This document provides a summary of file system concepts in the xv6 operating system, including: 1) Inodes are data structures that represent files and provide metadata and pointers to file data blocks. On-disk inodes are read into memory inodes when files are accessed. 2) Directories are represented by special directory inodes containing directory entries with names and pointers to other inodes. 3) The file system layout divides the disk into sections for the boot sector, superblock, inodes, bitmap, data blocks, and log for atomic transactions.

1. Lab 10: File system – Inodes and beyond
Advanced Operating Systems
Zubair Nabi
zubair.nabi@itu.edu.pk
April 10, 2013

2. Recap of Lab 9: xv6 FS layers
File descriptors
System calls
Recursive lookup Pathnames
Directory inodes
Inodes and
block allocator
Logging
Buffer cache
Directories
Files
Transactions
Blocks

3. Recap of Lab 9: xv6 FS layers (2)
1
Buffer cache: Reads and writes blocks on the IDE disk via the
buffer cache, which synchronizes access to disk blocks

4. Recap of Lab 9: xv6 FS layers (2)
1
Buffer cache: Reads and writes blocks on the IDE disk via the
buffer cache, which synchronizes access to disk blocks
• Ensures that only one kernel process can edit any particular block
at a time

5. Recap of Lab 9: xv6 FS layers (2)
1
Buffer cache: Reads and writes blocks on the IDE disk via the
buffer cache, which synchronizes access to disk blocks
• Ensures that only one kernel process can edit any particular block
at a time
2
Logging: Ensures atomicity by enabling higher layers to wrap
updates to several blocks in a transaction

6. Recap of Lab 9: xv6 FS layers (2)
1
Buffer cache: Reads and writes blocks on the IDE disk via the
buffer cache, which synchronizes access to disk blocks
• Ensures that only one kernel process can edit any particular block
at a time
2
Logging: Ensures atomicity by enabling higher layers to wrap
updates to several blocks in a transaction
3
Inodes and block allocator: Provides unnamed files, each
unnamed file is represented by an inode and a sequence of
blocks holding the file content

7. Recap of Lab 9: xv6 FS layers (3)
4
Directory inodes: Implements directories as a special kind of
inode

8. Recap of Lab 9: xv6 FS layers (3)
4
Directory inodes: Implements directories as a special kind of
inode
• The content of this inode is a sequence of directory entries, each
of which contains a name and a reference to the named file’s
inode

9. Recap of Lab 9: xv6 FS layers (3)
4
Directory inodes: Implements directories as a special kind of
inode
• The content of this inode is a sequence of directory entries, each
of which contains a name and a reference to the named file’s
inode
5
Recursive lookup: Provides hierarchical path names such as
/foo/bar/baz.txt, via recursive lookup

10. Recap of Lab 9: xv6 FS layers (3)
4
Directory inodes: Implements directories as a special kind of
inode
• The content of this inode is a sequence of directory entries, each
of which contains a name and a reference to the named file’s
inode
5
Recursive lookup: Provides hierarchical path names such as
/foo/bar/baz.txt, via recursive lookup
6
File descriptors: Abstracts many Unix resources, such as pipes,
devices, file, etc., using the file system interface

11. Recap of Lab 9: File system layout
• xv6 lays out inodes and content blocks on the disk by dividing the
disk into several sections

12. Recap of Lab 9: File system layout
• xv6 lays out inodes and content blocks on the disk by dividing the
disk into several sections
boot super
0
1
inodes...
2
• Block 0 holds the boot sector
bitmap...
…..
data...
log...

13. Recap of Lab 9: File system layout
• xv6 lays out inodes and content blocks on the disk by dividing the
disk into several sections
boot super
0
1
inodes...
2
bitmap...
data...
log...
…..
• Block 0 holds the boot sector
• Block 1 (called the superblock) contains metadata about the file
system

14. Recap of Lab 9: File system layout
• xv6 lays out inodes and content blocks on the disk by dividing the
disk into several sections
boot super
0
1
inodes...
2
bitmap...
data...
log...
…..
• Block 0 holds the boot sector
• Block 1 (called the superblock) contains metadata about the file
system
• File system size in blocks, the number of data blocks, the number
of inodes, and the number of blocks in the log

15. Recap of Lab 9: File system layout
• xv6 lays out inodes and content blocks on the disk by dividing the
disk into several sections
boot super
0
1
inodes...
2
bitmap...
data...
log...
…..
• Block 0 holds the boot sector
• Block 1 (called the superblock) contains metadata about the file
system
• File system size in blocks, the number of data blocks, the number
of inodes, and the number of blocks in the log
• Blocks starting at 2 hold inodes, with multiple inodes per block

16. Recap of Lab 9: File system layout
boot super
0
1
inodes...
2
bitmap...
data...
log...
…..
• inode blocks are followed by bitmap blocks which keep track of
data blocks in use

17. Recap of Lab 9: File system layout
boot super
0
1
inodes...
2
bitmap...
data...
log...
…..
• inode blocks are followed by bitmap blocks which keep track of
data blocks in use
• Bitmap blocks are followed by data blocks which hold file and
directory contents

18. Recap of Lab 9: File system layout
boot super
0
1
inodes...
2
bitmap...
data...
log...
…..
• inode blocks are followed by bitmap blocks which keep track of
data blocks in use
• Bitmap blocks are followed by data blocks which hold file and
directory contents
• Finally at the end, the blocks hold a log which is required by the
transaction layer

19. Inodes
• Have two variants:
1
On-disk data structure containing a file’s size and list of data block
numbers

20. Inodes
• Have two variants:
On-disk data structure containing a file’s size and list of data block
numbers
2 In-memory version of the on-disk inode, along with extra
information needed within the kernel
1

21. Inodes
• Have two variants:
On-disk data structure containing a file’s size and list of data block
numbers
2 In-memory version of the on-disk inode, along with extra
information needed within the kernel
1
• All on-disk inodes are stored in a contiguous area of disk,
between the superblock and the bitmap block

22. Inodes
• Have two variants:
On-disk data structure containing a file’s size and list of data block
numbers
2 In-memory version of the on-disk inode, along with extra
information needed within the kernel
1
• All on-disk inodes are stored in a contiguous area of disk,
between the superblock and the bitmap block
• Each inode has the same size, so given a number n (called the
inode number or i-number), it is simple to locate the
corresponding inode

23. On-disk inodes
• Represented by struct dinode

24. On-disk inodes
• Represented by struct dinode
• Contains a type field to distinguish between files, directories, and
special files (devices)

25. On-disk inodes
• Represented by struct dinode
• Contains a type field to distinguish between files, directories, and
special files (devices)
• Zero indicates that the dinode is free

26. On-disk inodes
• Represented by struct dinode
• Contains a type field to distinguish between files, directories, and
special files (devices)
• Zero indicates that the dinode is free
• Also keeps track of the number of directory entries that refer to
this inode

27. On-disk inodes
• Represented by struct dinode
• Contains a type field to distinguish between files, directories, and
special files (devices)
• Zero indicates that the dinode is free
• Also keeps track of the number of directory entries that refer to
this inode
• This reference count dictates when the inode should be freed

28. On-disk inodes
• Represented by struct dinode
• Contains a type field to distinguish between files, directories, and
special files (devices)
• Zero indicates that the dinode is free
• Also keeps track of the number of directory entries that refer to
this inode
• This reference count dictates when the inode should be freed
• Also has fields to hold number of bytes of content and the block
numbers of disk blocks

29. Code: dinode
struct dinode {
short type; // File type
short major; // Major device number (T_DEV only)
short minor; // Minor device number (T_DEV only)
short nlink; // Number of links to inode in file s
uint size; // Size of file (bytes)
uint addrs[NDIRECT+1]; // Data block addresses
};
#define T_DIR 1 // Directory
#define T_FILE 2 // File
#define T_DEV 3 // Device

30. In-memory inodes
• Represented by struct inode

31. In-memory inodes
• Represented by struct inode
• An inode is kept in memory if there are C pointers referring to it

32. In-memory inodes
• Represented by struct inode
• An inode is kept in memory if there are C pointers referring to it
• These pointers come from file descriptors, current working
directories, and kernel code

33. In-memory inodes
• Represented by struct inode
• An inode is kept in memory if there are C pointers referring to it
• These pointers come from file descriptors, current working
directories, and kernel code
• iget and iput functions are used to acquire and release
pointers to/from an inode

34. In-memory inodes
• Represented by struct inode
• An inode is kept in memory if there are C pointers referring to it
• These pointers come from file descriptors, current working
directories, and kernel code
• iget and iput functions are used to acquire and release
pointers to/from an inode
• A pointer via an iget() call implements a weak form of a lock by
ensuring that the inode will stay in the cache till the reference
count goes down to zero

35. In-memory inodes
• Represented by struct inode
• An inode is kept in memory if there are C pointers referring to it
• These pointers come from file descriptors, current working
directories, and kernel code
• iget and iput functions are used to acquire and release
pointers to/from an inode
• A pointer via an iget() call implements a weak form of a lock by
ensuring that the inode will stay in the cache till the reference
count goes down to zero
• These pointers enable long-term references (open files and
current directory) and to prevent deadlock in code that
manipulates multiple inodes (pathname lookup)

36. Code: inode
struct inode {
uint dev; // Device number
uint inum; // Inode number
int ref; // Reference count
int flags; // I_BUSY, I_VALID
short type; // copy of disk inode
short major;
short minor;
short nlink;
uint size;
uint addrs[NDIRECT+1];
};
#define I_BUSY 0x1
#define I_VALID 0x2

37. Inode locks and allocation
• To ensure that an inode has valid content, the code must read it
from disk

38. Inode locks and allocation
• To ensure that an inode has valid content, the code must read it
from disk
• This read call must be wrapped around ilock and iunlock

39. Inode locks and allocation
• To ensure that an inode has valid content, the code must read it
from disk
• This read call must be wrapped around ilock and iunlock
• This allows multiple processes to hold a C pointer to an inode but
only one process can lock it at a time

40. Inode locks and allocation
• To ensure that an inode has valid content, the code must read it
from disk
• This read call must be wrapped around ilock and iunlock
• This allows multiple processes to hold a C pointer to an inode but
only one process can lock it at a time
• Inodes are allocated via ialloc which works similar to balloc

41. Inode data
• Data is found in the blocks pointed to by the addrs fields

42. Inode data
• Data is found in the blocks pointed to by the addrs fields
• Size of addrs is NDIRECT+1 where NDIRECT is 12

43. Inode data
• Data is found in the blocks pointed to by the addrs fields
• Size of addrs is NDIRECT+1 where NDIRECT is 12
• addrs can refer to 6KB of data

44. Inode data
• Data is found in the blocks pointed to by the addrs fields
• Size of addrs is NDIRECT+1 where NDIRECT is 12
• addrs can refer to 6KB of data
• The 13th location in addrs field points to the indirect block
(NINDIRECT) which points to 64KB of data

45. Inode data
• Data is found in the blocks pointed to by the addrs fields
• Size of addrs is NDIRECT+1 where NDIRECT is 12
• addrs can refer to 6KB of data
• The 13th location in addrs field points to the indirect block
(NINDIRECT) which points to 64KB of data
• Therefore, while fixed-sized blocks simplify look up, the maximum
size of a file in xv6 can be 70KB

46. Inodes content
• bmap(struct inode *ip, uint bn) returns the disk
address of the nth block within inode ip, masking away the
complexity of direct and indirect blocks

47. Inodes content
• bmap(struct inode *ip, uint bn) returns the disk
address of the nth block within inode ip, masking away the
complexity of direct and indirect blocks
• If the data block does not exist, it is created

48. Inodes content
• bmap(struct inode *ip, uint bn) returns the disk
address of the nth block within inode ip, masking away the
complexity of direct and indirect blocks
• If the data block does not exist, it is created
• itrunc(struct inode *ip) frees inode ip by setting its
reference count to zero and freeing up blocks, both direct and
indirect

49. Inodes content
• bmap(struct inode *ip, uint bn) returns the disk
address of the nth block within inode ip, masking away the
complexity of direct and indirect blocks
• If the data block does not exist, it is created
• itrunc(struct inode *ip) frees inode ip by setting its
reference count to zero and freeing up blocks, both direct and
indirect
• readi(struct inode *ip, char *dst, uint
off, uint n) reads n blocks in inode ip starting from off
into dst

50. Inodes content (2)
• writei(struct inode *ip, char *src, uint
off, uint n) works similar to readi but it:

51. Inodes content (2)
• writei(struct inode *ip, char *src, uint
off, uint n) works similar to readi but it:
1
Copies data in instead of out

52. Inodes content (2)
• writei(struct inode *ip, char *src, uint
off, uint n) works similar to readi but it:
1
2
Copies data in instead of out
Extends the file if the write increases its size

53. Inodes content (2)
• writei(struct inode *ip, char *src, uint
off, uint n) works similar to readi but it:
Copies data in instead of out
Extends the file if the write increases its size
3 Updates the size in the inode
1
2

54. Inodes content (2)
• writei(struct inode *ip, char *src, uint
off, uint n) works similar to readi but it:
Copies data in instead of out
Extends the file if the write increases its size
3 Updates the size in the inode
1
2
• stati(struct inode *ip, struct stat *st)
copies metadata of inode ip into st which is exposed to
userspace via the stat system call

55. Directory layer
• A directory is a file with an inode type T_DIR and data in the
form of a sequence of directory entries

56. Directory layer
• A directory is a file with an inode type T_DIR and data in the
form of a sequence of directory entries
• Each entry is a struct dirent

57. Directory layer
• A directory is a file with an inode type T_DIR and data in the
form of a sequence of directory entries
• Each entry is a struct dirent
struct dirent {
ushort inum; // free, if zero
char name[DIRSIZ];
};
#define DIRSIZ 14

58. dirlookup
• Searches a directory for an entry with the given name

59. dirlookup
• Searches a directory for an entry with the given name
• Signature: struct inode* dirlookup(struct inode
*dp, char *name, uint *poff)

60. dirlookup
• Searches a directory for an entry with the given name
• Signature: struct inode* dirlookup(struct inode
*dp, char *name, uint *poff)
• If it finds it, it returns a pointer to the corresponding inode via
iget, unlocked, and returns the offset of the entry within the
directory

61. dirlink
• Writes a new directory entry with the given name and inode
number into dp

62. dirlink
• Writes a new directory entry with the given name and inode
number into dp
• Signature: int dirlink(struct inode *dp, char
*name, uint inum)

63. Path names
• Path name look up is enabled by multiple calls – one for each
path component – to dirlookup

64. Path names
• Path name look up is enabled by multiple calls – one for each
path component – to dirlookup
• namei takes a path and returns the corresponding inode

65. Path names
• Path name look up is enabled by multiple calls – one for each
path component – to dirlookup
• namei takes a path and returns the corresponding inode
• nameiparent is similar but returns the inode of the parent
directory

66. Path names
• Path name look up is enabled by multiple calls – one for each
path component – to dirlookup
• namei takes a path and returns the corresponding inode
• nameiparent is similar but returns the inode of the parent
directory
• Both make a call to namex internally

67. namex
• Starts by deciding where the path evaluation begins

68. namex
• Starts by deciding where the path evaluation begins
• If the path begins with /, evaluation starts at the root

69. namex
• Starts by deciding where the path evaluation begins
• If the path begins with /, evaluation starts at the root
• Otherwise, the current directory

70. namex
• Starts by deciding where the path evaluation begins
• If the path begins with /, evaluation starts at the root
• Otherwise, the current directory
• Uses skipelem to parse the path into path elements

71. namex
• Starts by deciding where the path evaluation begins
• If the path begins with /, evaluation starts at the root
• Otherwise, the current directory
• Uses skipelem to parse the path into path elements
• For each iteration (depending on the number of path elements),
looks up name within the current path element inode till it finds
the required inode and returns it

72. File descriptor layer
• Everything in Unix is a file and this interface is enabled by the file
descriptor layer

73. File descriptor layer
• Everything in Unix is a file and this interface is enabled by the file
descriptor layer
• Each process has its own open files (or file descriptor) table

74. File descriptor layer
• Everything in Unix is a file and this interface is enabled by the file
descriptor layer
• Each process has its own open files (or file descriptor) table
• Each open file is represented by struct file

75. Code: struct file
struct file {
enum { FD_NONE, FD_PIPE, FD_INODE } type;
int ref; // reference count
char readable;
char writable;
struct pipe *pipe;
struct inode *ip;
uint off;
};

76. file
• struct file is simply a wrapper around an inode or a pipe;
plus an I/O offset

77. file
• struct file is simply a wrapper around an inode or a pipe;
plus an I/O offset
• Each call to open creates a new struct file

78. file
• struct file is simply a wrapper around an inode or a pipe;
plus an I/O offset
• Each call to open creates a new struct file
• If multiple processes open the same independently, they will have
their own struct file for it with a local I/O offset

79. file
• struct file is simply a wrapper around an inode or a pipe;
plus an I/O offset
• Each call to open creates a new struct file
• If multiple processes open the same independently, they will have
their own struct file for it with a local I/O offset
• The same struct file can appear multiple times within a) A
process’s file table, and b) Across multiple processes

80. file
• struct file is simply a wrapper around an inode or a pipe;
plus an I/O offset
• Each call to open creates a new struct file
• If multiple processes open the same independently, they will have
their own struct file for it with a local I/O offset
• The same struct file can appear multiple times within a) A
process’s file table, and b) Across multiple processes
• When would this happen?

81. file
• struct file is simply a wrapper around an inode or a pipe;
plus an I/O offset
• Each call to open creates a new struct file
• If multiple processes open the same independently, they will have
their own struct file for it with a local I/O offset
• The same struct file can appear multiple times within a) A
process’s file table, and b) Across multiple processes
• When would this happen?
• a happens when a process opens a file and then dups it and b
takes place when it makes a call to fork

82. file
• struct file is simply a wrapper around an inode or a pipe;
plus an I/O offset
• Each call to open creates a new struct file
• If multiple processes open the same independently, they will have
their own struct file for it with a local I/O offset
• The same struct file can appear multiple times within a) A
process’s file table, and b) Across multiple processes
• When would this happen?
• a happens when a process opens a file and then dups it and b
takes place when it makes a call to fork
• Reference count tracks the number of references to a particular
open file

83. file
• struct file is simply a wrapper around an inode or a pipe;
plus an I/O offset
• Each call to open creates a new struct file
• If multiple processes open the same independently, they will have
their own struct file for it with a local I/O offset
• The same struct file can appear multiple times within a) A
process’s file table, and b) Across multiple processes
• When would this happen?
• a happens when a process opens a file and then dups it and b
takes place when it makes a call to fork
• Reference count tracks the number of references to a particular
open file
• Read/write access is tracked by readable/writable fields

84. Global file table
• All open files in the system are kept within a global file table
(ftable)

85. Global file table
• All open files in the system are kept within a global file table
(ftable)
• ftable has corresponding functions to:
1 Allocate a file: filealloc

86. Global file table
• All open files in the system are kept within a global file table
(ftable)
• ftable has corresponding functions to:
1 Allocate a file: filealloc
2 Create a duplicate reference: filedup

87. Global file table
• All open files in the system are kept within a global file table
(ftable)
• ftable has corresponding functions to:
1 Allocate a file: filealloc
2 Create a duplicate reference: filedup
3 Release a reference: fileclose

88. Global file table
• All open files in the system are kept within a global file table
(ftable)
• ftable has corresponding functions to:
1 Allocate a file: filealloc
2 Create a duplicate reference: filedup
3 Release a reference: fileclose
4 Read from a file: fileread

89. Global file table
• All open files in the system are kept within a global file table
(ftable)
• ftable has corresponding functions to:
1 Allocate a file: filealloc
2 Create a duplicate reference: filedup
3 Release a reference: fileclose
4 Read from a file: fileread
5 Write to a file: filewrite

90. File manipulation
• filealloc: Scans the file table for an unreferenced file
(f->ref == 0) and returns a new reference

91. File manipulation
• filealloc: Scans the file table for an unreferenced file
(f->ref == 0) and returns a new reference
• filedup: Increments the reference count

92. File manipulation
• filealloc: Scans the file table for an unreferenced file
(f->ref == 0) and returns a new reference
• filedup: Increments the reference count
• fileclose: Decrements the reference count

93. File manipulation
• filealloc: Scans the file table for an unreferenced file
(f->ref == 0) and returns a new reference
• filedup: Increments the reference count
• fileclose: Decrements the reference count
• If f->ref == 0, underlying pipe or inode is released

94. File manipulation (2)
• filestat: Invokes stati and ensures that the file represents
an inode

95. File manipulation (2)
• filestat: Invokes stati and ensures that the file represents
an inode
• fileread and filewrite:
1
Check whether the operation is allowed by the open mode

96. File manipulation (2)
• filestat: Invokes stati and ensures that the file represents
an inode
• fileread and filewrite:
1
2
Check whether the operation is allowed by the open mode
Patch the call through to either the underlying pipe or inode
implementation

97. File manipulation (2)
• filestat: Invokes stati and ensures that the file represents
an inode
• fileread and filewrite:
Check whether the operation is allowed by the open mode
Patch the call through to either the underlying pipe or inode
implementation
3 If the wrapper is around an inode, the I/O offset would be used
and then advanced
1
2

98. File manipulation (2)
• filestat: Invokes stati and ensures that the file represents
an inode
• fileread and filewrite:
Check whether the operation is allowed by the open mode
Patch the call through to either the underlying pipe or inode
implementation
3 If the wrapper is around an inode, the I/O offset would be used
and then advanced
4 Pipes have no concept of offset
1
2

99. System calls
• sys_link and sys_unlink edit directories by creating or
removing references to inodes

100. System calls
• sys_link and sys_unlink edit directories by creating or
removing references to inodes
• sys_link creates a new name for an existing inode

101. System calls
• sys_link and sys_unlink edit directories by creating or
removing references to inodes
• sys_link creates a new name for an existing inode
1 Takes as arguments two strings old and new

102. System calls
• sys_link and sys_unlink edit directories by creating or
removing references to inodes
• sys_link creates a new name for an existing inode
1 Takes as arguments two strings old and new
2 Increments its nlink field – Number of links

103. System calls
• sys_link and sys_unlink edit directories by creating or
removing references to inodes
• sys_link creates a new name for an existing inode
1 Takes as arguments two strings old and new
2 Increments its nlink field – Number of links
3
Creates a new directory entry pointing at old’s inode

104. System calls
• sys_link and sys_unlink edit directories by creating or
removing references to inodes
• sys_link creates a new name for an existing inode
1 Takes as arguments two strings old and new
2 Increments its nlink field – Number of links
3
4
Creates a new directory entry pointing at old’s inode
The new directory entry is on the same inode as the existing one

105. create
• Creates a new name for a new inode

106. create
• Creates a new name for a new inode
• Generalizes the creation of three file creation system calls:

107. create
• Creates a new name for a new inode
• Generalizes the creation of three file creation system calls:
1 open with the O_CREATE flag creates a new file

108. create
• Creates a new name for a new inode
• Generalizes the creation of three file creation system calls:
1 open with the O_CREATE flag creates a new file
2 mkdir creates a new directory

109. create
• Creates a new name for a new inode
• Generalizes the creation of three file creation system calls:
1 open with the O_CREATE flag creates a new file
2 mkdir creates a new directory
3 mkdev creates a new device file

110. create (2)
• Makes a call to dirlookup to check whether the name already
exists

111. create (2)
• Makes a call to dirlookup to check whether the name already
exists
• If it does not exist, creates a new inode via a call to ialloc

112. create (2)
• Makes a call to dirlookup to check whether the name already
exists
• If it does not exist, creates a new inode via a call to ialloc
• If create has been invoked by mkdir (T_DIR), it initializes it
with . and .. entries

113. create (2)
• Makes a call to dirlookup to check whether the name already
exists
• If it does not exist, creates a new inode via a call to ialloc
• If create has been invoked by mkdir (T_DIR), it initializes it
with . and .. entries
• Finally, it links it into the parent directory

114. Buffer cache eviction policy
• xv6’s buffer cache uses simple LRU eviction

115. Buffer cache eviction policy
• xv6’s buffer cache uses simple LRU eviction
• A number of different policies can be implemented such as FIFO,
not frequently used, aging, random, etc.

116. Buffer cache eviction policy
• xv6’s buffer cache uses simple LRU eviction
• A number of different policies can be implemented such as FIFO,
not frequently used, aging, random, etc.
• The buffer cache is currently a linked list but an efficient
implementation can replace it with a hash table and/or a heap

117. Buffer cache eviction policy
• xv6’s buffer cache uses simple LRU eviction
• A number of different policies can be implemented such as FIFO,
not frequently used, aging, random, etc.
• The buffer cache is currently a linked list but an efficient
implementation can replace it with a hash table and/or a heap
• The buffer cache can also be integrated with the virtual memory
system to enabled memory-mapped files (mmap in Linux)

118. Today’s task
• xv6 has no support for memory-mapped files
• Come up with a design to implement mmap1
1
http://man7.org/linux/man-pages/man2/mmap.2.html

119. Reading(s)
• Chapter 6, “File system”, from “Code: directory layer" onwards
from “xv6: a simple, Unix-like teaching operating system”