Behavioral ecology studies how behavior is controlled, develops, evolves, and contributes to survival. Behaviors can be studied from proximate and ultimate perspectives, with proximate questions focusing on environmental triggers and ultimate questions on evolutionary significance. Fixed action patterns are innate behavioral sequences triggered by stimuli, while imprinting involves both learning and innate components during a limited developmental phase. Both genes and environment influence behavior, with innate behaviors being developmentally fixed regardless of environment.

1. Animal Behavior

2. What is behavioral ecology? Behavioral ecology studies how behavior is controlled and how it develops, evolves, and contributes to survival Behavior is everything an animal does and how it does it

3. Proximate and Ultimate Questions Proximate questions focus on the environmental stimuli that trigger behavior “How” does a behavior happen? Ultimate questions focus on the evolutionary significance of a behavior “Why” does a behavior happen?

4. Fixed Action Patterns An FAP is a sequence of unlearned behavioral acts that is essentially unchangeable and, once started, is usually carried to completion Triggered by a sign stimulus Example: Aggressive behavior in male stickleback fish in response to the red underside of an intruder fish

5. Imprinting Imprinting is a type of behavior that includes both learning and innate components and is irreversible There is a limited phase in an animal’s development which is the only time when certain behaviors can be learned Incubator-hatched goslings imprinted on scientist (Konrad Lorenz) during first few hours of life and followed him

6. Nature vs. Nurture? In biology, it’s not an either/or scenario Genes and the environment both influence behavior Innate behavior is behavior that is developmentally fixed, regardless of the environment

7. Directed Movements Directed movements are controlled by genes Kinesis = a simple change in activity or turning rate in response to a stimulus Example: pillbugs live best in moist conditions; they move around more in dry areas and less in moist/humid areas More movement increases likelihood they will encounter a moist area Taxis = a more or less automatic, oriented movement toward or away from a stimulus Example: fish swimming against the current Migration

8. Animal Signals & Communication A signal is a behavior that causes a change in another animal’s behavior Communication involves the transmission of, reception of, and response to signals between animals Chemical Communication: Pheromones – particularly important in reproduction behavior Auditory Communication: Drosophila males produce a characteristic “song” by beating their wings

9. Environment & Genetics Environmental factors, such as the quality of the diet, the nature of social interactions, and opportunities for learning can influence the development of behaviors in every group of animals Example: Variations in diet led to rejection of mates in Drosophila

10. Learning Learning is the modification of behavior based on specific experiences Habituation: loss of responsiveness to stimuli that convey little or no information “crying wolf” Spatial Learning : the modification of behavior based on experience with the spatial structure of the environment, including the location of nest sites, hazards, food, and prospective mates

11. Associative Learning Associative learning is the ability of many animals to associate one feature of the environment with another Classical Conditioning an arbitrary stimulus is associated with a reward or punishment Pavlov’s Experiment Operant Conditioning “ trial-and-error learning” Mouse eating distateful caterpillar

12. Cognition & Problem Solving Cognition is the ability of an animal’s nervous system to perceive, store, process, and use information gathered by sensory receptors Example: monkeys & bananas on string

13. Natural Selection & Behaviorism The genetic components of behavior evolve through natural selection Natural selection favors behaviors that increase survival and reproductive success Foraging behavior – Balance between benefits of nutrition and cost of finding food (predation, energy, etc.) Cost-benefit analysis Mate selection Most animals are promiscuous Monogamous Polygamous

14. Altruism & Inclusive Fitness Most social behaviors are selfish Altruism = when an animal behaves in a way that reduces its individual fitness but increases the fitness of the other individuals in the population Example: squirrels, worker bees Helps close relatives (children, siblings, etc.), thereby increasing the individual’s genetic representation in the next generation – “inclusive fitness”