This document contains 40 electronics interview questions covering topics such as basic electronics concepts, communication systems, modulation, demodulation, feedback, integrated circuits, and power systems. Some key questions addressed are: What is electronics? What is the difference between analog and digital communication? What is modulation and where is it utilized? What are common modulation techniques? What is the purpose of a base station? What is the difference between a repeater and an amplifier? What is an oscillator? What is an operational amplifier and what are its applications? What are the main divisions of a power system?
This document discusses amplitude modulation and demodulation. It defines amplitude modulation as varying the amplitude of a carrier wave linearly with a message signal while keeping frequency and phase constant. Modulation is used to transmit signals over long distances and allow multiple signals over the same channel. Demodulation recovers the signal intelligence by reversing the modulation process through rectification and filtering. The document describes amplitude modulation and different types of AM demodulation techniques.
This document provides an overview of microwave tubes, including their components and operating principles. It discusses cavity resonators, rectangular cavity resonators, limitations of conventional vacuum tubes at high frequencies, and types of microwave tubes like klystrons, traveling wave tubes (TWTs), and magnetrons. Magnetrons are used in microwave ovens and produce hundreds of watts of microwave power by directing an electron beam in a circular pattern using a strong magnetic field. TWTs amplify signals in the microwave frequency range from 500 MHz to 300 GHz using an electron beam interacting with a slow-wave structure.
This document discusses various types of pulse modulation techniques used in analog and digital communication systems. It begins by defining pulse amplitude modulation (PAM) and describing how the amplitude of pulses varies proportionally to the message signal. It then discusses different types of PAM based on the sampling technique used - ideal, natural, and flat-top sampling. Flat-top sampling uses sample-and-hold circuits and can introduce amplitude distortion known as the aperture effect. The document also covers pulse width modulation (PWM), pulse position modulation (PPM), pulse code modulation (PCM), delta modulation (DM), and their advantages. It explains the sampling theorem and proves it through Fourier analysis. Finally, it discusses bandwidth requirements, transmission, drawbacks
FM transmitters and receivers are used for sending and receiving FM signals. Transmitters modulate a carrier wave with an audio signal to generate an FM signal, which is transmitted through a band. Receivers receive the modulated signal, demodulate it to extract the original audio signal. FM offers advantages over AM like noise reduction, improved fidelity, and more efficient power use, though it requires more complex circuits and a larger bandwidth. Applications of FM include radio broadcasting, mobile radio, TV sound, and cellular/satellite communication.
1. Power dividers are microwave components that divide input power between output ports. Common types include T-junction, Wilkinson, and multi-section broadband dividers. T-junction dividers can be lossless or lossy. Wilkinson dividers provide isolation between output ports.
2. Directional couplers are 4-port networks that divide power between through and coupled ports. They use quarter-wave length lines and even-odd mode analysis. Voltage ratios define coupling factors. Multisection designs provide broadband operation.
3. Hybrids like the quadrature and ring hybrids are 90 or 180 degree hybrids based on symmetric/asymmetric port designs and even-odd mode analysis to provide specific scattering
This document provides information on fundamental antenna parameters and concepts. It discusses:
1. How antennas convert guided waves into radiating waves and vice versa.
2. Key antenna parameters including radiation pattern, directivity, radiation resistance, efficiency, gain, bandwidth, reciprocity, effective aperture, beamwidth, and polarization matching.
3. The Friis transmission formula for calculating received power between two antennas in free space based on their gains, wavelength, and distance.
This document describes the process of frequency modulation and demodulation through MATLAB simulation. It involves 5 tasks:
1) Modulation using a single tone modulating signal and analysis of the modulated signal spectrum.
2) Repeating task 1 using a multi-tone modulating signal.
3) Demodulation of the modulated signal using synchronous detection.
4) Repeating tasks 1-3 using a different multi-tone modulating signal.
5) Repeating tasks 1-3 using real speech signals as the modulating signal.
The MATLAB code generates the modulated signal, plots the modulating signal, carrier signal and modulated signal spectra. It also calculates the modulation index and modulated signal power for different modulation conditions
1) IMPATT (impact ionization avalanche transit time) diodes rely on carrier impact ionization and drift in the high electric field region of a semiconductor junction to produce negative resistance at microwave frequencies.
2) An IMPATT diode consists of an avalanche region where impact ionization occurs, generating electron-hole pairs, and a drift region where holes drift toward the contact, introducing a transit time delay.
3) When reverse biased above the breakdown voltage, the electric field causes impact ionization, producing a pulsed carrier current that lags the external current by 90 degrees, resulting in negative conductance that allows the diode to oscillate at microwave frequencies.
This document discusses amplitude modulation and demodulation. It defines amplitude modulation as varying the amplitude of a carrier wave linearly with a message signal while keeping frequency and phase constant. Modulation is used to transmit signals over long distances and allow multiple signals over the same channel. Demodulation recovers the signal intelligence by reversing the modulation process through rectification and filtering. The document describes amplitude modulation and different types of AM demodulation techniques.
This document provides an overview of microwave tubes, including their components and operating principles. It discusses cavity resonators, rectangular cavity resonators, limitations of conventional vacuum tubes at high frequencies, and types of microwave tubes like klystrons, traveling wave tubes (TWTs), and magnetrons. Magnetrons are used in microwave ovens and produce hundreds of watts of microwave power by directing an electron beam in a circular pattern using a strong magnetic field. TWTs amplify signals in the microwave frequency range from 500 MHz to 300 GHz using an electron beam interacting with a slow-wave structure.
This document discusses various types of pulse modulation techniques used in analog and digital communication systems. It begins by defining pulse amplitude modulation (PAM) and describing how the amplitude of pulses varies proportionally to the message signal. It then discusses different types of PAM based on the sampling technique used - ideal, natural, and flat-top sampling. Flat-top sampling uses sample-and-hold circuits and can introduce amplitude distortion known as the aperture effect. The document also covers pulse width modulation (PWM), pulse position modulation (PPM), pulse code modulation (PCM), delta modulation (DM), and their advantages. It explains the sampling theorem and proves it through Fourier analysis. Finally, it discusses bandwidth requirements, transmission, drawbacks
FM transmitters and receivers are used for sending and receiving FM signals. Transmitters modulate a carrier wave with an audio signal to generate an FM signal, which is transmitted through a band. Receivers receive the modulated signal, demodulate it to extract the original audio signal. FM offers advantages over AM like noise reduction, improved fidelity, and more efficient power use, though it requires more complex circuits and a larger bandwidth. Applications of FM include radio broadcasting, mobile radio, TV sound, and cellular/satellite communication.
1. Power dividers are microwave components that divide input power between output ports. Common types include T-junction, Wilkinson, and multi-section broadband dividers. T-junction dividers can be lossless or lossy. Wilkinson dividers provide isolation between output ports.
2. Directional couplers are 4-port networks that divide power between through and coupled ports. They use quarter-wave length lines and even-odd mode analysis. Voltage ratios define coupling factors. Multisection designs provide broadband operation.
3. Hybrids like the quadrature and ring hybrids are 90 or 180 degree hybrids based on symmetric/asymmetric port designs and even-odd mode analysis to provide specific scattering
This document provides information on fundamental antenna parameters and concepts. It discusses:
1. How antennas convert guided waves into radiating waves and vice versa.
2. Key antenna parameters including radiation pattern, directivity, radiation resistance, efficiency, gain, bandwidth, reciprocity, effective aperture, beamwidth, and polarization matching.
3. The Friis transmission formula for calculating received power between two antennas in free space based on their gains, wavelength, and distance.
This document describes the process of frequency modulation and demodulation through MATLAB simulation. It involves 5 tasks:
1) Modulation using a single tone modulating signal and analysis of the modulated signal spectrum.
2) Repeating task 1 using a multi-tone modulating signal.
3) Demodulation of the modulated signal using synchronous detection.
4) Repeating tasks 1-3 using a different multi-tone modulating signal.
5) Repeating tasks 1-3 using real speech signals as the modulating signal.
The MATLAB code generates the modulated signal, plots the modulating signal, carrier signal and modulated signal spectra. It also calculates the modulation index and modulated signal power for different modulation conditions
1) IMPATT (impact ionization avalanche transit time) diodes rely on carrier impact ionization and drift in the high electric field region of a semiconductor junction to produce negative resistance at microwave frequencies.
2) An IMPATT diode consists of an avalanche region where impact ionization occurs, generating electron-hole pairs, and a drift region where holes drift toward the contact, introducing a transit time delay.
3) When reverse biased above the breakdown voltage, the electric field causes impact ionization, producing a pulsed carrier current that lags the external current by 90 degrees, resulting in negative conductance that allows the diode to oscillate at microwave frequencies.
The inverter is a static device. It can convert one form of electrical power into other forms of electrical power. But it cannot generate electrical power. Hence the inverter is a converter, not a generator.
This document discusses various digital modulation techniques. It begins by defining modulation as adding information to a carrier signal. It then distinguishes between analog and digital modulation. Digital modulation modulates an analog carrier signal with a discrete signal, and can be considered as converting digital-to-analog and vice versa. Some key digital modulation techniques discussed include amplitude shift keying (ASK), frequency shift keying (FSK), phase shift keying (PSK), quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM), and differential phase shift keying (DPSK). Metrics for comparing digital modulation techniques include power efficiency, bandwidth efficiency, and implementation cost-effectiveness.
This presentation will explain about the need for modulation in communication system. We made this presentation as our group assignment in Analog and Digital Communication System course in MIIT.
A PLL or phase-locked loop is a control system that generates an output signal whose phase is related to the phase of an input signal. It consists of three basic elements: a phase detector that compares the phase of two signals and generates an error signal, a loop filter that filters the error signal, and a voltage-controlled oscillator whose frequency is controlled by the filtered error signal. PLLs are commonly used in applications such as frequency synthesis, signal demodulation, and motor speed control.
The document summarizes key components and concepts in basic microwave engineering. It discusses waveguides and their operating frequencies based on dimensions. It also describes electric and magnetic fields in rectangular waveguides. Additional components summarized include coaxial to waveguide transitions, choke joints, coupling loops, phase shifters, junctions, tuners, mixers, isolators, circulators, directional couplers, and cavity resonators. Isolators, circulators, and directional couplers are multi-port devices that control the direction of signal propagation with differing levels of attenuation.
Pre-emphasis refers to boosting higher audio frequencies between 2-15 kHz at the transmitter. De-emphasis means attenuating those same frequencies by the same amount at the receiver. This is done to improve the signal-to-noise ratio for FM reception. Both pre-emphasis and de-emphasis use either an RC or L/Z network with a time constant of 75 microseconds to boost then attenuate the higher frequencies.
This document discusses noise and interference in biopotential recording. It begins by defining noise and interference, then classifies noise sources as either internal (thermal, contact, shot) or external (conductive coupling, electric and magnetic fields, power line interference). It describes techniques for measuring noise using SNR and noise factor. Methods for noise reduction include using short, shielded wires, grounding properly, twisting wires, and using differential amplifiers with high common-mode rejection.
hello readers i give my PPT presentation for about antenna and ther properties and working explain in this ppt
i hope you like it THANK YOU.......!!!!!!!
Optical Amplifiers are devices that amplify the optical light directly without conversion into electrical signals.
There are many types of Optical amplifier, but I am going to introduce to you the Semiconductor Optical Amplifier (SOA).
This document discusses DIACs and TRIACs. It provides details on their construction, operation, characteristics and applications. DIACs are two-terminal bidirectional thyristors that can be triggered in either polarity to allow for firing of TRIACs. TRIACs are three-terminal bidirectional thyristors composed of two SCRs connected in inverse parallel. They can conduct current in both directions when triggered by a gate pulse. Common applications of DIACs and TRIACs include light dimming, heating control, motor drives and solid state relays.
1) The document discusses analog-to-digital converters (ADCs), including their basic function of converting continuous analog signals to discrete digital numbers.
2) It describes several types of ADCs - flash, successive approximation, dual slope, and delta-sigma - along with their relative speeds and costs.
3) The document then focuses on the ATD10B8C ADC present on the MC9S12C32 microcontroller, outlining its key features, registers, and how to set it up and use it to take single-channel or multi-channel conversions.
This document discusses digital to analog converters (DACs). It explains that a DAC converts digital numbers into analog voltages or currents. The key components of a DAC are its digital input, analog output, and conversion process. Common DAC types include binary weighted resistor DACs and R-2R ladder DACs, which use resistors and switches to implement the conversion. Important DAC specifications are also outlined such as reference voltage, resolution, speed, settling time, and linearity. Common applications of DACs include function generators, digital oscilloscopes, and converting digital video signals to analog formats for display.
Double Side band Suppressed carrier (DSB-SC) Modulation and Demodulation.SAiFul IslAm
This document describes an experiment on double sideband suppressed carrier (DSB-SC) modulation and demodulation performed by electrical engineering students at the University of Asia Pacific. The objectives were to observe DSB-SC modulation using an MC1496 modulator and examine synchronous demodulation of DSB-SC signals. The experiment involved generating a message signal, carrier signal, and DSB-SC modulated signal. A balanced modulator was used to produce the DSB-SC signal. Synchronous demodulation using a balanced multiplier, low-pass filter, and same carrier signal as the modulator recovered the original message signal from the DSB-SC signal. The students observed input and output waveforms and discussed the circuit connections and results
Losses in optical fibers include attenuation from absorption and scattering, as well as dispersion effects. Attenuation is caused by absorption of light energy through heating of impurities in the fiber, resulting in a loss of optical power over length. Dispersion causes pulse broadening and occurs from intermodal and intramodal effects such as material and waveguide dispersion. An optical time domain reflectometer (OTDR) can be used to detect faults, splices, and bends in fibers by emitting light pulses and measuring backscattered light over time to map reflections in the fiber.
Analog Electronics interview and viva questions.pdfEngineering Funda
1. The document contains 50 questions and answers related to analog electronics viva questions covering topics like operational amplifiers, integrated circuits, sample and hold circuits, and more.
2. It provides definitions and explanations of key terms like input offset voltage, common mode rejection ratio, slew rate, and open and closed loop configurations of op-amps.
3. The questions are asked by Engineering Funda YouTube channel professor Hitesh Dholakiya and cover concepts tested in analog electronics viva exams.
Phase modulation (PM) is a form of modulation where information is represented by variations in the instantaneous phase of a carrier wave. The phase angle of the complex envelope is changed in direct proportion to the message signal. PM can be considered a special case of FM where the carrier frequency modulation is given by the time derivative of the phase modulation. The bandwidth of PM for a single sinusoidal signal is approximately equal to the modulation index multiplied by the carrier frequency.
The document discusses three main methods for generating single-sideband suppressed carrier (SSB-SC) signals: the filter method, phase shift method, and Weaver method. The filter method uses a balanced modulator followed by a filter to remove the unwanted sideband. The phase shift method uses two balanced modulators with one audio input phase shifted 90 degrees. The Weaver method uses four balanced modulators, two audio filters, and two 90 degree phase shifters to generate the SSB signal without a filter or complex phase shifter.
Pulse width modulation (PWM) is a method of changing the duration of a pulse with respect to the analog input. The duty cycle of a square wave is modulated to encode a specific analog signal level. This pulse width modulation tutorial gives you the basic principle of generation of a PWM signal. The PWM signal is digital because at any given instant of time, the full DC supply is either ON or OFF completely. PWM method is commonly used for speed controlling of fans, motors, lights in varying intensities, pulse width modulation controller etc. These signals may also be used for approximate time-varying of analogue signals. Below you can see the pulse width modulation generator circuit diagram (pulse width modulator) using op amp. PWM is employed in a wide variety of applications, ranging from measurement and communications to power control and conversion. Pulse width modulation dc motor control is one of the popular circuits in Robotics.
This document discusses transmission line theory and analysis. It begins by explaining how power is delivered through wires at low frequencies versus through electric and magnetic fields at microwave frequencies, defining transmission lines. It then lists common types of transmission lines including two-wire, coaxial cable, waveguide, and planar lines. It analyzes the differences between analyzing circuits at low versus high frequencies. Finally, it provides details on metallic cable transmission media, including balanced vs unbalanced lines, equivalent circuits, wave propagation, losses, phasors, and characteristic impedance.
This document contains 25 questions and answers related to basic electronics and communication engineering. It covers topics such as the definitions of electronics, communication, engineering, and modulation. It also discusses different communication techniques like analog and digital, as well as modulation methods like AM, FM, and more. Additionally, it provides explanations for concepts like sampling, cut-off frequency, passband, stopband, and base stations.
The communication system allows transmission and reception of information between two distant points. It consists of a transmitter that sends information, a channel that carries the signal, and a receiver that extracts the message. Communication systems can be analog, transmitting continuous signals, or digital, transmitting discrete signals encoded as 1s and 0s. The electromagnetic spectrum is divided into bands allocated to different applications like radio, TV, cellular etc. based on their frequencies and wavelengths. Modulation encodes the message onto a carrier signal, and multiplexing combines multiple messages for transmission.
The inverter is a static device. It can convert one form of electrical power into other forms of electrical power. But it cannot generate electrical power. Hence the inverter is a converter, not a generator.
This document discusses various digital modulation techniques. It begins by defining modulation as adding information to a carrier signal. It then distinguishes between analog and digital modulation. Digital modulation modulates an analog carrier signal with a discrete signal, and can be considered as converting digital-to-analog and vice versa. Some key digital modulation techniques discussed include amplitude shift keying (ASK), frequency shift keying (FSK), phase shift keying (PSK), quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM), and differential phase shift keying (DPSK). Metrics for comparing digital modulation techniques include power efficiency, bandwidth efficiency, and implementation cost-effectiveness.
This presentation will explain about the need for modulation in communication system. We made this presentation as our group assignment in Analog and Digital Communication System course in MIIT.
A PLL or phase-locked loop is a control system that generates an output signal whose phase is related to the phase of an input signal. It consists of three basic elements: a phase detector that compares the phase of two signals and generates an error signal, a loop filter that filters the error signal, and a voltage-controlled oscillator whose frequency is controlled by the filtered error signal. PLLs are commonly used in applications such as frequency synthesis, signal demodulation, and motor speed control.
The document summarizes key components and concepts in basic microwave engineering. It discusses waveguides and their operating frequencies based on dimensions. It also describes electric and magnetic fields in rectangular waveguides. Additional components summarized include coaxial to waveguide transitions, choke joints, coupling loops, phase shifters, junctions, tuners, mixers, isolators, circulators, directional couplers, and cavity resonators. Isolators, circulators, and directional couplers are multi-port devices that control the direction of signal propagation with differing levels of attenuation.
Pre-emphasis refers to boosting higher audio frequencies between 2-15 kHz at the transmitter. De-emphasis means attenuating those same frequencies by the same amount at the receiver. This is done to improve the signal-to-noise ratio for FM reception. Both pre-emphasis and de-emphasis use either an RC or L/Z network with a time constant of 75 microseconds to boost then attenuate the higher frequencies.
This document discusses noise and interference in biopotential recording. It begins by defining noise and interference, then classifies noise sources as either internal (thermal, contact, shot) or external (conductive coupling, electric and magnetic fields, power line interference). It describes techniques for measuring noise using SNR and noise factor. Methods for noise reduction include using short, shielded wires, grounding properly, twisting wires, and using differential amplifiers with high common-mode rejection.
hello readers i give my PPT presentation for about antenna and ther properties and working explain in this ppt
i hope you like it THANK YOU.......!!!!!!!
Optical Amplifiers are devices that amplify the optical light directly without conversion into electrical signals.
There are many types of Optical amplifier, but I am going to introduce to you the Semiconductor Optical Amplifier (SOA).
This document discusses DIACs and TRIACs. It provides details on their construction, operation, characteristics and applications. DIACs are two-terminal bidirectional thyristors that can be triggered in either polarity to allow for firing of TRIACs. TRIACs are three-terminal bidirectional thyristors composed of two SCRs connected in inverse parallel. They can conduct current in both directions when triggered by a gate pulse. Common applications of DIACs and TRIACs include light dimming, heating control, motor drives and solid state relays.
1) The document discusses analog-to-digital converters (ADCs), including their basic function of converting continuous analog signals to discrete digital numbers.
2) It describes several types of ADCs - flash, successive approximation, dual slope, and delta-sigma - along with their relative speeds and costs.
3) The document then focuses on the ATD10B8C ADC present on the MC9S12C32 microcontroller, outlining its key features, registers, and how to set it up and use it to take single-channel or multi-channel conversions.
This document discusses digital to analog converters (DACs). It explains that a DAC converts digital numbers into analog voltages or currents. The key components of a DAC are its digital input, analog output, and conversion process. Common DAC types include binary weighted resistor DACs and R-2R ladder DACs, which use resistors and switches to implement the conversion. Important DAC specifications are also outlined such as reference voltage, resolution, speed, settling time, and linearity. Common applications of DACs include function generators, digital oscilloscopes, and converting digital video signals to analog formats for display.
Double Side band Suppressed carrier (DSB-SC) Modulation and Demodulation.SAiFul IslAm
This document describes an experiment on double sideband suppressed carrier (DSB-SC) modulation and demodulation performed by electrical engineering students at the University of Asia Pacific. The objectives were to observe DSB-SC modulation using an MC1496 modulator and examine synchronous demodulation of DSB-SC signals. The experiment involved generating a message signal, carrier signal, and DSB-SC modulated signal. A balanced modulator was used to produce the DSB-SC signal. Synchronous demodulation using a balanced multiplier, low-pass filter, and same carrier signal as the modulator recovered the original message signal from the DSB-SC signal. The students observed input and output waveforms and discussed the circuit connections and results
Losses in optical fibers include attenuation from absorption and scattering, as well as dispersion effects. Attenuation is caused by absorption of light energy through heating of impurities in the fiber, resulting in a loss of optical power over length. Dispersion causes pulse broadening and occurs from intermodal and intramodal effects such as material and waveguide dispersion. An optical time domain reflectometer (OTDR) can be used to detect faults, splices, and bends in fibers by emitting light pulses and measuring backscattered light over time to map reflections in the fiber.
Analog Electronics interview and viva questions.pdfEngineering Funda
1. The document contains 50 questions and answers related to analog electronics viva questions covering topics like operational amplifiers, integrated circuits, sample and hold circuits, and more.
2. It provides definitions and explanations of key terms like input offset voltage, common mode rejection ratio, slew rate, and open and closed loop configurations of op-amps.
3. The questions are asked by Engineering Funda YouTube channel professor Hitesh Dholakiya and cover concepts tested in analog electronics viva exams.
Phase modulation (PM) is a form of modulation where information is represented by variations in the instantaneous phase of a carrier wave. The phase angle of the complex envelope is changed in direct proportion to the message signal. PM can be considered a special case of FM where the carrier frequency modulation is given by the time derivative of the phase modulation. The bandwidth of PM for a single sinusoidal signal is approximately equal to the modulation index multiplied by the carrier frequency.
The document discusses three main methods for generating single-sideband suppressed carrier (SSB-SC) signals: the filter method, phase shift method, and Weaver method. The filter method uses a balanced modulator followed by a filter to remove the unwanted sideband. The phase shift method uses two balanced modulators with one audio input phase shifted 90 degrees. The Weaver method uses four balanced modulators, two audio filters, and two 90 degree phase shifters to generate the SSB signal without a filter or complex phase shifter.
Pulse width modulation (PWM) is a method of changing the duration of a pulse with respect to the analog input. The duty cycle of a square wave is modulated to encode a specific analog signal level. This pulse width modulation tutorial gives you the basic principle of generation of a PWM signal. The PWM signal is digital because at any given instant of time, the full DC supply is either ON or OFF completely. PWM method is commonly used for speed controlling of fans, motors, lights in varying intensities, pulse width modulation controller etc. These signals may also be used for approximate time-varying of analogue signals. Below you can see the pulse width modulation generator circuit diagram (pulse width modulator) using op amp. PWM is employed in a wide variety of applications, ranging from measurement and communications to power control and conversion. Pulse width modulation dc motor control is one of the popular circuits in Robotics.
This document discusses transmission line theory and analysis. It begins by explaining how power is delivered through wires at low frequencies versus through electric and magnetic fields at microwave frequencies, defining transmission lines. It then lists common types of transmission lines including two-wire, coaxial cable, waveguide, and planar lines. It analyzes the differences between analyzing circuits at low versus high frequencies. Finally, it provides details on metallic cable transmission media, including balanced vs unbalanced lines, equivalent circuits, wave propagation, losses, phasors, and characteristic impedance.
This document contains 25 questions and answers related to basic electronics and communication engineering. It covers topics such as the definitions of electronics, communication, engineering, and modulation. It also discusses different communication techniques like analog and digital, as well as modulation methods like AM, FM, and more. Additionally, it provides explanations for concepts like sampling, cut-off frequency, passband, stopband, and base stations.
The communication system allows transmission and reception of information between two distant points. It consists of a transmitter that sends information, a channel that carries the signal, and a receiver that extracts the message. Communication systems can be analog, transmitting continuous signals, or digital, transmitting discrete signals encoded as 1s and 0s. The electromagnetic spectrum is divided into bands allocated to different applications like radio, TV, cellular etc. based on their frequencies and wavelengths. Modulation encodes the message onto a carrier signal, and multiplexing combines multiple messages for transmission.
Electromagnetic compatibility and its effectsSubhashMSubhash
EMC refers to the ability of electrical and electronic equipment to operate properly in an electromagnetic environment without causing or suffering from electromagnetic interference. EMI can be caused by various onboard sources and affect avionic systems through errors, noise, or false readings. To reduce EMI, the noise source, coupling path, and susceptible receiver must be addressed through techniques like shielding, filtering, wiring separation, and proper grounding and bonding of the aircraft.
This document provides an overview of telecommunication systems and communication engineering. It discusses analog and digital signals, different modulation techniques used in communication systems including amplitude modulation and frequency modulation. Key aspects covered include:
- Analog signals are continuous over time and amplitude while digital signals involve quantization.
- A basic communication system includes a source, transmitter to convert the signal to a transmission format, a channel with noise, a receiver to decode the signal, and a destination.
- Modulation involves varying properties of a carrier signal like amplitude, frequency, or phase to transmit a message signal over a channel.
- Common modulation techniques are amplitude modulation which varies signal strength, and frequency modulation which varies carrier frequency.
This document provides an overview of telecommunication systems and communication engineering. It discusses analog and digital signals, the components of a basic communication system including the source, transmitter, channel, receiver and destination. It describes different types of modulation used in communication systems including amplitude modulation, frequency modulation, and pulse modulation. It also includes block diagrams of wireless communication systems and their components such as the transmitter, encoder, noisy channel, decoder and receiver.
This document discusses transmission systems in satellite communications. It begins by defining a transmission line as a device that transmits or guides energy from one point to another. It then discusses how transmission lines carry alternating current and are used to connect radio transmitters and receivers. The document goes on to describe the key components of fiber optic and wireless transmission systems, including transmitters, receivers, optical fiber cables, antennas, and amplifiers. It explains how each component functions and its role in transmitting signals across long distances.
This document provides an overview of electromagnetic interference (EMI) and electromagnetic compatibility (EMC). It discusses sources of EMI such as atmospheric noise from lightning and clouds. It also describes four coupling mechanisms by which EMI can occur: conductive, capacitive, inductive, and radiative. Techniques for controlling EMI are then outlined, including grounding, shielding, and filtering. Finally, the document discusses methods for EMC testing, including evaluating emissions and susceptibility through radiated field, conducted, and transient immunity testing.
This document discusses radio transmitters and receivers. It explains that a radio transmitter consists of an oscillator that generates a carrier wave, a modulator that adds information to the carrier wave, an amplifier that increases the power of the modulated signal, and an antenna that radiates the signal as radio waves. A radio receiver uses an antenna to capture radio waves, a tuner to select the desired frequency, a detector to extract the information from the carrier wave, and amplifiers to strengthen the signal for playback. Modulation involves adding an input signal to a carrier wave to transmit information in a way that requires less power and antenna size than transmitting the input signal directly.
This document provides an introduction to a course on wireless and mobile communication concepts. It outlines the primary goals of the course which are to introduce wireless communication concepts and terms, lay the foundation for communication concepts, and provide knowledge of modulation and communication systems. It lists prerequisites for the course, including examples of wired and wireless communication, basic definitions of modulation, and digital and analog communication basics. The document also provides an overview of electromagnetic spectrum, signal classification, and bandwidth. Key terms introduced include deterministic and random signals, periodic and aperiodic signals, and analog and digital signals.
This document provides an overview of signal integrity (SI) and discusses various SI topics including transmission line theory, time domain analysis, frequency domain analysis, equalization techniques, and high speed interfaces. It begins with defining SI and its importance. It then covers transmission line theory concepts such as lossy and lossless lines, single-ended and differential signaling. The document discusses time domain analysis methods like eye patterns, jitter, setup/hold times and rise/fall times. Frequency domain analysis methods such as S-parameters, insertion loss, return loss, and crosstalk are also outlined. Finally, it briefly introduces some common high speed interfaces including DDR, SAS, SATA, USB, and PCIe.
DESIGN & ANALYSIS OF RF ENERGY HARVESTING SYSTEM FOR CHARGING LOW POWER DEVICESJournal For Research
Finite electrical battery life is encouraging the companies and researchers to come up with new ideas and technologies to drive wireless mobile devices for an infinite or enhance period of time. Common resource constrained wireless devices when they run out of battery they should be recharged. For that purpose main supply & charger are needed to charge drained mobile phone batteries or any portable devices. Practically it is not possible to carry charger wherever we go and also to expect availability of power supply everywhere. To avoid such disadvantages some sort of solution should be given and that can be wireless charging of mobile phones.[4] If the mobile can receive RF power signals from the mobile towers, why can’t we extract the power from the received signals? This can be done by the method or technology called RF energy harvesting. RF energy harvesting holds a promise able future for generating a small amount of electrical power to drive partial circuits in wirelessly communicating electronics devices. RF power harvesting is one of the diverse fields where still research continues. The energy of RF waves used by devices can be harvested and used to operate in more effective and efficient way.
A communications system allows for the transfer of information from an information source to an information sink. It consists of a transmitter that encodes a message from the information source into a transmitted signal, a channel to carry the signal, and a receiver to decode the signal back into a message for the information sink.
The transmitter may perform operations like modulation, amplification, and filtering on the message signal. The channel can be a wireline medium like coaxial cable or a wireless medium like free space. It is subject to degradation from noise, interference and distortion. The receiver performs complementary operations to the transmitter like demodulation, amplification and filtering to recover the original message from the received signal for the information sink.
Communication is the exchange of information through transmission and reception of messages. The basic elements of communication are an information source, transmitter, communication channel, and receiver. There are different types of electronic communication including simplex, half duplex, and full duplex. Analog signals vary continuously while digital signals change in discrete steps. Channel multiplexing and modulation techniques like frequency division multiplexing and time division multiplexing allow efficient transmission of multiple signals over a single medium. Optical fiber communication systems transmit information as light pulses along optical fibers and have advantages over traditional metal cable systems like increased bandwidth and lower signal attenuation.
The document provides an overview of the topics that will be covered in the Communication Engineering course. It discusses the basic elements of a communication system including transmitters, receivers, channels and noise. It also covers electromagnetic waves, analog and digital signals and systems, modulation techniques, and the electromagnetic spectrum and frequency allocations.
The document provides an overview of the topics that will be covered in the Communication Engineering course. The key topics include:
1) The basic elements of a communication system including transmitters, receivers, channels and noise.
2) A brief history of communication technologies from ancient times to modern digital technologies.
3) Descriptions of analog and digital communication systems and their differences.
4) Explanations of electromagnetic waves, the electromagnetic spectrum, and frequency allocations for different applications.
Communication channel and networktechnologies.pdfmouizakhan4
1) The document discusses various topics related to telecommunication systems including communication channels, signals, and network components. It describes how speech signals are converted to electrical forms and transmitted over channels.
2) The communication channel acts as a conduit between the transmitter and receiver. Impairments like noise, attenuation and bandwidth limitations can degrade signals during transmission.
3) A communication system requires a transmitting device, transport mechanism, and receiving device to effectively transfer information. Networks facilitate communication between users across geographical boundaries using various transmission media and standards.
Communication is the process of exchanging information between two points using a transmission medium. The document discusses various components of a basic communication system including the transmitter, receiver, and channel. It also covers different modulation techniques like amplitude modulation and frequency modulation that are used to encode information onto carrier signals for transmission. Wired mediums like twisted pair cables and wireless mediums like radio waves are discussed as potential transmission channels.
Similar to Basic Electronics Interview Questions.pdf (20)
FPGA and CPLD are compared based on 11 parameters. FPGA uses look up tables in its fine grain architecture with around 100,000 blocks, SRAM for memory, and is more complex and costly than CPLD. CPLD uses logic functions in its course grain architecture with fewer blocks, EPROM for memory, and is less complex and costly than FPGA. A key difference is that the program stays in CPLD after power off but is lost in FPGA.
Photolithography is a process used to produce circuit patterns on a silicon layer. It involves two key steps - photographic masking, where a mask containing the desired pattern is used to project UV light onto the silicon wafer, and photographic etching, where either wet etching using chemicals or dry etching using more UV light is used to remove the exposed areas of the layer based on the pattern. The process allows transferring circuit designs onto silicon wafers using UV light and etching.
This document discusses the evolution of logic complexity in integrated circuits over time. It outlines the progression from MSI in 1967 with 20-200 logic blocks per chip, to LSI in 1972 with 200-2000 blocks, VLSI in 1978 with 2000-20000 blocks, and ULSI in 1989 with over 20000 blocks. It also shows how the minimum feature size of integrated circuits has decreased from 4.0 μm in 1975 to 0.1 μm in 2000, enabling more prominent information technology services and features of integrated circuits like reduced area and power consumption.
The document discusses VLSI design methodologies and outlines factors that influence design time such as complexity, performance level, and cost. It notes a tradeoff between performance analysis and design time, where semi-custom designs take less time but offer fewer opportunities for performance improvement than full-custom designs. The document also introduces the concept of a technology window, where the design and production phases must fit within the lifetime of a given technology.
The document outlines the VLSI design flow, including the basics where the design starts with specifications and is iteratively modified until requirements are met. It also describes the main stages of the design flow as architecture design, gate-level design, circuit-level design, HDL coding, simulation, verification, and fabrication. Additionally, it explains the three domains of VLSI design as behavioral, structural, and physical.
This document discusses channel length modulation in MOSFETs. It explains that in saturation, the channel length decreases with increasing drain voltage due to the depletion region extending farther into the channel. This effectively reduces the channel length and increases the drain current. The document derives an expression for drain current that includes a channel length modulation coefficient to model this effect, showing that current increases with higher drain voltages due to the reduced channel length.
The document contains 51 multiple choice questions about integrated electronics and operational amplifiers. It is a quiz created by Prof. Hitesh Dholakiya to test knowledge of integrated circuits, their applications and characteristics. The questions cover topics like the invention of the integrated circuit, op-amp configurations, integrated circuit packaging and testing specifications. The document promotes an Android app and YouTube playlist by the author on VLSI and engineering fundamentals.
This document contains questions and answers related to solid state devices and engineering materials. It discusses topics like thermoplastic and thermosetting materials, semiconductors, insulating materials, superconductivity, magnetic materials, properties of materials like brass and rubber, and properties and uses of mica. The document is in a question answer format with Prof. Hitesh Dholakiya providing explanations to 16 questions on various solid state devices and engineering materials concepts.
This document contains 72 multiple choice questions about solid state devices and semiconductor physics. The questions cover topics like atomic structure, semiconductor doping, diode and transistor operation, rectification circuits, and semiconductor materials like silicon and germanium. The questions are intended as a practice test for engineering students to assess their knowledge of solid state devices.
The document is a series of lectures by Prof. Hitesh Dholakiya on the topics of signals and systems. It discusses continuous time signals, Fourier series, Fourier transforms, discrete time Fourier transforms, Z-transforms and other signal processing topics. The lectures are provided through an Engineering Funda Android app and a YouTube playlist on signals and systems.
The document consists of multiple pages that have been scanned by CamScanner. Each page promotes an Engineering Funda Android app and YouTube playlist related to signal and systems topics. No other substantive information is provided across the many duplicated pages.
The document is a series of pages that have been scanned by CamScanner. Each page contains an advertisement for the Engineering Funda Android app and YouTube playlist on signal and systems. No other substantive information is contained within the document.
The document is a series of repeated scans from an app or document promoting an Engineering Funda Android app and YouTube playlist about signal and systems topics. It contains no other substantive information beyond repeating promotions for these engineering resources.
The document promotes an Engineering Funda Android app and YouTube playlist on signal and systems. It contains repeated text about the app and playlist across multiple pages that have been scanned with CamScanner. The document provides high-level information about an engineering resource app and online video series related to signals and systems.
This document provides an overview of radar and navigation aids. It begins with an introduction to radar principles, including how radar uses radio waves to detect objects and determine their range. It then discusses key radar concepts like the radar equation, maximum unambiguous range, radar frequencies and applications. The document also covers different types of radars as well as navigation techniques that use radio waves, including radio direction finding, radio ranges, hyperbolic navigation systems and modern GPS. It provides content for a course on radar and navigation aids systems.
The document is a series of scanned pages from an engineering publication that repeatedly states "Engineering Funda" and mentions an Android app and YouTube playlist. However, it does not contain any other descriptive text or details.
This document contains 78 multiple choice questions about power tubes and vacuum tubes asked by Prof. Hitesh Dholakiya. The questions cover topics like the principal electrodes in tubes, how changing grid voltage affects plate current, types of amplification tubes can provide, noise generated by different tube types, and solid state equivalents of vacuum tubes. The document also provides links to an Android app and YouTube playlist about power electronics created by the professor.
This document contains 68 questions and answers related to power electronics interview questions. It covers topics like IGBTs, thyristors, power diodes, MOSFETs, BJTs, snubber circuits, choppers, controlled rectifiers, inverters, and PWM control. The questions define key power electronics terms and concepts and discuss the advantages and applications of different power devices and converter topologies.
This document contains 72 multiple choice questions about industrial electronics asked by Prof. Hitesh Dholakiya. The questions cover topics like nucleonic sensing methods, EEG, therapeutic radiology energies, characteristics of devices like SCRs, triacs, diacs, UJTs, and their applications. They also include questions on control systems, root locus analysis, and properties of semiconductors like silicon. The questions are part of an MCQ set created by Prof. Dholakiya to test knowledge of industrial electronics concepts.
This document discusses RC triggering of SCRs. It explains that RC triggering uses a resistor and capacitor to trigger the SCR at a firing angle defined by the RC time constant. It describes half-wave and full-wave RC triggering circuits and how the firing angle can be changed by adjusting the resistor value. Waveforms are presented to illustrate the RC triggering operation for different resistor values in half-wave and full-wave configurations.
Redefining brain tumor segmentation: a cutting-edge convolutional neural netw...IJECEIAES
Medical image analysis has witnessed significant advancements with deep learning techniques. In the domain of brain tumor segmentation, the ability to
precisely delineate tumor boundaries from magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
scans holds profound implications for diagnosis. This study presents an ensemble convolutional neural network (CNN) with transfer learning, integrating
the state-of-the-art Deeplabv3+ architecture with the ResNet18 backbone. The
model is rigorously trained and evaluated, exhibiting remarkable performance
metrics, including an impressive global accuracy of 99.286%, a high-class accuracy of 82.191%, a mean intersection over union (IoU) of 79.900%, a weighted
IoU of 98.620%, and a Boundary F1 (BF) score of 83.303%. Notably, a detailed comparative analysis with existing methods showcases the superiority of
our proposed model. These findings underscore the model’s competence in precise brain tumor localization, underscoring its potential to revolutionize medical
image analysis and enhance healthcare outcomes. This research paves the way
for future exploration and optimization of advanced CNN models in medical
imaging, emphasizing addressing false positives and resource efficiency.
Introduction- e - waste – definition - sources of e-waste– hazardous substances in e-waste - effects of e-waste on environment and human health- need for e-waste management– e-waste handling rules - waste minimization techniques for managing e-waste – recycling of e-waste - disposal treatment methods of e- waste – mechanism of extraction of precious metal from leaching solution-global Scenario of E-waste – E-waste in India- case studies.
Null Bangalore | Pentesters Approach to AWS IAMDivyanshu
#Abstract:
- Learn more about the real-world methods for auditing AWS IAM (Identity and Access Management) as a pentester. So let us proceed with a brief discussion of IAM as well as some typical misconfigurations and their potential exploits in order to reinforce the understanding of IAM security best practices.
- Gain actionable insights into AWS IAM policies and roles, using hands on approach.
#Prerequisites:
- Basic understanding of AWS services and architecture
- Familiarity with cloud security concepts
- Experience using the AWS Management Console or AWS CLI.
- For hands on lab create account on [killercoda.com](https://killercoda.com/cloudsecurity-scenario/)
# Scenario Covered:
- Basics of IAM in AWS
- Implementing IAM Policies with Least Privilege to Manage S3 Bucket
- Objective: Create an S3 bucket with least privilege IAM policy and validate access.
- Steps:
- Create S3 bucket.
- Attach least privilege policy to IAM user.
- Validate access.
- Exploiting IAM PassRole Misconfiguration
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- Objective: Demonstrate how a PassRole misconfiguration can grant unauthorized access.
- Steps:
- Allow user to pass IAM role to EC2.
- Exploit misconfiguration for unauthorized access.
- Access sensitive resources.
- Exploiting IAM AssumeRole Misconfiguration with Overly Permissive Role
- An overly permissive IAM role configuration can lead to privilege escalation by creating a role with administrative privileges and allow a user to assume this role.
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- Differentiation between PassRole vs AssumeRole
Try at [killercoda.com](https://killercoda.com/cloudsecurity-scenario/)
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Introduction, Modeling Concepts and Class Modeling: What is Object orientation? What is OO development? OO Themes; Evidence for usefulness of OO development; OO modeling history. Modeling
as Design technique: Modeling, abstraction, The Three models. Class Modeling: Object and Class Concept, Link and associations concepts, Generalization and Inheritance, A sample class model, Navigation of class models, and UML diagrams
Building the Analysis Models: Requirement Analysis, Analysis Model Approaches, Data modeling Concepts, Object Oriented Analysis, Scenario-Based Modeling, Flow-Oriented Modeling, class Based Modeling, Creating a Behavioral Model.
Prediction of Electrical Energy Efficiency Using Information on Consumer's Ac...PriyankaKilaniya
Energy efficiency has been important since the latter part of the last century. The main object of this survey is to determine the energy efficiency knowledge among consumers. Two separate districts in Bangladesh are selected to conduct the survey on households and showrooms about the energy and seller also. The survey uses the data to find some regression equations from which it is easy to predict energy efficiency knowledge. The data is analyzed and calculated based on five important criteria. The initial target was to find some factors that help predict a person's energy efficiency knowledge. From the survey, it is found that the energy efficiency awareness among the people of our country is very low. Relationships between household energy use behaviors are estimated using a unique dataset of about 40 households and 20 showrooms in Bangladesh's Chapainawabganj and Bagerhat districts. Knowledge of energy consumption and energy efficiency technology options is found to be associated with household use of energy conservation practices. Household characteristics also influence household energy use behavior. Younger household cohorts are more likely to adopt energy-efficient technologies and energy conservation practices and place primary importance on energy saving for environmental reasons. Education also influences attitudes toward energy conservation in Bangladesh. Low-education households indicate they primarily save electricity for the environment while high-education households indicate they are motivated by environmental concerns.
VARIABLE FREQUENCY DRIVE. VFDs are widely used in industrial applications for...PIMR BHOPAL
Variable frequency drive .A Variable Frequency Drive (VFD) is an electronic device used to control the speed and torque of an electric motor by varying the frequency and voltage of its power supply. VFDs are widely used in industrial applications for motor control, providing significant energy savings and precise motor operation.
Software Engineering and Project Management - Software Testing + Agile Method...Prakhyath Rai
Software Testing: A Strategic Approach to Software Testing, Strategic Issues, Test Strategies for Conventional Software, Test Strategies for Object -Oriented Software, Validation Testing, System Testing, The Art of Debugging.
Agile Methodology: Before Agile – Waterfall, Agile Development.
1. Basic Electronics Interview questions by Engineering Funda
Engineering Funda YouTube Channel
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Electronics Interview Questions
1. What is Electronic?
The study and use of electrical devices that operate by controlling the flow of electrons or other electrically
charged particles.
2. What is communication?
Communication means transferring a signal from the transmitter which passes through a medium then the
output is obtained at the receiver. (or) communication says as transferring of message from one place to
another place called communication.
3. Different types of communications? Explain.
Analog and digital communication.
As a technology, analog is the process of taking an audio or video signal (the human voice) and translating it into
electronic pulses. Digital on the other hand is breaking the signal into a binary format where the audio or video
data is represented by a series of "1"s and "0"s.
Digital signals are immune to noise, quality of transmission and reception is good, components used in digital
communication can be produced with high precision and power consumption is also very less when compared
with analog signals.
4. What is sampling?
The process of obtaining a set of samples from a continuous function of time x(t) is referred to as sampling.
5. State sampling theorem.
It states that, while taking the samples of a continuous signal, it has to be taken care that the sampling rate is
equal to or greater than twice the cut off frequency and the minimum sampling rate is known as the Nyquist
rate.
6. What is cut-off frequency?
The frequency at which the response is -3dB with respect to the maximum response.
7. What is pass band?
Pass band is the range of frequencies or wavelengths that can pass through a filter without being attenuated.
8. What is stop band?
A stop band is a band of frequencies, between specified limits, in which a circuit, such as a filter or telephone
circuit, does not let signals through, or the attenuation is above the required stop band attenuation level.
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9. Explain RF?
Radio frequency (RF) is a frequency or rate of oscillation within the range of about 3 Hz to 300 GHz. This range
corresponds to frequency of alternating current electrical signals used to produce and detect radio waves. Since
most of this range is beyond the vibration rate that most mechanical systems can respond to, RF usually refers to
oscillations in electrical circuits or electromagnetic radiation.
10. What is modulation? And where it is utilized?
Modulation is the process of varying some characteristic of a periodic wave with an external signals.
Radio communication superimposes this information bearing signal onto a carrier signal.
These high frequency carrier signals can be transmitted over the air easily and are capable of travelling long
distances.
The characteristics (amplitude, frequency, or phase) of the carrier signal are varied in accordance with the
information bearing signal.
Modulation is utilized to send an information bearing signal over long distances.
11. What is demodulation?
Demodulation is the act of removing the modulation from an analog signal to get the original baseband signal
back. Demodulating is necessary because the receiver system receives a modulated signal with specific
characteristics and it needs to turn it to
Base-band.
12. Name the modulationtechniques.
For Analog modulation--AM, SSB, FM, PM and SM Digital modulation--OOK, FSK, ASK, Psk, QAM, MSK,
CPM, PPM, TCM, OFDM
13. Explain AM and FM.
AM-Amplitude modulation is a type of modulation where the amplitude of the carrier signal is varied in
accordance with the information bearing signal. FM-Frequency modulation is a type of modulation where the
frequency of the carrier signal is varied in accordance with the information bearing signal.
14. Where do we use AM and FM?
AM is used for video signals for example TV. Ranges from 535 to 1705 kHz. FM is used for audio signals for
example Radio. Ranges from 88 to 108 MHz
15. What is a base station?
Base station is a radio receiver/transmitter that serves as the hub of the local wireless network, and may also be
the gateway between a wired network and the wireless network.
16. How many satellites are required to cover the earth?
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3 satellites are required to cover the entire earth, which is placed at 120 degree to each other. The life span of the
satellite is about 15 years.
17. What is a repeater?
A repeater is an electronic device that receives a signal and retransmits it at a higher level and/or higher power,
or onto the other side of an obstruction, so that the signal can cover longer distances without degradation.
18. What is an Amplifier?
An electronic device or electrical circuit that is used to boost (amplify) the power, voltage or current of an
applied signal.
19. Example for negative feedback and positive feedback?
Example for –ve feedback is ---Amplifiers and for +ve feedback is – Oscillators
20. What is Oscillator?
An oscillator is a circuit that creates a waveform output from a direct current input. The two main types of
oscillator are harmonic and relaxation. The harmonic oscillators have smooth curved waveforms, while
relaxation oscillators have waveforms with sharp changes.
21. What is an Integrated Circuit?
An integrated circuit (IC), also called a microchip, is an electronic circuit etched onto a silicon chip. Their main
advantages are low cost, low power, high performance, and very small size.
22. What is crosstalk?
Crosstalk is a form of interference caused by signals in nearby conductors. The most common example is hearing
an unwanted conversation on the telephone. Crosstalk can also occur in radios, televisions, networking
equipment, and even electric guitars.
23. What is resistor?
A resistor is a two-terminal electronic component that opposes an electric current by producing a voltage drop
between its terminals in proportion to the current, that is, in accordance with Ohm's law: V = IR.
25. What is inductor?
An inductor is a passive electrical device employed in electrical circuits for its property of inductance.
An inductor can take many forms.
26. What is conductor?
A substance, body, or device that readily conducts heat, electricity, sound, etc. Copper is a good conductor of
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electricity.
27. What is a semiconductor?
A semiconductor is a solid material that has electrical conductivity in between that of a conductor and that of an
insulator (An Insulator is a material that resists the flow of electric current. It is an object intended to support or
separate electrical conductors without passing current through itself); it can vary over that wide range either
permanently or dynamically.
28. What is diode?
In electronics, a diode is a two-terminal device. Diodes have two active electrodes between which the signal
of interest may flow, and most are used for their unidirectional current property.
29. What is transistor?
In electronics, a transistor is a semiconductor device commonly used to amplify or switch electronic signals.
The transistor is the fundamental building block of computers, and all other modern electronic devices. Some
transistors are packaged individually but most are found in integrated circuits
30. What is op-amp?
An operational amplifier, often called an op-amp, is a DC-coupled high-gain electronic voltage amplifier with
differential inputs and, usually, a single output. Typically the output of the op-amp is controlled either by
negative feedback, which largely determines the magnitude of its output voltage gain, or by positive feedback,
which facilitates regenerative gain and oscillation.
31. What is a feedback?
Feedback is a process whereby some proportion of the output signal of a system is passed (fed back) to the
input. This is often used to control the dynamic behavior of the system.
32. Advantages of negative feedback over positive feedback.
Much attention has been given by researchers to negative feedback processes, because negative feedback
processes lead systems towards equilibrium states. Positive feedback reinforces a given tendency of a system and
can lead a system away from equilibrium states, possibly causing quite unexpected results.
33. What is Barkhausen criteria?
Barkhausen criteria, without which you will not know which conditions, are to be satisfied for oscillations.
“Oscillations will not be sustained if, at the oscillator frequency, the magnitude of the product of the Transfer
gain of the amplifier and the magnitude of the feedback factor of the feedback network (the magnitude of the
loop gain) are less than unity”.
The condition of unity loop gain -Aβ = 1 is called the Barkhausen criterion. This condition implies that
Aβ= 1and that the phase of - Aβ is zero.
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34. What is CDMA, TDMA, FDMA?
Code division multiple access (CDMA) is a channel access method utilized by various radio communication
technologies. CDMA employs spread-spectrum technology and a special coding scheme (where each transmitter
is assigned a code) to allow multiple users to be multiplexed over the same physical channel. By contrast, time
division multiple access (TDMA) divides access by time, while frequency-division multiple access (FDMA)
divides it by frequency. An analogy to the problem of multiple access is a room (channel) in which people wish
to communicate with each other. To avoid confusion, people could take turns speaking (time division), speak at
different pitches (frequency division), or speak in different directions (spatial division). In CDMA, they would
speak different languages. People speaking the same language can understand each other, but not other people.
Similarly, in radio CDMA, each group of users is given a shared code. Many codes occupy the same channel, but
only users associated with a particular code can understand each other.
35. explain different types of feedback
Types of feedback:
Negative feedback: This tends to reduce output (but in amplifiers, stabilizes and linearizes operation). Negative
feedback feeds part of a system's output, inverted, into the system's input; generally with the result that
fluctuations are attenuated.
Positive feedback: This tends to increase output. Positive feedback, sometimes referred to as "cumulative
causation", is a feedback loop system in which the system responds to perturbation (A perturbation means a
system, is an alteration of function, induced by external or internal mechanisms) in the same direction as the
perturbation. In contrast, a system that responds to the perturbation in the opposite direction is called a negative
feedback system.
Bipolar feedback: which can either increase or decrease output.
36. What are the main divisions of power system?
The generating system, transmission system, and distribution system
37. What is Instrumentation Amplifier (IA) and what are all the advantages?
An instrumentation amplifier is a differential op-amp circuit providing high input impedances with ease of
gain adjustment by varying a single resistor.
38. What is meant by impedance diagram?
The equivalent circuit of all the components of the power system are drawn and they are interconnected is
called impedance diagram.
39. What is the need for load flow study?
The load flow study of a power system is essential to decide the best operation existing system and for
planning the future expansion of the system. It is also essential for designing the power system.
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40. What is the need for base values?
The components of power system may operate at different voltage and power levels. It will be convenient for
analysis of power system if the voltage, power, current ratings of the components of the power system is
expressed with referance to a common value called base value.
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