Antigens & antibodies Intro
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An antigen is any substance that causes the immune system to produce antibodies. Antigens can be external substances like bacteria or viruses, or internally produced substances like bacterial toxins or tissue cells. Antibodies are proteins produced by the immune system in response to antigens, and each antibody defends against a specific antigen such as a microorganism. Common antigens include proteins, polysaccharides, and conjugates of lipids with proteins or polysaccharides. Blood also contains antigens that determine blood type.
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Antigen antibody systems
The document discusses the antigen-antibody system. It defines antigen and antibody, and describes how they interact specifically. It explains different types of antigen-antibody reactions like precipitation, agglutination, neutralization, immunofluorescence, ELISA, and immunoelectron microscopy. These reactions form the basis of immunity and are used for disease diagnosis, identification of bacteria and viruses, forensic applications, and more. The antigen-antibody system plays an important role in both preventing and diagnosing infectious diseases.
Antigen concept made easy
1. DEFINITION.
2. CHEMICAL NATURE OF ANTIGEN.
3. TYPES OF ANTIGEN.
4. HAPTENS.
5. SUPER ANTIGEN.
6. DETERMINANTS OF ANTIGENICITY.
7. ADJUVANTS.
8. EPITOPES.
9 . USES.
10. ANTIGEN DETECTION METHOD.
Antibodies structure and functions
Antibody (Ab) also known as Immunoglobulin (Ig) is the large Y shaped protein produced by the body’s immune system when it detects harmful substances, called antigens like bacteria and viruses. The production of antibodies is a major function of the immune system and is carried out by a type of white blood cell called a B cell (B lymphocyte), differentiated B cells called plasma cells. The produced antibodies bind to specific antigens express in external factors and cancer cells.
Antigen
Antigens are the substances which induce specific immune reactions in the body.
Antigens include molecules such as proteins, nucleoproteins, polysaccharides, lipoprotein and some glycolipids.
The ability of a molecule to function as an antigen depends on its size, structural complexity, chemical nature, and degree of foreignness to the host.
Types of antigens
Antigens are of two types:
1. Autoantigens or self antigens present on the body’s own cells such as ‘A’ antigen and ‘B’ antigen in RBCs.
2. Foreign antigen s or non-self antigens that enter the body from outside.
Following are non-self antigens:
1. Receptors on the cell membrane of microbial organisms such as bacteria, viruses and fungi.
2. Toxins from microbial organisms.
3. Materials from transplanted organs or incompatible blood cells.
4. Allergens or allergic substances like pollen grains.
Antigen & antigenicity
Antigen
Antigen is a substance which binds specifically with the products (antibodies, T-cells) of the immune system.
Its ability to bind with antibodies is called antigenicity.
Immunogen
It is a substance which produces an immune response as well as binds to its products.
So, immunogen is an antigen as well but antigen need not be immunogen.
The property of producing an immune response is called immunogenicity.
Antigen-Antibody Reactions
The document discusses antigen-antibody reactions. It begins by introducing antigens and antibodies and how they specifically combine in antigen-antibody reactions. The reactions occur in three stages: formation of an antigen-antibody complex, leading to visible events like precipitation or agglutination, and destruction or neutralization of the antigen. Key features of antigen-antibody reactions are their specificity, the formation of immune complexes, antigen binding sites called epitopes, and the binding force between antigens and antibodies. Common types of antigen-antibody reactions include precipitation, agglutination, complement fixation, ELISA, and immunofluorescence.
Immunoglobulins
Immunoglobulins are glycoprotein antibodies produced by plasma cells in response to antigens. They have Y-shaped structures composed of two heavy chains and two light chains connected by disulfide bonds. The variable regions at the tips of the Y determine antigen binding specificity, while the constant regions mediate effector functions like complement activation. The five major classes in humans are IgG, IgM, IgA, IgD, and IgE, which have different structures, properties, and roles in immunity.
Immunoglobulin
Immunoglobulins are glycoprotein molecules composed of two light chains and two heavy chains that function as antibodies. They bind specifically to antigens through complementarity determining regions in their variable regions. This binding can result in various effector functions like complement activation or binding to immune cells. Immunoglobulin molecules can be cleaved by enzymes into fragments that isolate different functional properties - Fab fragments contain the antigen binding site, Fc fragments mediate effector functions, and F(ab')2 fragments are divalent for antigen binding but lack effector functions.
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Antigen antibody systems
The document discusses the antigen-antibody system. It defines antigen and antibody, and describes how they interact specifically. It explains different types of antigen-antibody reactions like precipitation, agglutination, neutralization, immunofluorescence, ELISA, and immunoelectron microscopy. These reactions form the basis of immunity and are used for disease diagnosis, identification of bacteria and viruses, forensic applications, and more. The antigen-antibody system plays an important role in both preventing and diagnosing infectious diseases.
Antigen concept made easy
1. DEFINITION.
2. CHEMICAL NATURE OF ANTIGEN.
3. TYPES OF ANTIGEN.
4. HAPTENS.
5. SUPER ANTIGEN.
6. DETERMINANTS OF ANTIGENICITY.
7. ADJUVANTS.
8. EPITOPES.
9 . USES.
10. ANTIGEN DETECTION METHOD.
Antibodies structure and functions
Antibody (Ab) also known as Immunoglobulin (Ig) is the large Y shaped protein produced by the body’s immune system when it detects harmful substances, called antigens like bacteria and viruses. The production of antibodies is a major function of the immune system and is carried out by a type of white blood cell called a B cell (B lymphocyte), differentiated B cells called plasma cells. The produced antibodies bind to specific antigens express in external factors and cancer cells.
Antigen
Antigens are the substances which induce specific immune reactions in the body.
Antigens include molecules such as proteins, nucleoproteins, polysaccharides, lipoprotein and some glycolipids.
The ability of a molecule to function as an antigen depends on its size, structural complexity, chemical nature, and degree of foreignness to the host.
Types of antigens
Antigens are of two types:
1. Autoantigens or self antigens present on the body’s own cells such as ‘A’ antigen and ‘B’ antigen in RBCs.
2. Foreign antigen s or non-self antigens that enter the body from outside.
Following are non-self antigens:
1. Receptors on the cell membrane of microbial organisms such as bacteria, viruses and fungi.
2. Toxins from microbial organisms.
3. Materials from transplanted organs or incompatible blood cells.
4. Allergens or allergic substances like pollen grains.
Antigen & antigenicity
Antigen
Antigen is a substance which binds specifically with the products (antibodies, T-cells) of the immune system.
Its ability to bind with antibodies is called antigenicity.
Immunogen
It is a substance which produces an immune response as well as binds to its products.
So, immunogen is an antigen as well but antigen need not be immunogen.
The property of producing an immune response is called immunogenicity.
Antigen-Antibody Reactions
The document discusses antigen-antibody reactions. It begins by introducing antigens and antibodies and how they specifically combine in antigen-antibody reactions. The reactions occur in three stages: formation of an antigen-antibody complex, leading to visible events like precipitation or agglutination, and destruction or neutralization of the antigen. Key features of antigen-antibody reactions are their specificity, the formation of immune complexes, antigen binding sites called epitopes, and the binding force between antigens and antibodies. Common types of antigen-antibody reactions include precipitation, agglutination, complement fixation, ELISA, and immunofluorescence.
Immunoglobulins
Immunoglobulins are glycoprotein antibodies produced by plasma cells in response to antigens. They have Y-shaped structures composed of two heavy chains and two light chains connected by disulfide bonds. The variable regions at the tips of the Y determine antigen binding specificity, while the constant regions mediate effector functions like complement activation. The five major classes in humans are IgG, IgM, IgA, IgD, and IgE, which have different structures, properties, and roles in immunity.
Immunoglobulin
Immunoglobulins are glycoprotein molecules composed of two light chains and two heavy chains that function as antibodies. They bind specifically to antigens through complementarity determining regions in their variable regions. This binding can result in various effector functions like complement activation or binding to immune cells. Immunoglobulin molecules can be cleaved by enzymes into fragments that isolate different functional properties - Fab fragments contain the antigen binding site, Fc fragments mediate effector functions, and F(ab')2 fragments are divalent for antigen binding but lack effector functions.
Ag-Ab Reactions
This document provides an overview of antigen-antibody reactions, including definitions, general features, measurement techniques, types of reactions such as precipitation, agglutination, neutralization, immunofluorescence, radioimmunoassay, and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). It describes techniques like precipitation reactions in liquids and gels, single and double diffusion, electrophoresis, latex agglutination, complement fixation, and microtitration agglutination tests. The document outlines the applications and uses of these various antigen-antibody reaction techniques.
Aids an other immunodeficiencies.....
Primary immunodeficiencies are present at birth and can affect adaptive or innate immune functions. The most common secondary immunodeficiency is acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS), which is caused by the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV-1). HIV-1 infects and kills CD4+ T cells, eventually leaving the body vulnerable to opportunistic infections. While antiretroviral drugs can suppress HIV-1 and prolong life, developing an effective vaccine remains the best option to prevent the spread of AIDS.
Precipitation Reaction
This document discusses various precipitation reactions and immunological techniques used to detect antigens and antibodies, including: Ouchterlony double immunodiffusion, single radial immunodiffusion, immunoelectrophoresis, and rocket electrophoresis. It explains that precipitation reactions involve two soluble reactants forming an insoluble precipitate. These techniques use diffusion and electrophoresis of antigens and antibodies in semi-solid media like agar to form visible precipitin lines, rings, or rockets, allowing detection and sometimes quantification of proteins. The techniques have various applications in medicine and clinical laboratories.
Autoimmunity and autoimmune disease
The document summarizes a chapter about autoimmunity and autoimmune diseases from three perspectives:
1) It outlines several key autoimmune diseases, their causes from abnormal immune responses against self-antigens, and their symptoms.
2) It discusses the use of animal models to study the mechanisms and potential treatments of autoimmune diseases.
3) It examines current therapeutic approaches that aim to suppress autoimmune responses through drugs or removal of target organs, and potential alternative strategies like inducing tolerance to self-antigens.
Immune response
The document summarizes key aspects of the immune response and immune system. It defines important immune concepts like immunity, antigens, innate immunity, acquired immunity, active and passive immunity. It describes the anatomy of the immune system including primary organs like bone marrow and thymus, and secondary organs. It also outlines the functions of the skin, mucous membranes, phagocytes, inflammation, complement system, interferons and other antimicrobial substances in the innate immune response.
Immunologic memory
Dr. Ashish Warghane is a professor in the Department of Life Sciences at Mandsaur University in India. The document discusses immunological memory, which allows the immune system to mount a stronger and faster response when encountering an antigen for the second or subsequent times. Immunological memory is responsible for adaptive immunity and is created after an initial exposure to an antigen. It involves memory B and T cells that remain in the body in a resting state and can respond quickly when the same antigen is detected again. Immunological memory forms the basis of vaccination.
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This document defines key immunological concepts such as antigens, immunogens, epitopes, haptens, cross-reactivity, mitogens, and superantigens. It explains that antigens are substances that induce an immune response, while immunogens are antigens that specifically induce an effective immune response. It also discusses the differences between B cell and T cell antigen recognition and factors that influence antigen immunogenicity.
Antigen
This document discusses antigens and epitopes. It defines antigens as substances that induce an immune response and react with immune system products. Antigens include molecules like proteins, polysaccharides, and lipids. Epitopes are specific regions of antigens that interact with antibodies. A single antigen can have multiple epitopes that each bind to a different antibody. Factors that determine antigenicity include size, chemical nature, complexity, structural stability, foreignness, and an individual's genetic makeup.
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Here is some information about 5 important immunological techniques including Flowcytometry and RIA
I hope it helps and please comment if u come across any mistakes or scope for improvement, it'll really be appreciated.
Introduction to antigen
Antigens are substances that induce a specific immune response and react with the products of that response. They stimulate the immune system to produce antibodies and each antigen has a distinct epitope. Antigens can be proteins, lipids, carbohydrates or nucleic acids and are generally found on bacteria, viruses, fungi or in allergens. They cause diseases or allergic reactions. Epitopes are the immunologically active regions of antigens that antibodies or lymphocytes bind to. Antigens can be exogenous (external), endogenous (internal) or autoantigens involved in autoimmune diseases.
Antigen
Antigen is a substance that induces an immune response through the formation of antibodies or activation of T cells. Antigens can be proteins, polysaccharides, nucleic acids, or lipids. Immunogens are antigens that are capable of inducing an immune response on their own due to their large size, while haptens require a carrier molecule. Antigenicity refers to the ability to bind antibodies, while immunogenicity is the ability to induce an immune response. Factors like molecular size, chemical composition, dose, and route of administration can influence a substance's immunogenicity. Adjuvants are substances that enhance the immune response to an immunogen when used together.
Antigen
An antigen is a substance that triggers the immune system to produce antibodies. Antigens react with both T cells and antibodies. They have multiple epitopes that antibodies can bind to. For a substance to be immunogenic, it must be foreign, macromolecular, chemically complex, and stable. The dosage, route of administration, and use of adjuvants can impact a substance's immunogenicity. Antigens are recognized by B cells and T cells through their epitopes, which antibodies and T cells bind to through their paratopes. Antigens can be complete or incomplete, self or foreign, and T cell dependent or independent.
Immunoglobulins
Immunoglobulins, also known as antibodies, are Y-shaped glycoproteins produced by B cells that function to recognize and bind to foreign objects like antigens or pathogens. There are five classes of immunoglobulins - IgG, IgM, IgA, IgD, and IgE - which differ in size, sugar content, and biological function. Each immunoglobulin molecule contains two light chains and two heavy chains that form variable and constant regions. The variable regions are responsible for binding to antigens while the constant regions mediate different immune functions.
primary and secondary immune response
The document discusses the defense mechanisms of the body and summarizes key points about primary and secondary immune responses and types of hypersensitivity reactions. It describes how the primary immune response occurs during first-time exposure to an antigen and produces fewer, lower affinity antibodies over 7-10 days. The secondary immune response occurs on subsequent exposures and produces more, higher affinity antibodies within 3-5 days. It also defines and compares the four types of hypersensitivity reactions: Type I is immediate allergy mediated by IgE; Type II is cytotoxic; Type III is immune complex mediated; Type IV is cell-mediated and delayed.
Innate & Adaptive Immunity
This document summarizes innate and adaptive immunity. It explains that innate immunity is the first line of defense and is non-specific. It acts through physical, biochemical, and genetic factors like skin, mucous membranes, tears, and species immunity. Adaptive immunity is antigen-specific and develops immunological memory. It includes natural adaptive immunity gained from infection or passive transfer of antibodies from mother to child, and artificial adaptive immunity from vaccination or monoclonal antibody therapy.
Hypersensitivity
Type I, II, III, and IV hypersensitivity reactions are classified based on their pathogenic mechanisms. Type I reactions involve IgE antibodies and mast cell degranulation. Type II reactions involve IgG or IgM antibodies binding to cell surfaces and activating complement. Type III reactions involve immune complex deposition in tissues. Type IV reactions are T cell-mediated and occur hours to days after antigen exposure. Examples of each type are discussed.
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Agglutination
Agglutination is the clumping together of antigens and antibodies. It occurs when the antibodies bind to particulate antigens. This causes the antigens to crosslink and form visible aggregates. Common applications of agglutination tests include blood typing (ABO and Rh), diagnosis of typhoid (Widal test), and identification of antibodies against Rh antigens (Coombs test). The titer or end point of an agglutination test refers to the highest dilution at which antigen-antibody clumping is still visible.
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Antigens and antibodies
Antigens are substances that cause the immune system to produce antibodies. Antigens can be external, like bacteria or viruses, or internal, like bacterial toxins or damaged cells. Antibodies are proteins produced by the immune system in response to antigens. Each antibody targets a specific antigen. When an antibody binds to its matching antigen, it helps protect the body or tags antigens for destruction.
Antigen
1. An antigen is any substance that causes the immune system to produce antibodies against it. Antigens can be external substances like viruses, bacteria, and pollen that enter the body, or they can be generated internally through infections or metabolism.
2. There are different types of antigens including exogenous antigens from outside the body, endogenous antigens produced internally, autoantigens that cause autoimmune disorders, and tumor antigens on cancer cells.
3. Antigens have antigenic determinants called epitopes that bind to receptors on lymphocytes and stimulate an immune response. Adjuvants are substances used in vaccines to enhance the immune response to antigens.
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This document provides an overview of antigen-antibody reactions, including definitions, general features, measurement techniques, types of reactions such as precipitation, agglutination, neutralization, immunofluorescence, radioimmunoassay, and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). It describes techniques like precipitation reactions in liquids and gels, single and double diffusion, electrophoresis, latex agglutination, complement fixation, and microtitration agglutination tests. The document outlines the applications and uses of these various antigen-antibody reaction techniques.
Aids an other immunodeficiencies.....
Primary immunodeficiencies are present at birth and can affect adaptive or innate immune functions. The most common secondary immunodeficiency is acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS), which is caused by the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV-1). HIV-1 infects and kills CD4+ T cells, eventually leaving the body vulnerable to opportunistic infections. While antiretroviral drugs can suppress HIV-1 and prolong life, developing an effective vaccine remains the best option to prevent the spread of AIDS.
Precipitation Reaction
This document discusses various precipitation reactions and immunological techniques used to detect antigens and antibodies, including: Ouchterlony double immunodiffusion, single radial immunodiffusion, immunoelectrophoresis, and rocket electrophoresis. It explains that precipitation reactions involve two soluble reactants forming an insoluble precipitate. These techniques use diffusion and electrophoresis of antigens and antibodies in semi-solid media like agar to form visible precipitin lines, rings, or rockets, allowing detection and sometimes quantification of proteins. The techniques have various applications in medicine and clinical laboratories.
Autoimmunity and autoimmune disease
The document summarizes a chapter about autoimmunity and autoimmune diseases from three perspectives:
1) It outlines several key autoimmune diseases, their causes from abnormal immune responses against self-antigens, and their symptoms.
2) It discusses the use of animal models to study the mechanisms and potential treatments of autoimmune diseases.
3) It examines current therapeutic approaches that aim to suppress autoimmune responses through drugs or removal of target organs, and potential alternative strategies like inducing tolerance to self-antigens.
Immune response
The document summarizes key aspects of the immune response and immune system. It defines important immune concepts like immunity, antigens, innate immunity, acquired immunity, active and passive immunity. It describes the anatomy of the immune system including primary organs like bone marrow and thymus, and secondary organs. It also outlines the functions of the skin, mucous membranes, phagocytes, inflammation, complement system, interferons and other antimicrobial substances in the innate immune response.
Immunologic memory
Dr. Ashish Warghane is a professor in the Department of Life Sciences at Mandsaur University in India. The document discusses immunological memory, which allows the immune system to mount a stronger and faster response when encountering an antigen for the second or subsequent times. Immunological memory is responsible for adaptive immunity and is created after an initial exposure to an antigen. It involves memory B and T cells that remain in the body in a resting state and can respond quickly when the same antigen is detected again. Immunological memory forms the basis of vaccination.
Antigens ms
This document defines key immunological concepts such as antigens, immunogens, epitopes, haptens, cross-reactivity, mitogens, and superantigens. It explains that antigens are substances that induce an immune response, while immunogens are antigens that specifically induce an effective immune response. It also discusses the differences between B cell and T cell antigen recognition and factors that influence antigen immunogenicity.
Antigen
This document discusses antigens and epitopes. It defines antigens as substances that induce an immune response and react with immune system products. Antigens include molecules like proteins, polysaccharides, and lipids. Epitopes are specific regions of antigens that interact with antibodies. A single antigen can have multiple epitopes that each bind to a different antibody. Factors that determine antigenicity include size, chemical nature, complexity, structural stability, foreignness, and an individual's genetic makeup.
IMMUNODEFICIENCY DISEASES
Immunodficiency or immune deficiency is the state in which immune system’s ability to fight infectious disease is compromised or entirely absent.
Some immunological techniques
Here is some information about 5 important immunological techniques including Flowcytometry and RIA
I hope it helps and please comment if u come across any mistakes or scope for improvement, it'll really be appreciated.
Introduction to antigen
Antigens are substances that induce a specific immune response and react with the products of that response. They stimulate the immune system to produce antibodies and each antigen has a distinct epitope. Antigens can be proteins, lipids, carbohydrates or nucleic acids and are generally found on bacteria, viruses, fungi or in allergens. They cause diseases or allergic reactions. Epitopes are the immunologically active regions of antigens that antibodies or lymphocytes bind to. Antigens can be exogenous (external), endogenous (internal) or autoantigens involved in autoimmune diseases.
Antigen
Antigen is a substance that induces an immune response through the formation of antibodies or activation of T cells. Antigens can be proteins, polysaccharides, nucleic acids, or lipids. Immunogens are antigens that are capable of inducing an immune response on their own due to their large size, while haptens require a carrier molecule. Antigenicity refers to the ability to bind antibodies, while immunogenicity is the ability to induce an immune response. Factors like molecular size, chemical composition, dose, and route of administration can influence a substance's immunogenicity. Adjuvants are substances that enhance the immune response to an immunogen when used together.
Antigen
An antigen is a substance that triggers the immune system to produce antibodies. Antigens react with both T cells and antibodies. They have multiple epitopes that antibodies can bind to. For a substance to be immunogenic, it must be foreign, macromolecular, chemically complex, and stable. The dosage, route of administration, and use of adjuvants can impact a substance's immunogenicity. Antigens are recognized by B cells and T cells through their epitopes, which antibodies and T cells bind to through their paratopes. Antigens can be complete or incomplete, self or foreign, and T cell dependent or independent.
Immunoglobulins
Immunoglobulins, also known as antibodies, are Y-shaped glycoproteins produced by B cells that function to recognize and bind to foreign objects like antigens or pathogens. There are five classes of immunoglobulins - IgG, IgM, IgA, IgD, and IgE - which differ in size, sugar content, and biological function. Each immunoglobulin molecule contains two light chains and two heavy chains that form variable and constant regions. The variable regions are responsible for binding to antigens while the constant regions mediate different immune functions.
primary and secondary immune response
The document discusses the defense mechanisms of the body and summarizes key points about primary and secondary immune responses and types of hypersensitivity reactions. It describes how the primary immune response occurs during first-time exposure to an antigen and produces fewer, lower affinity antibodies over 7-10 days. The secondary immune response occurs on subsequent exposures and produces more, higher affinity antibodies within 3-5 days. It also defines and compares the four types of hypersensitivity reactions: Type I is immediate allergy mediated by IgE; Type II is cytotoxic; Type III is immune complex mediated; Type IV is cell-mediated and delayed.
Innate & Adaptive Immunity
This document summarizes innate and adaptive immunity. It explains that innate immunity is the first line of defense and is non-specific. It acts through physical, biochemical, and genetic factors like skin, mucous membranes, tears, and species immunity. Adaptive immunity is antigen-specific and develops immunological memory. It includes natural adaptive immunity gained from infection or passive transfer of antibodies from mother to child, and artificial adaptive immunity from vaccination or monoclonal antibody therapy.
Hypersensitivity
Type I, II, III, and IV hypersensitivity reactions are classified based on their pathogenic mechanisms. Type I reactions involve IgE antibodies and mast cell degranulation. Type II reactions involve IgG or IgM antibodies binding to cell surfaces and activating complement. Type III reactions involve immune complex deposition in tissues. Type IV reactions are T cell-mediated and occur hours to days after antigen exposure. Examples of each type are discussed.
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Agglutination
Agglutination is the clumping together of antigens and antibodies. It occurs when the antibodies bind to particulate antigens. This causes the antigens to crosslink and form visible aggregates. Common applications of agglutination tests include blood typing (ABO and Rh), diagnosis of typhoid (Widal test), and identification of antibodies against Rh antigens (Coombs test). The titer or end point of an agglutination test refers to the highest dilution at which antigen-antibody clumping is still visible.
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Antigen
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Immunity can be defined as a complex biological system endowed with the capacity to recognize and tolerate whatever belongs to the self, and to recognize and reject what is foreign (non-self).
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Speciation
Speciation is the process by which new species form. It occurs when populations become isolated from each other and diverge to the point that they can no longer interbreed. Isolation can be geographic, such as when physical barriers separate populations, or reproductive, such as when changes prevent successful mating. Speciation rates may be gradual over millions of years or punctuated by rapid changes following events like natural disasters. The evolutionary history and relationships between species can be modeled in cladograms or phylogenetic trees.
Evolution of populations
This document discusses population genetics and microevolution. It explains that evolution occurs at the genetic level through heritable changes in DNA, arising from various sources of genetic variation within populations like mutation, recombination, and random mating. The key concepts of gene pool, allele frequencies, genetic equilibrium, and Hardy-Weinberg principle are introduced to illustrate how evolution can result from changes in the distribution of alleles in a population over generations under the influence of genetic drift or natural selection.
Patterns of heredity and human genetics
This document discusses several patterns of human genetics and heredity, including simple dominant and incomplete dominant inheritance. It provides examples of traits that follow each pattern, such as tongue rolling being a simple dominant trait and flower color in plants being an example of incomplete dominance. The document also covers codominance, polygenic inheritance, sex determination and sex-linked traits such as hemophilia. It explains how traits can be influenced by sex hormones in some cases.
Dna to chromosomes
The document discusses how eukaryotic cells package DNA into chromatin and chromosomes. DNA is found in the form of chromatin during interphase, which involves tightly coiling DNA around histone proteins to form nucleosomes. Nucleosomes are the basic unit of DNA packaging, allowing the 2 meters of DNA in human cells to fit inside the nucleus. Chromosomes only form when cells are preparing to divide and reproduce, allowing DNA to be passed from parent cells to daughter cells.
Species interactions comm ecology
This document summarizes the five major types of species interactions: predation, competition, parasitism, mutualism, and commensalism. It defines each interaction and provides examples. Predation involves one species consuming another for food, while competition occurs when two species require the same limited resources. Parasitism benefits one species at the expense of the other. Mutualism is a cooperative relationship that benefits both species, such as pollination. In commensalism, one species benefits while the other is not affected.
The biosphere
The document summarizes the key spheres that make up Earth's biosphere - the geosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere, and anthrosphere. It then discusses Biosphere 2, an artificial closed ecosystem experiment in Arizona meant to study interactions within a biosphere. The experiment identified issues like too much CO2 and not enough O2 or food production. It also summarizes the major biogeochemical cycles of water, carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus that are vital to life on Earth.
Ecological succession
Ecological succession is the gradual replacement of one community by another over time. It is initiated by disturbances that remove existing organisms or alter resources and habitat. There are two types of succession: primary succession occurs in areas without soil, while secondary succession occurs in areas with existing soil following a disturbance. In both cases, pioneer species are the first to colonize, and succession progresses gradually until an equilibrium climax community dominated by less tolerant species is reached if undisturbed.
Unique properties of water
Water is a polar molecule that is essential for life. Its polarity allows it to dissolve many other polar substances and act as a solvent for biological molecules and reactions in living cells and organisms. Water has unique physical properties, such as a high heat capacity and ability to form hydrogen bonds, that make it well-suited to regulate temperature and support life processes on Earth. The polarity and hydrogen bonding of water molecules also allow water to have high surface tension and influence many other physical phenomena.
Cells of the six kingdoms
There are six kingdoms that classify life on Earth - Eubacteria, Archaebacteria, Protista, Fungi, Plantae, and Animalia. Eubacteria and Archaebacteria are prokaryotic and unicellular, while Protista, Fungi, Plantae, and Animalia are eukaryotic. Protista can be unicellular or multicellular, Fungi and Plantae are multicellular, and Animalia are always multicellular. The kingdoms differ in their cell structures, body forms, and modes of nutrition, which can include photosynthesis, chemosynthesis, heterotrophic nutrition like phagocytosis, or secretion and absorption of enzymes
Cells
Cells are the basic units of life. All living things are made of cells, and cells come only from other living cells. There are two main types of cells - prokaryotic cells which lack a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles, and eukaryotic cells which have a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles. The document goes on to describe the structures and functions of various cell organelles like the nucleus, mitochondria, chloroplasts, cell membrane, and others. It also compares the differences between plant and animal cells.
Introduction to ecology 2
This document provides an introduction to ecology, including definitions of key terms and concepts. It explains that ecology is the study of the relationships between organisms and their environments. It describes the different levels of ecological organization from the biosphere down to the individual organism. It also defines biomes as large geographical areas with similar climates and ecosystems, and lists some major biomes such as tundra, taiga, and tropical rainforest. Finally, it discusses adaptations as traits that enhance an organism's survival and are maintained by natural selection.
Characteristics of life
This document outlines the 8 characteristics of living organisms: 1) unique biochemistry, 2) organization and cells, 3) response to stimulus, 4) homeostasis, 5) metabolism, 6) growth and development, 7) reproduction, and 8) adaptation and evolution. Each characteristic is defined and an example is provided to illustrate the meaning. The document explains that all living things share fundamental biochemical similarities and that cells are the basic functional units of living things.
Hierarchy of biology additional notes
The document discusses several key topics in biology including cells, tissues, organisms, populations, communities, ecosystems, biomes, and the biosphere. It explains that cells are the basic structural and functional units of all life on Earth and can be either prokaryotic or eukaryotic. Tissues, populations, and communities are discussed in the context of multicellular organisms. Ecosystems are natural systems consisting of biotic and abiotic factors in an area, while biomes represent major communities with similar environmental conditions over large geographic areas. Finally, the biosphere encompasses all global ecosystems within the zones of air, land, and water where life exists.
Methods used by biologists
Biologists use several methods to study organisms including making inferences based on observations and prior knowledge, direct observation using the five senses to detect things in experiments and record events, and both qualitative observations using words, diagrams, pictures, colors, odors and sounds as well as quantitative observations involving numerical data through measurements, calculations and graphs which must include units when reporting raw or processed data.
Hierarchy of biology
This document outlines the levels of organization in biology from the subatomic to the biosphere, as well as the core concepts covered in biology. It begins with subatomic particles and atoms/ions, then moves up through compounds, nanosystems, cells, tissues, organs and organ systems, organisms, populations and communities, ecosystems, biomes and the biosphere. It also lists the five core ideas typically covered in biology: unity and diversity, structure and function, energy and regulation, interdependence, and science, technology and society.
Introduction to HBS: Unifying Themes
Introduction to the course of Human Body Systems (and how it relates to basic anatomy and physiology)
What is biology and Why study biology?
Biology is the study of living things, life processes, habitats, interactions, history and future of life. It examines all kingdoms including animals, plants, fungi, protists, eubacteria and archaebacteria. Studying biology is important because living things are interdependent and human existence relies on other organisms. Understanding biology has allowed humans to develop agriculture, solve medical problems, and be curious about their place in the world. Continued discovery will provide knowledge to improve lives and ensure a healthy future for our planet.
Body defenses against infection
The document summarizes the body's immune defenses against infection. It describes two main types of immunity: innate immunity, which provides nonspecific defenses like skin barriers and phagocytes; and acquired (adaptive) immunity, which develops after exposure and provides pathogen-specific responses using B cells, T cells, antibodies, and immunological memory. The immune system uses successive lines of defense, from physical barriers and phagocytes to inflammation and antibodies, to protect the body. Vaccines help produce active immunity by exposing the immune system to weakened or killed pathogens.
Lymphatic system notes
The lymphatic system defends against infection and disease by returning tissue fluid to the bloodstream. It consists of lymphatic capillaries that collect fluid from tissues, terminal ends that connect to lymphatic ducts, and lymphatic ducts that return the fluid to the venous system.
Enzymes for hbs
Enzymes are proteins that act as biological catalysts and are necessary for most chemical reactions in living cells. They help reactions occur by lowering their activation energy. Enzymes have a unique three-dimensional shape with active sites that allow them to specifically bind to substrates and rearrange the molecules involved in chemical steps. While they are not consumed in these reactions, enzymes increase the rates of reactions and can be reused, making them highly efficient biological catalysts.
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Antigens & antibodies Intro
- 1. Antigens & Antibodies Medical Interventions
- 2. Antigen • An antigen is any substance that causes your immune system to produce antibodies against it. • An antigen may be a foreign substance from the environment such as chemicals, bacteria, viruses, or pollen. (Exogenous) • An antigen may also be formed within the body, as with bacterial toxins or tissue cells. (Endogenous) http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/002224.htm
- 3. • Antigens are macromolecules that elicit an immune response in the body. Antigens can be • Proteins • Polysaccharides • Conjugates of proteins and polysaccharides • Conjugates of lipids with – proteins (lipoproteins) – polysaccharides (glycolipids). http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/A/AntigenPresentation.html
- 5. Blood Cell Antigens http://www.netwellness.org/healthtopics/blood/bloodtypes.cfm http://rhincompatibility.wordpress.com/understanding-the-rh-blood-group- system/
- 6. Antibodies • An antibody is a protein produced by the body's immune system when it detects harmful substances, called antigens. Examples of antigens include microorganisms (such as bacteria, fungi, parasites, and viruses) and chemicals. • Antibodies are also produced when the immune system mistakenly considers healthy tissue a harmful substance. (Autoimmune disorders) • Each type of antibody is unique and defends the body against one specific type of antigen. http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/002223.htm
- 10. Agglutination http://medical-dictionary. thefreedictionary.com/agglutination http://www.biologymad.com/master.html?http://www.biologym ad.com/immunology/immunology.htm
Editor's Notes
- Glycoproteins are proteins that contain oligosaccharide chains (glycans) covalently attached to polypeptide side-chains. Glycoproteins are often important integral membrane proteins, where they play a role in cell–cell interactions.