B.Pharm I Year II Sem. SN1 and SN2 reactions, kinetics, order of reactivity of alkyl halides, stereochemistry and rearrangement of carbocations.
SN1 versus SN2 reactions, Factors affecting SN1 and SN2 reactions.
Structure and uses of ethylchloride, Chloroform, trichloroethylene, tetrachloroethylene,
dichloromethane, tetrachloromethane and iodoform.
Alcohols, Qualitative tests for Alcohol, Structure and uses of Ethyl alcohol, chlorobutanol, Cetosterylalcohol, Benzyl alcohol, Glycerol, Propylene glycol
In organic chemistry, a carbonyl group is a functional group composed of a carbon atom double-bonded to an oxygen atom: C=O. It is common to several classes of organic compounds, as part of many larger functional groups. A compound containing a carbonyl group is often referred to as a carbonyl compound.
B.Pharm I Year II Sem. SN1 and SN2 reactions, kinetics, order of reactivity of alkyl halides, stereochemistry and rearrangement of carbocations.
SN1 versus SN2 reactions, Factors affecting SN1 and SN2 reactions.
Structure and uses of ethylchloride, Chloroform, trichloroethylene, tetrachloroethylene,
dichloromethane, tetrachloromethane and iodoform.
Alcohols, Qualitative tests for Alcohol, Structure and uses of Ethyl alcohol, chlorobutanol, Cetosterylalcohol, Benzyl alcohol, Glycerol, Propylene glycol
In organic chemistry, a carbonyl group is a functional group composed of a carbon atom double-bonded to an oxygen atom: C=O. It is common to several classes of organic compounds, as part of many larger functional groups. A compound containing a carbonyl group is often referred to as a carbonyl compound.
In organic chemistry, a carbonyl group is a functional group composed of a carbon atom double-bonded to an oxygen atom: C=O. It is common to several classes of organic compounds, as part of many larger functional groups.
This is the Power Point Presentation for "Electrophilic Addition to Alkenes". This is as per syllabus of University of Mumbai for S.Y. B. Pharmacy students.
Aldehydes and ketones are the carbonyl compounds with general formula CnH2nO. Aldehydes have at least one hydrogen atom bonded to the carbonyl group and other group is either hydrogen or an alkyl or aryl group (i.e. Aldehyde has one alkyl or aryl group and one of the hydrogen bonded to the carbonyl carbon) with characteristics functional group -CHO.
ORGANIC CHEMISTRY 3
CARBONYL COMPOUND
These are organ compounds with Carbonyl group as functional group
If the carbonyl compound is directly bonded to two alkyl groups two aryl groups or one group and one aryl group, the resulting carbonyl compound known as KETONE.
I.e. General structure of kenton can be represented as ( )where R and R' can be alkyl or aryl group
In organic chemistry, a carbonyl group is a functional group composed of a carbon atom double-bonded to an oxygen atom: C=O. It is common to several classes of organic compounds, as part of many larger functional groups.
This is the Power Point Presentation for "Electrophilic Addition to Alkenes". This is as per syllabus of University of Mumbai for S.Y. B. Pharmacy students.
Aldehydes and ketones are the carbonyl compounds with general formula CnH2nO. Aldehydes have at least one hydrogen atom bonded to the carbonyl group and other group is either hydrogen or an alkyl or aryl group (i.e. Aldehyde has one alkyl or aryl group and one of the hydrogen bonded to the carbonyl carbon) with characteristics functional group -CHO.
ORGANIC CHEMISTRY 3
CARBONYL COMPOUND
These are organ compounds with Carbonyl group as functional group
If the carbonyl compound is directly bonded to two alkyl groups two aryl groups or one group and one aryl group, the resulting carbonyl compound known as KETONE.
I.e. General structure of kenton can be represented as ( )where R and R' can be alkyl or aryl group
Alcohol, phenol, and ether are organic compounds that play significant roles in both natural processes and synthetic chemistry. In the NCERT Class 12 Chemistry curriculum, the study of these compounds forms a crucial part of the organic chemistry syllabus. This essay aims to provide a comprehensive analysis of alcohol, phenol, and ether, as outlined in the NCERT textbooks. Beginning with fundamental concepts such as nomenclature and classification, we will delve into the structural properties, chemical reactivity, synthesis methods, and practical applications of these compounds. Additionally, we will explore advanced topics such as reactions mechanisms, stereochemistry, and spectroscopic analysis, thereby offering a holistic understanding of alcohol, phenol, and ether chemistry.
Introduction:
Alcohol, phenol, and ether represent a diverse group of organic compounds characterized by the presence of hydroxyl (–OH) and/or ether (–O–) functional groups. These compounds exhibit unique chemical properties and find wide-ranging applications in industry, medicine, and everyday life. The NCERT Class 12 Chemistry curriculum provides students with a systematic framework for understanding the structure, properties, and reactions of alcohols, phenols, and ethers. This essay aims to elucidate the key concepts covered in this curriculum, thereby fostering a deeper appreciation for the chemistry of these important functional groups.
I. Basic Concepts and Nomenclature:
A. Definition and Classification of Alcohols, Phenols, and Ethers
B. IUPAC Nomenclature Rules and Examples
C. Structural Isomerism and Functional Group Isomerism
II. Structure and Bonding:
A. Molecular Structure of Alcohols, Phenols, and Ethers
B. Intermolecular Forces: Hydrogen Bonding in Alcohols and Phenols
C. Dipole-Dipole Interactions in Ethers
III. Chemical Properties and Reactivity:
A. Acid-Base Behavior: Alcohols and Phenols as Weak Acids
B. Nucleophilic Substitution Reactions: SN1 and SN2 Mechanisms
C. Esterification and Ether Cleavage Reactions
D. Oxidation and Reduction Reactions: Preparation of Aldehydes, Ketones, and Carboxylic Acids
IV. Synthetic Methods:
A. Laboratory Preparation of Alcohols: Hydration of Alkenes, Reduction of Aldehydes and Ketones
B. Industrial Synthesis of Phenol: Cumene Process
C. Williamson Ether Synthesis and Other Methods for Ether Preparation
V. Stereochemistry of Alcohols and Ethers:
A. Chirality and Enantiomerism
B. Optical Activity and Chiral Centers in Alcohols
C. Conformational Isomerism in Ethers
VI. Spectroscopic Analysis:
A. IR Spectroscopy: Characteristic Peaks for Alcohols, Phenols, and Ethers
B. NMR Spectroscopy: Chemical Shifts and Signal Splitting Patterns
C. Mass Spectrometry: Fragmentation Patterns and Molecular Weight Determination
VII. Applications and Industrial Importance:
A. Alcohol as Solvents and Antiseptics
B. Phenol in the Production of Polymers and Pharmaceuticals
C. Ethers as Solvents and Anesthetic Agents
The combination of a carbonyl group and a hydroxyl on the same carbon atom is called a carboxyl group. Compounds containing the carboxyl group are called carboxylic acids. The carboxyl group is one of the most widely occurring functional groups in organic chemistry.
Aromatic Carboxylic acids: Carboxylic acids have an aryl group bound to the carboxyl group is known as aromatic carboxylic acids. The general formula of an aliphatic aromatic carboxylic acid is Ar-COOH.
Acidity of carboxylic acid:
A carboxylic acid may dissociate in water to give a proton and a carboxylate ion. Dissociation of a carboxylic acid involves breaking an O-H bond gives a carboxylate ion with the negative charge spread out equally over two oxygen atoms, compared with just one oxygen atom in an alkoxide ion. The delocalized charge makes the carboxylate ion more stable therefore; dissociation of a carboxylic acid to a carboxylate ion is less endothermic.
Preparation Methods:
1. Oxidation:
The oxidation of aldehyde with oxidizing agents such as CrO3 to forms carboxylic acids containing the same numbers of carbon atoms with a oxidizing agents like chromic acid, chromium trioxide. The silver oxide (Ag2O) in aqueous ammonia solution (Tollen’s reagent) is mild reagent give good yield at room temperature. E.g. Acetaldehyde reacts with CrO3 in aqueous acid to give acetic acid.
2. Grignard reagents (from CO2):
Carboxylic acid can be prepared by the reaction of Grignard reagent (alkyl magnesium halide) with carbon dioxide (CO2) in presence of dry ether. Grignard reagents react with carbon dioxide to forms a magnesium carboxylates which on hydrolysis by dilute HCl produces carboxylic acids.
3. Hydrolysis of nitrile:
The hydrolysis of nitrile or cyanide in presence of dilute acid to forms a carboxylic acid. In this reaction –CN group is converted to a –COOH group.
4. Hydrolysis Reactions:
All the carboxylic acid derivatives can be hydrolyzed into the carboxylic acid in the acidic or basic media; the hydrolysis reaction is fast and occurs in presence of water with no acid or base catalyst.
1. From Ester (Hydrolysis of ester): Ester can be hydrolyzed in either acidic or basic medium to yield carboxylic acid. The ester is heated with an excess of water contains strong acid or base catalyst.
Properties of Carboxylic Acids:
1. Low molecular weights carboxylic acids are colourless liquid at room temperature i.e. lower member ate liquid up to C9 and have characteristic odors whereas higher members are solid.
2. Carboxylic acids are polar organic compound. Low molecular weight carboxylic acids (first four members) are soluble in water whereas solubility in water decrease as molecular weight and chain lengthing increases.
3. Aromatic acids are insoluble in water.
4. Carboxylic acids have higher melting and boiling point due to their capacity to readily form stable hydrogen-bonded dimers.
2. Chemistry of Aliphatic Compounds: Introduction, methods of preparation, physical and chemical properties and pharmaceutical applications of alcohols, aldehydes, ketones, hydrocarbons, ester, ethers, amines, amides and carboxylic acids.
Instructions for Submissions thorugh G- Classroom.pptxJheel Barad
This presentation provides a briefing on how to upload submissions and documents in Google Classroom. It was prepared as part of an orientation for new Sainik School in-service teacher trainees. As a training officer, my goal is to ensure that you are comfortable and proficient with this essential tool for managing assignments and fostering student engagement.
Embracing GenAI - A Strategic ImperativePeter Windle
Artificial Intelligence (AI) technologies such as Generative AI, Image Generators and Large Language Models have had a dramatic impact on teaching, learning and assessment over the past 18 months. The most immediate threat AI posed was to Academic Integrity with Higher Education Institutes (HEIs) focusing their efforts on combating the use of GenAI in assessment. Guidelines were developed for staff and students, policies put in place too. Innovative educators have forged paths in the use of Generative AI for teaching, learning and assessments leading to pockets of transformation springing up across HEIs, often with little or no top-down guidance, support or direction.
This Gasta posits a strategic approach to integrating AI into HEIs to prepare staff, students and the curriculum for an evolving world and workplace. We will highlight the advantages of working with these technologies beyond the realm of teaching, learning and assessment by considering prompt engineering skills, industry impact, curriculum changes, and the need for staff upskilling. In contrast, not engaging strategically with Generative AI poses risks, including falling behind peers, missed opportunities and failing to ensure our graduates remain employable. The rapid evolution of AI technologies necessitates a proactive and strategic approach if we are to remain relevant.
June 3, 2024 Anti-Semitism Letter Sent to MIT President Kornbluth and MIT Cor...Levi Shapiro
Letter from the Congress of the United States regarding Anti-Semitism sent June 3rd to MIT President Sally Kornbluth, MIT Corp Chair, Mark Gorenberg
Dear Dr. Kornbluth and Mr. Gorenberg,
The US House of Representatives is deeply concerned by ongoing and pervasive acts of antisemitic
harassment and intimidation at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). Failing to act decisively to ensure a safe learning environment for all students would be a grave dereliction of your responsibilities as President of MIT and Chair of the MIT Corporation.
This Congress will not stand idly by and allow an environment hostile to Jewish students to persist. The House believes that your institution is in violation of Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, and the inability or
unwillingness to rectify this violation through action requires accountability.
Postsecondary education is a unique opportunity for students to learn and have their ideas and beliefs challenged. However, universities receiving hundreds of millions of federal funds annually have denied
students that opportunity and have been hijacked to become venues for the promotion of terrorism, antisemitic harassment and intimidation, unlawful encampments, and in some cases, assaults and riots.
The House of Representatives will not countenance the use of federal funds to indoctrinate students into hateful, antisemitic, anti-American supporters of terrorism. Investigations into campus antisemitism by the Committee on Education and the Workforce and the Committee on Ways and Means have been expanded into a Congress-wide probe across all relevant jurisdictions to address this national crisis. The undersigned Committees will conduct oversight into the use of federal funds at MIT and its learning environment under authorities granted to each Committee.
• The Committee on Education and the Workforce has been investigating your institution since December 7, 2023. The Committee has broad jurisdiction over postsecondary education, including its compliance with Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, campus safety concerns over disruptions to the learning environment, and the awarding of federal student aid under the Higher Education Act.
• The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is investigating the sources of funding and other support flowing to groups espousing pro-Hamas propaganda and engaged in antisemitic harassment and intimidation of students. The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is the principal oversight committee of the US House of Representatives and has broad authority to investigate “any matter” at “any time” under House Rule X.
• The Committee on Ways and Means has been investigating several universities since November 15, 2023, when the Committee held a hearing entitled From Ivory Towers to Dark Corners: Investigating the Nexus Between Antisemitism, Tax-Exempt Universities, and Terror Financing. The Committee followed the hearing with letters to those institutions on January 10, 202
2024.06.01 Introducing a competency framework for languag learning materials ...Sandy Millin
http://sandymillin.wordpress.com/iateflwebinar2024
Published classroom materials form the basis of syllabuses, drive teacher professional development, and have a potentially huge influence on learners, teachers and education systems. All teachers also create their own materials, whether a few sentences on a blackboard, a highly-structured fully-realised online course, or anything in between. Despite this, the knowledge and skills needed to create effective language learning materials are rarely part of teacher training, and are mostly learnt by trial and error.
Knowledge and skills frameworks, generally called competency frameworks, for ELT teachers, trainers and managers have existed for a few years now. However, until I created one for my MA dissertation, there wasn’t one drawing together what we need to know and do to be able to effectively produce language learning materials.
This webinar will introduce you to my framework, highlighting the key competencies I identified from my research. It will also show how anybody involved in language teaching (any language, not just English!), teacher training, managing schools or developing language learning materials can benefit from using the framework.
Read| The latest issue of The Challenger is here! We are thrilled to announce that our school paper has qualified for the NATIONAL SCHOOLS PRESS CONFERENCE (NSPC) 2024. Thank you for your unwavering support and trust. Dive into the stories that made us stand out!
Macroeconomics- Movie Location
This will be used as part of your Personal Professional Portfolio once graded.
Objective:
Prepare a presentation or a paper using research, basic comparative analysis, data organization and application of economic information. You will make an informed assessment of an economic climate outside of the United States to accomplish an entertainment industry objective.
Acetabularia Information For Class 9 .docxvaibhavrinwa19
Acetabularia acetabulum is a single-celled green alga that in its vegetative state is morphologically differentiated into a basal rhizoid and an axially elongated stalk, which bears whorls of branching hairs. The single diploid nucleus resides in the rhizoid.
Welcome to TechSoup New Member Orientation and Q&A (May 2024).pdfTechSoup
In this webinar you will learn how your organization can access TechSoup's wide variety of product discount and donation programs. From hardware to software, we'll give you a tour of the tools available to help your nonprofit with productivity, collaboration, financial management, donor tracking, security, and more.
2. Aldehydes and Ketones are characterised by the presence of Carbonyl group >C = O in their molecules.
They are functional isomers of each other and collectively called as carbonyl compounds (C=O).
Introduction
Nature of Carbonyl Group
Aldehydes, ketones and carboxylic acids are the compounds containing carbon-oxygen double bond
(>C=O) called carbonyl group. The carbon and oxygen of the carbonyl group are sp2 hybridised and the
carbonyl double bond is comprised of one σ-bond and one π-bond. The π electron cloud is present
above and below the plane and is present between carbonyl carbon and oxygen.
Due to high electronegativity of oxygen compared to carbon, the carbonyl group is polar and the dipole is
formed.
3. Aldehydes
Aldehydes are the organic compounds in which carbonyl group is attached to one hydrogen atom
and one alkyl or aryl group.
Where R can be an alkyl or aryl group.
Ketones
Ketone are the organic compounds in which carbonyl group is attached to two alkyl group or aryl group or
both alkyl and aryl group.
Where R and R’ may be alkyl or aryl groups
4. Nomenclature of Aldehydes
IUPAC naming system:
• In IUPAC system, the suffix ‘e’ of alkane is replaced by the ‘al’.
For example:
HCHO CH3CHO
Methanal Ethanal
Common naming system:
The common names of aldehydes are derived from the common names of the corresponding
carboxylic acids in which the ending ‘-ic’ is replaced with ‘-aldehyde’of acid with aldehyde.
For example:
HCHO CH3CHO
Formaldehyde Acetaldehyde
5.
6.
7.
8. Nomenclature of Ketones
IUPAC naming system:
In IUPAC system, the suffix ‘e’ of alkane is replaced by the ‘one’.
For example:
Common naming system:
The common names of ketones are derived by naming two alkyl or aryl groups bonded to the carbonyl group.
For example:
9. Alkyl phenyl ketones are usually named by adding the acyl group as prefix to phenone.
For example:
Preparation of Aldehyde and Ketones
(a) By oxidation of alcohols:
Oxidation of primary and secondary alcohols in presence or oxidizing agent like
K2Cr2O7/H2SO4, KMnO4. CrO3 gives aldehydes and ketones respectively.
10. (b) By dehydrogenation of alcohols:
(c) By ozonolysis of alkenes:
Ozonolysis of alkenes followed by reaction with zinc dust and water gives aldehydes, ketones
or a mixture of both depending on the substitution pattern of the alkene.
11. (d) By hydration of alkynes:
This is a commercial method to prepare ethanal.
All other alkynes gives ketones.
12. (e) By Rosenmund reduction:
Hydrogenation or acyl chloride over palladium on barium sulphate gives aldehyde.
(f) From nitriles (RCN):
This reaction is called Stephen reaction.
14. Physical Properties of Aldehydes and Ketones
1. Methanal (HCHO) is a gas at room temperature. and its 40% aqueous solution
is known as formalin. It is a reducing agent in silvering of mirrors and
decolourising vat dyes.
2. Ethanal (CH3CHO) is a volatile liquid. Other aldehydes and ketones are liquid
or solid at room temperature.
3. The boiling point of aldehydes and ketones are higher than hydrocarbons and
ethers of comparable molecular mass due to high magnitude of dipole-dipole
interactions.
4. Aldehydes and ketones have lower boiling point than those of alcohols of
similar molecular masses due to absence of intermolecular hydrogen bonding.
5. The lower members of aldehydes and ketones are miscible with water due to
the formation of hydrogen bond with water. However, the solubility decreases with
increase in length of alkyl chain.
6. Acetophenone is a hypnotic (sleep producing drug) so used as a medicine
under the name hypnone.
15.
16. [Fehling solution is a mixture of Fehling solution A and Fehling solution B in 1: 1
ratio. Fehling solution A is aqueous copper sulphate and Fehling solution B is
alkaline sodium potassium tartrate which is also called, Rochelle salt.]
17. (c) Benedict solution With it, aldehydes (except benzaldehyde)
also give red ppt. of CU2O.
(d) Schiff’s reagent It is an aqueous solution of magenta or pink
coloured rosaniline hydrochloride which has been decolourised by
passing SO2, Aldehydes give pink colour with this reagent but
ketones do not.
Haloform reaction Aldehydes and ketones having at east one
methyl group [3-α hydrogen] linked to the carbonyl carbon atom
(methyl ketones) are oxidised by sodium hypohalite to sodium salts
of corresponding carboxylic acids having one carbon atom less than
that of carbonyl compound. The methyl group is converted to
haloform.
Iodoform reaction with sodium hypoiodite is also used for the detection of CH3 –
group or CH3CH(OH)- group by producing yellow solid CHI3.
18. Physical Properties of Carboxylic Acids
1. Aliphatic carboxylic acids up to nine carbon atoms are colourless liquids at
room temperature with unpleasant odours. The higher acids are wax like solids.
2. The lower carboxylic acids are freely miscible with water due to the presence
of intermolecular hydrogen bonding with H2O molecules. However, the solubility
in water decreases gradually due to increase in the size of alkyl group.
3. Monocarboxylic acids have higher boiling points as compared to the alcohols
of comparable molecular masses due to the presence of stronger intermolecular
hydrogen bonding as shown below.
19. 4. Melting points of aliphatic monocarboxylic acids shows alternation or oscillation effect,
i.e., the m.p. of an acid with even number of carbon atoms is higher than the next lower
and next higher homologue containing odd number of carbon atoms. This is because, in
case of acids with even number of carbon atoms, the terminal -CH3 and -COOH groups lie
on the opposite sides of the zig-zag chain. As a result, they get closely packed in the
crystal lattice.
5. Glacial acetic acid is completely pure acetic acid and represents the solid state of
acetic acid. Below 16.6°C temperature pure acetic acid is converted into ice like solid
hence it is called glacial acetic acid.
(i) Acidity
20. The strength of the acid is expressed in terms of the dissociation
constant (Ka), also called acidity constant. A stronger acid has
higher Ka but lesser pKavalue (pKa == -log Ka).
The electron releasing substituents (+1 effect) decrease the acidic
strength of the carboxylic acids by destabilising the carboxylate
ion.