatory mechanisms
10. Describe the Cheyne-Stokes breathing
Study Resources:
1. Chapter 42, Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, 14th edition
2. Chapter 36, Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology, 26th edition
3. Chapter 13, Human Physiology by Lauralee Sherwood, 9th edition
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2. PERICARDIUM
The pericardium consists of two
layers:
1.The fibrous pericardial layer;
2.The serous pericardial layer that is
subdivided into two other layers:
2.1. Visceral pericardium that is tightly
attached to the epicardium;
2.2. Parietal pericardium densely
adherent to the fibrous pericardial layer.
The serous pericardial layers are
covered with mesenchymal cells that
secrete and resorb pericardial fluid.
Approximately 5-10 ml. of pericardial
fluid is present in the pericardial space
(between the visceral and parietal
pericardium).
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
1. Pericardial space
2. Fibrous pericardium
3. Parietal serous pericardium
4. Visceral serous pericardium
5. Myocardium
6. Endocardium
3. PERICARDIAL SINUSES
• 1. Sinus obliquus
• - Located behind the left
atrium, between the four
pulmonary veins and medially
from the inferior vena cava
(IVC).
• 2. Sinus transversus
• - Located behind the
ascending aorta and the
pulmonary trunk, but above
the superior vena cava (SVC)
and the left atrial appendage.
6. CORONARY
ARTERIESThe arterial coronary vascular system
originates from the aortic root.
It includes the left and right
coronary arteries (LCA and RCA),
as well as their individual/proprietary
branches.
The first branches of the aorta are
the coronary arteries themselves.
The left coronary artery (LCA)
originates from the ostium in the left
coronary sinus of Valsalva in the
aortic root as left main stem or left
main coronary artery (LMCA) which
divides early into: left anterior
descending (LAD), also known as
anterior interventricular artery; and
into circumflex artery (LCx- Left
circumflex artery / branch.
7. CORONARY
ARTERIES
The right coronary artery
(RCA) originates from the right
coronary sinus of Valsalva in the
aortic root, and usually ends up
as posterior descending artery
(PDA), also known as a
posterior interventricular artery,
and posterior left ventricular
artery.
PDA
8. LMCA
Left main coronary artery
- Left main coronary artery (LMCA) originates from the
ostium in the left coronary sinus of Valsalva in the aortic
root.
- LMCA courses in anterior and inferior direction between
the left atrial appendage and the pulmonary trunk.
- LMCA then divides into two major arteries that have
approximately equal diameter: the left anterior descending
artery (LAD) and the circumflex artery (LCx).
- There are usually no branches before the bifurcation of the
left main coronary artery.
9. LMCA
In some patients, the left main
coronary artery (LMCA) instead of
ending normally with bifurcation, ends
with trifurcation in which, in addition
to the typical two arterial branches -
the left anterior descending artery
(LAD) and the circumflex artery (LCx),
there is a third branch - an
intermediate coronary artery / branch
(RIM - ramus intermedius).
The left main coronary artery (LMCA)
is usually 10-40 mm. in length, but in
some patients it may be absent as the
left anterior descending artery (LAD)
and the circumflex artery (LCx)
originate from separate ostia, located
in the sinuses of Valsalva in the aortic
root.
11. LAD
Left anterior descending
The left anterior descending coronary
artery (LAD) courses forward and
inferiorly.
It is located in the anterior interventricular
groove and courses towards the cardiac
apex.
Usually, the left anterior descending
coronary artery (LAD) continues around
the apex of the heart and thus provides
blood supply to a part of the posterior
interventricular groove, and rarely even
terminates as the posterior descending
artery (PDA).
In 4% of patients, the left anterior
descending coronary artery (LAD)
proximally divides and continues as two
parallel-sized coronary vessels situated in
the anterior interventricular groove.
12. LAD
The main branches of the LAD include:
1.Diagonal arteries (RDg - rami diagonales):
There are usually 2-6 in number that originate along the
course of the left anterior descending artery. The
diagonal arteries provide blood supply to the frontal left
surface of the left ventricle;
2.Septal perforators: Usually 3-5 in number. They
branch perpendicularly from the left anterior
descending coronary artery (LAD) and provide the
blood supply to the anterior two-thirds of the
interventricular septum. The first septal perforator
artery is the largest in diameter of the lumen and
courses perpendicularly towards the medial papillary
muscle of the tricuspid valve. The first septal perforator
artery is at risk during the Ross procedure as it lies
immediately underneath the right ventricular outflow
tract (RVOT) and the semilunar pulmonary valve.
3.Right ventricular (RV) branches. They provide
blood supply towards the anterior surface of the right
ventricle (RV) but they are sometimes absent.
13. LAD
The LAD is divided into:
1.Proximal segment (LADp):
Proximal 1/3, which starts from the
bifurcation / trifurcation of the left main
coronary artery, and ends at the level
of origin of the first septal perforator
artery.
2.Medial segment (LADm): Middle
1/3, starting from the first septal
perforator artery and ending at the
level of origin of the last diagonal
artery;
3.Distal segment (LADd): Distal
1/3, which starts from the last diagonal
branch and ends with the termination
of the artery.
14. LCx
Left circumflex artery
The circumflex coronary artery
(LCx) courses along the left
atrioventricular groove and in
85-90% of the patients
terminates before reaching the
posterior interventricular
groove.
In 10-15% of patients, the
circumflex coronary artery (LCx)
continues as a posterior
descending artery (PDA).
15. LCx
The main branches of the circumflex coronary artery
(LCx) are:
1.Obtuse marginal arteries (OM): They provide the blood supply
towards the lateral aspect of the left ventricular wall, and the
anterolateral papillary muscle (ALPM) of the mitral valve;
2.Branches providing blood supply to the left atrium (LA);
3.Sino-atrial nodal artery (SANA): in 45% of the patients;
4.Atrioventricular nodal artery (AVNA): in 10-15% of the
patients;
5.Posterior descending artery (PDA): in 10-15% of the
patients
16. RCA
Right coronary artery
The right coronary artery (RCA) courses forward and laterally
from its origin - the ostium in the right coronary sinus of
Valsalva.
It runs down the right atrioventricular groove and then
reaches the acute margin upon the surface of the right
ventricle.
The right coronary artery (RCA) curves around the inferior
diaphragmatic surface of the heart and, after it has branched
into a posterior descending artery (PDA), it continues and
terminates as the posterior left ventricular artery.
17. RCA
The main branches of the right
coronary artery (RCA) are:
1.Sino-atrial nodal artery (SANA): (in 55%
of patients);
2.Infundibular (conal) branch that courses
anteriorly and over the infundibular
segment of the right ventricle;
3.Acute marginal branches supplying the
acute margin of the right ventricle (RV);
4.Anterior right ventricular branches
supplying the anterior free wall of the
right ventricle (RV);
5.Atrioventricular nodal artery (AVNA):in
85-90% of the patients;
6.Posterior descending artery (PDA): in
85-95% of the patients. It runs in the
posterior interventricular groove and
gives off perpendicularly emerging septal
perforator arteries which provide the
blood supply to the posterior 1/3 of the
interventricular septum;
7.Posterior left ventricular artery: It
provides the blood supply to the posterior
surface of the left ventricle.
18. DOMINANCE OF THE CORONARY
ARTERY CIRCULATION SYSTEM
The dominance refers to the artery which the posterior descending
artery (PDA) originates from, and not the arterial vessel that provides
the blood supply to the greater absolute myocardial muscle mass.
Dominance of the right coronary artery system (right dominant type)
is observed and found in 80-85% of the patients, whereas the left
dominant type - in the rest 10-15%.
A balanced type of dominance or co-dominence is found in
approximately 5% of the patients.
Left dominant type of coronary circulation is more common in male
and in patients with congenital bicuspid aortic valve (BAV).
19. DOMINANCE OF THE CORONARY
ARTERY CIRCULATION SYSTEM
• 1. RIGHT DOMINANT TYPE: 80 - 85% ( RCA—>PD ).
• 2. LEFT DOMINANT TYPE: 10 - 15% ( LCx—>PD ).
• 3. BALANCED TYPE: 5%
20. CORONARY DRAINAGE
(VENOUS) SYSTEM
The majority of the coronary veins
drain via the coronary sinus into
the right atrium (RA).
The coronary sinus (CS) is a direct
continuation of the great cardiac
vein (vena cardiaca magna), and
the change is denoted by the
valve of Vieussens and entry of
the oblique vein of the left atrium
(Marshall vein).
Several Thebesian veins and
larger anterior veins drain directly
into the right atrium (RA) and thus
they bypass the coronary sinus
(CS).
21. CONDUCTION SYSTEM OF
THE HEART
The conduction system of
the human heart consists
of:
1.Sino-atrial node (SAN);
2.Anterior, middle and
posterior internodal
tracts in the right atrium
(RA) as well as
Bachmann’s bundle in
the left atrium (LA);
3.Atrioventricular node
(AVN);
22. CONDUCTION SYSTEM OF
THE HEART
1.Bundle of His that
penetrates and
passes through the
central fibrous body
to reach the
membranous
septum to lie on the
crest of the
muscular ventricular
septum underneath
the commissure
between the right
and the non-
coronary cusp of the
aortic valve;
23. CONDUCTION SYSTEM OF
THE HEART
1.Bundle branches:
1.1 LBB-left bundle branch, which is divided into anterior and
posterior fascicles. The latter are running sub-endocardially
down the septal surface of the left ventricle to the cardiac apex.
1.2 Right bundle branch (RBB), which runs on the right side
of the interventricular septum in the direction towards the base
the medial papillary muscle of the tricuspid valve. By entering
the papillary muscle, mentioned above, the right bundle branch
courses towards the body of the septo-marginal trabecula and
crosses the cavity of the right ventricle through the moderator
band.
2. Purkinje's fibers.
24. SAN
Sinoatrial node
The sino-atrial node is a sub-epicardial
structure and has either elliptical or horse-
shoe shape.
It is located just lateral to the junction of the
superior vena cava (SVC), and the roof of the
right atrium (RA) at the superior end of the
terminal groove (sulcus terminalis).
The sino-atrial nodal artery (SANA) originates
from the RCA in 55% of patients and the
circumflex coronary artery in 45% of patients.
The sino-atrial nodal artery passes in front of
the junction between the superior vena cava
and the roof of the right atrium in about 60%
of the patients
Behind the junction in 33%
Around the junction in 7%.
26. AVN
Atrioventricular node
The atrioventricular
node (AVN) is located in
the triangle of Koch.
The boundaries of
Koch’s triangle include:
1.The tendon of Todaro;
2.The hinge of the
septal leaflet of the
tricuspid valve to the
fibrous ring;
3.The superior margin
of the coronary sinus
(CS).
27. AVN
The membraneous septum
lies just superior to the
triangle of Koch and is where
the bundle of His penetrates
to enter the muscular septum.
The atrioventricular nodal
artery (AVNA) is the artery
providing the blood supply to
the atrioventricular node
(AVN).
It originates from the right
coronary artery (RCA) in
approximately 85-90% of the
patients with the remaining
10-15% originating from the
circumflex coronary artery
(LCx).
28. CARDIAC CHAMBERS
• ATRIA:
• 1. RIGHT ( RA );
• 2. LEFT ( LA ).
• VENTRICLES:
• 1. RIGHT ( RV);
• 2. LEFT ( LV ).
TRICUSPID VALVE
COMPLEX
Митрален клапен
комплекс
29. RIGHT ATRIUM
The right atrium (RA) consists of three major components:
1.RAA-right atrial appendage;
2.Venous component;
3.Vestibulum.
The right atrial appendage (RAA) has a broad base and a dull tip.
The venous component is confined between the crista terminalis, and
the sulcus interatrialis, which the two venae cavae (SVC and IVC) drain
in.
The vestibulum has smooth walls and ends up with the tricuspid valve.
The presence of parallel pectinati muscles in the right atrial appendage
gives it a trabecular appearance.
30. RIGHT ATRIUM
Crista terminalis separates the trabeculated from the non-
trabeculated portion of the right atrium (RA). At the crista
terminalis, on the outer surface, refers the sulcus terminalis.
At the level of junction of the inferior vena cava (IVC) with the
venous component of the right atrium (RA), a thin Eustachian
valve is present.
The coronary sinus (CS) drains into the inferior portion of the
right atrium.
At the level of opening of the coronary sinus, another thin,
termed Thebesian, valve is also present.
31. RIGHT ATRIUM
The tendon of Todaro
- is a fibrosis structure
that is formed by the
convergent
protuberance of both
Eustachian, and
Thebesian valves.
The triangle of Koch
- is confined between the
septal cusp of the
tricuspid valve, the
coronary sinus, and the
tendon of Todaro.
a. crista terminalis
b. fossa ovalis
c. coronary sinus
d. Thebesian valve
e. Eustachian valve
f. Tendon of Todaro
g. AVN
h. Bundle of His
i. septum atrioventricularis
32. INTERATRIAL SEPTUM
Fossa ovalis is the only contact between
both atria - left and right atrium.
The fossa ovalis is covered by limbus in its
superior, anterior, and posterior marginal
areas.
The superior margin of the limbus is an
invagination of the atrial wall, caused by
the right pulmonary veins. The anterior
margin of the limbus is an atrial wall
invagination, caused by the aortic root.
Septum secundum is located above the
fossa ovalis and is a direct extension of
the crista terminalis.
The sinus septum is located below the
fossa ovalis and separates the ostia of the
inferior vena cava (IVC), and the coronary
sinus.
Septum atrioventricularis is located in
the area of the coronary sinus and the site
where the wall of the right atrium contacts
the left ventricle.
37. ПОДКЛАПЕН АПАРАТ
• Chordae tendineae
• Свързват клапните платна с папиларните мускули
• 1. Базални:
• - захващат се за основата на клапните платна
• 2. Интермедиерни ( вторични ):
• - захващат се по долната ( камерната ) повърхност към
средната част на платната
• 3. Маргинални:
• - захващат се за свободния ръб на клапните платна
38. SUBVALVULAR
APPARATUS
• Chordae tendineae
• Attach the valve cusps to the papillary
muscles
• 3 types:
• - 1. Basal - attach to the base of the
valve cusp;
• - 2. Intermediary ( secondary ) -
attach to the midportion onto the
ventricular surface of the valve cusp;
• - 3. Marginal ( primary ) - to the free
margin (co-apting) of the valve cusp
39. SUBVALVULAR
APPARATUS
• Papillary muscles
• 1. Anterior papillary
muscle ( largest )
• 2. Posterior papillary
muscle ( smallest )
• 3. Septal group of
papillary muscles
( Muscle of Lancisi )
40. RIGHT VENTRICLE
• The 3 papillary muscles are situated in the
RV, which consists of the following 3 major
components:
• 1. INLET PORTION:
• - around tricuspid valve complex;
• 2. APICAL TRABECULAR PORTION:
• - expands towards the cardiac apex and has
thin walls;
• 3. OUTLET PORTION / RVOT -
right ventricular outflow tract
• - A.K.A, “infundibulum”;
• - supports the pulmonic valve
• - entirely muscular tissue
41. RIGHT VENTRICLE
The muscular elements, involved in the
formation and composition of the outlet of
the right ventricle (RVOT) are different from
those, involved in the composition and
configuration of the left ventricular outflow
tract (LVOT).
Crista supraventricularis (parietal band)
is a muscular protuberance separating the
tricuspid from the pulmonary valve
complex.The right coronary artery (RCA)
courses over the crista supraventricularis.
Trabecula septomarginalis (septal band)
is a prominent muscle bundle that in its
upper segment divides itself into anterior
and posterior branches, whereas with its
lower segment reaches the heart's apex.
- The anterior branch of the trabecula
septomarginalis goes up and participates in
the pulmonary valve support apparatus.
- The posterior branch is dorsal and gives
rise to the medial papillary muscle.
- The moderator band and the anterior
papillary muscle of the tricuspid valve
originate from the lower segment of the
trabecula septomarginalis.
42. PULMONIC VALVE
The pulmonary valve is a
semilunar type valve and in
concordant ventriculo-arterial
connection, it is situated
between the right ventricle (RV)
and the pulmonary trunk.
The pulmonary valve consists of
three semilunar leaflets/cusps:
1.Right cusp;
2.Left cusp;
3.Anterior cusp.
The competency of the
pulmonary valve is maintained
by similar to the aortic valve
structures.
43. LEFT ATRIUM
The left atrium (LA) consists of the following three
major components, analogical to those of the
right atrium (RA):
1. LAA - left atrial appendage;
2. Venous component: It contains 2 pairs of
pulmonary veins: superior and inferior right
pulmonary veins - (RSPV, RIPV) as well as
superior and inferior left pulmonary veins -
(LSPV, LIPV);
3. Vestibulum.
The left atrial appendage (LAA), compared to the
right, is narrow and long.
There are four morphological types of the left
atrial appendage:
1.“Cactus";
2."Chicken wing”;
3.“Windsock”;
4.“Cauliflower".
The walls of the left atrium (LA), compared to the
walls of the RA, are smooth.
45. MITRAL FIBROUS
ANNULUS / RING
• 1. Shape varies during the cardiac cycle
( systole - kidney shape; diastole - circular shape
).
• 2. Part of the “fibrous skeleton” of the heart.
• - 2,1. Anterolateral trigone;
• - 2,2. Posteromedial trigone
• 3. Important anatomical markers in close
proximity:
• - 3,1. Circumflex coronary artery ( LCx );
• - 3,2. Venous coronary sinus ( CS );
• - 3,3. Bundle of His;
• - 3,4. Non-coronary and left coronary cusp of the
aortic valve
46. MITRAL VALVE
LEAFLETSThe mitral valve is the atrioventricular valve, situated
between the left atrium (LA), and the left ventricle
(LV), in concordant atrioventricular connection, and
consists of two leaflets:
1.Anterior mitral leaflet (AML);
2.Posterior (mural) mitral leaflet (PML)
The anterior (AML) and posterior (PML) leaflets are
subdivided by clefts into scallops, known as
A1,A2,A3,P1,P2, and P3, respectively.
The mitral valve native, fibrous ring (annulus) has the
shape of a kidney.
The posterior mitral valve annulus takes up 2/3 of the
circumference, whereas the anterior mitral valve
annulus takes up the remaining 1/3 of the whole
circumference of the fibrous mitral ring.
The AML takes up approximately 2/3 of the cross-
sectional area of the mitral valve orifice, whereas the
PML takes up the remaining 1/3, and so the line of
apposition between both cusps tend to be closer to
the posterior mitral valve annulus.
47. ПОДКЛАПЕН АПАРАТ
• Chordae tendineae
• Свързват клапните платна с папиларните мускули
• 1. Базални:
• - захващат се за основата на клапните платна
• 2. Интермедиерни ( вторични ):
• - захващат се по долната ( камерната ) повърхност към
средната част на платната
• 3. Маргинални:
• - захващат се за свободния ръб на клапните платна
49. ПОДКЛАПЕН АПАРАТ
• Chordae tendineae
• Свързват клапните платна с папиларните мускули
• 1. Базални:
• - захващат се за основата на клапните платна
• 2. Интермедиерни ( вторични ):
• - захващат се по долната ( камерната ) повърхност към
средната част на платната
• 3. Маргинални:
• - захващат се за свободния ръб на клапните платна
50. SUBVALVULAR
APPARATUS
• Chordae tendineae
• Attach the valve cusps to the
papillary muscles
• 3 types:
• - 1. Basal - attach to the base of the
valve cusp;
• - 2. Intermediary ( secondary ) -
attach to the midportion onto the
ventricular surface of the valve cusp;
• - 3. Marginal ( primary ) - to the free
margin (co-apting) of the valve cusp
51. SUBVALVULAR
APPARATUS
Papillary muscles:
1. Anterolateral papillary muscle
(ALPM - anterolateral papillary
muscle):
- The ALPM has a single head and
receives its blood supply from the
circumflex coronary artery (LCx);
2. Postromedial papillary muscle
(PMPM):
- The PMPM usually has multiple
(usually 3) and receives its blood
supply from the right coronary
artery (RCA).
52. LEFT VENTRICLE
The left ventricle (LV) consists of the following three
major components, similar to those, referring to the
general configuration of the right ventricle (RV):
1. Inlet portion;
2. Apical trabecular portion;
3. Outlet / LVOT - left ventricular outflow tract.
The endocardial surface of the left ventricle is
delicately trabecular, compared to the rough
trabeculation of the right ventricular endocardium.
The inlet portion is located around the mitral valve
complex (valve leaflets and fibrous mitral annulus).
The apical trabecular portion of the LV reaches the
apex of the heart and has relatively thick walls, in
contrast with the thin walls of the apical trabecular
portion of the RV.
The outlet supports the aortic valve complex and is
composed of muscular and fibrous elements: a part
of the membranous septum, and the aorto-mitral
valvular continuity.
The muscular elements, involved in the left
ventricular outflow tract composition and
configuration are different from those, involved in the
construction of the RVOT.
53. INTERVENTRICULAR
SEPTUM
• 1. Concave LV surface (
higher LV pressure)
• 2. Convex RV surface. (
lower RV pressure)
• 3. Muscular septum:
• - located between LV and RV;
• 4. Membranous septum:
• - fibrous structure, located
between the LVOT and
portions of the RA and RV.
• 5. Atrioventricular
septum:
• - located between the LV and
RA
54. AORTIC VALVE
The aortic valve is a semilunar type valve and
in concordant ventriculo-arterial connection, it
is situated between the left ventricle (LV) and
the aorta.
The aortic valve consists of three semilunar
leaflets/cusps:
1. Right coronary cusp;
2. Left coronary cusp;
3. Non-coronary (posterior) cusp
The aortic valve leaflets are composed of a
fibrous core, covered by endothelium.
The fibrous core is thickened at the free edge
of the cusp, especially centrally. This
thickening is known as the nodule of Arantius.
The aortic valve cusps coapt at the free edge
of their ventricular surface with three zones of
apposition.
The commissures are the areas of contact
between the cusps and the aortic wall.
55. АОРТНА КЛАПА
Coapting surfaces with adjacent aortic valve cusps are called lunulae. They are fibrous structures with a maximum size /
height (h) of 2-3 mm. The nodule of Arantius is a small fibrous structure located in the middle of the free edge of each of
the three aortic valve leaflets.These nodules complete the surface of coaptation and contribute to the supporting of the
competence of the aortic valve. By shape and size, the three aortic valve leaflets are not completely identical. Despite the
minimal differences, each aortic valve cusp has a constant ratio between the height (H) and the length (L) of the free edge.
There is also a constant ratio between the height of the lunulae (h) and the height of the leaflets (H). There is another
constant ratio between the length of the free edge (L) and the attachment area of the aortic leaflet onto the valve annulus
(C), valid for each one of the three aortic valve cusps.
56. AORTIC ROOT
The competence of the aortic valve is
supported by several different
components of aortic root, working in
harmony:
1.Aortic valve leaflets/cusps;
2. Three sinuses of Valsalva: They
allow the aortic valve cusps to fall
back during ventricular systole and
thus enabling a column of blood to
pass unobstructed (as long as there
is no pathological process, involving
the aortic valve,
e.g.: (calcific aortic stenosis) from
the LVOT into the systemic
circulation. The sinuses of Valsalva
are:
2.1. Right coronary;
2.2. Left coronary;
2.3. Non-coronary
57. AORTIC ROOT
3. Anatomical and
physiological junctions in
the aortic root:
3.1. Sinotubular junction
(STJ): between the distal
part of the sinuses of
Valsalva and the proximal
part of the ascending aorta;
3.2. Anatomical ventricular-
arterial junction: between
the ventricular myocardium
and the aortic sinuses;
3.3. Basal ring: combines
the lower aspect of the
aortic valve cusps.