A Brief History Of China

1. A BRIEF HISTORY OF CHINA
BY BIKRANT ROY
ANCIENT CHINA
The Beginning
After 10,000 BC people in China lived by hunting and gathering plants.
Then, about 5,000 BC, the Chinese began farming. From about 5,000 BC
rice was cultivated in southern China and millet was grown in the north. By
5,000 BC dogs and pigs were domesticated. By 3,000 BC sheep and (in
the south) cattle were domesticated. Finally horses were introduced into
China between 3,000 and 2,300 BC.
Meanwhile by 5,000 BC Chinese farmers had learned to make pottery.
They also made lacquer (a kind of varnish made from the sap of the
Chinese lacquer tree). The early Chinese farmers also made baskets and
wove cloth (before sheep were domesticated hemp was woven). The
Chinese also made ritual objects from jade such as knives, axes and rings.
The wheel was invented in China about 2,500 BC.
A More Advanced Society in China
By 2,000 BC the Chinese had learned to make bronze. They probably
started by making copper in pottery kilns then experimented by adding tin,
so creating bronze. At first bronze was only used for weapons. (It was
probably too expensive for other things).
Warfare was becoming more common in China. Walls of earth, which was
rammed till it was hard, surrounded some settlements. Warfare probably
became more common because these early societies were becoming
richer. As wealth grew so did the temptation to attack your neighbors and
steal their goods. By 2000 BC there was also a growing gulf between the
classes. People were buried with their goods and some people were buried
with far more than others.
By 2000 BC human sacrifice was practiced in China. The bodies of the
victims were buried under the foundations of buildings. By 2,000 BC fortune
telling was carried out by heating bones till they cracked then interpreting
the cracks. Meanwhile between about 2,000 and 1,750 BC the semi-
legendary Xia ruled parts of China.

2. THE SHANG DYNASTY IN CHINA
The Shang were polytheists (they worshipped many gods). The most
important god was called Di. Furthermore during the Shang dynasty in
China the practice of ancestor worship began. Ancestor worship is the
belief that the dead can intervene in the affairs of the living. Offerings were
made to them to keep them happy. Ancestor worship became part of
Chinese culture for thousands of years.
Silk was probably first made in China during the Shang era. It was made by
1300 BC. During the Shang era bronze was more widely used. Previously it
was only used to make weapons. After 1700 BC bronze vessels were
made. However tools such as sickles, ploughs and spades were usually
made of wood and stone.
The Shang built the first real cities in China. The first capital at Zhengdou
had walls more than 6 kilometers long. (Later the capital was moved to
Anyang). The Shang also built palaces and temples.
During the Shang era slavery was common in China. Prisoners of war were
made into slaves. Human sacrifice was still practiced. When a Shang
emperor died his servants and slaves either committed suicide or were
killed to accompany him into the afterlife. Because of the need to capture
slaves warfare was common in China. After 1200 BC chariots pulled by 2
or 4 horses were used in Chinese warfare.
However the Shang were overthrown by their neighbors the Zhou about
1022 BC. So began the Zhou dynasty.
THE ZHOU DYNASTY IN CHINA
Zhou Society
The dynasty ruled China from about C. 1022 BC to 221 BC. The first part of
the Zhou era from C. 1022 BC to 771 BC is called the Western Zhou
(because the rulers had their capital in the west of China). The second part
of the era, from 770 to 476 BC is called the Spring and Autumn period. The
last part of the era from 476 to 221 BC is called the Warring States period.
In Ancient China because transport and communications were very slow it
was difficult for a ruler to control a wide area. The Zhou kings solved this
problem by creating a feudal state. They gave their followers land. In return
the followers provided chariots and soldiers in time of war. Soon the
follower's positions became hereditary. Below them were officials who

3. worked as generals and administrators. At the bottom of society were the
peasants who provided the food supply.
The peasants had to spend some of their time working on the Lord's land.
Usually land was divided into 9 sections. Individual families worked eight
sections. Everybody had to work on the ninth section but the crops from it
went to the lord. After 600 BC coins were used in China and some
peasants paid their Lord taxes rather than work on his land. Under the
Shang there were many slaves in China but under the Zhou there were few
of them.
There were some important technological changes during the Zhou period.
The most important was the invention of iron. It was used for weapons as
early as 650 BC. By about 500 BC iron was used for all kinds of tools. By
about 400 BC Chinese farmers used iron plows drawn by oxen.
About 300 BC the Chinese invented the horse collar. Previously horses
were attached to vehicles by straps around their necks. The horse could
not pull a heavy load because the strap would tighten around its neck! The
horse collar allowed horses to pull much heavier loads.
During the Zhou dynasty the Chinese invented kites. Tea was first
mentioned in China during the Zhou dynasty (although it may have been
drunk much earlier). The umbrella was invented in China in the 4th century
AD. Covered in oiled paper it sheltered the user from both sun and rain.
Warfare also changed in China. Previously war was dominated by chariots.
However after 600 BC cavalry began to replace chariots. Furthermore
rulers began to raise large armies of infantry. Peasants were conscripted to
provide them. About 500 BC a general called Sunzi wrote a book called the
Art of War, which was the world's first military manual. About 400 BC the
crossbow was invented in China.
Although warfare was frequent during the Zhou era trade and commerce
flourished and Chinese cities grew larger. Furthermore agriculture was
greatly improved by iron tools and by irrigation, which became more
common. As a result of more efficient agriculture the population of China
grew rapidly in the Zhou period.
During the Zhou era parts of the Great Wall of China were built. There was
not a single wall, at first, but different states built their own walls to keep out
barbarians. Later they were joined together. In 486 BC work began on
digging the Grand Canal. At first only one section was built but the canal
was extended by later dynasties.

4. Zhou Philosophy
Human sacrifice ended during the Zhou era but divination continued. At
that time the Chinese concept of Heaven emerged. Heaven was a kind of
universal force. Heaven chose the emperor to rule but it was a moral force.
If the king or emperor were evil heaven would send natural disasters as a
warning. If the emperor failed to heed the warnings heaven would withdraw
its mandate. Social and political order would break down and there would
be a revolution. Heaven would choose somebody else to rule.
Kong-Fuzi
During the Zhou period in China there was a class of officials who advised
kings and rulers on the right way to behave and also how to carry out
rituals. The most important of these was Kong-Fuzi (known in the West as
Confucius). During his lifetime the old feudal social and political order was
breaking down. Appalled by this state of affairs Kong-Fuzi tried to restore
ancient principles.
Kong-Fuzi taught that everybody should accept their role in life and duties
towards others. Rulers had a duty to be benevolent while subjects should
be respectful and obedient. Children should honor their parents and
everybody should honor their ancestors. Kong-Fuzi also believed that
rulers should set a good example for their people.
Most of all Kong-Fuzi taught consideration for others. At the heart of his
teaching was 'ren' which is usually translated goodness or benevolence.
Kong-Fuzi said 'do not do to others what you do not want done to yourself'.
Kong-Fuzi also taught the importance of courtesy and moderation in all
things. Kong-Fuzi also taught that women should submit to their father
when young, to their husband when married and to their son if widowed.
Women in China were taught values such as humility, submissiveness and
industry.
Kong-Fuzi never wrote any books but after his death his followers collected
his sayings and wrote them all down. In the centuries after his death his
philosophy became dominant in China and profoundly influenced its culture
for more than 2,000 years.
One disciple of Kong-Fuzi was Mengzi (372-289 BC), known in the west as
Mencius. He stressed the goodness of human nature. He also emphasized
the rulers duty to look after the well being of his subjects. Mengzi was
opposed by Xuni (298-238 BC). He believed human nature tended to be
evil and must be restrained.

5. Legalism
Not everyone agreed with Kong-Fuzi that rulers should rule by example.
Legalists believed that rulers should be strict. The ruler's word should be
law. Legalists believed that rulers should be fair but firm and unwavering.
One of the Chinese states, Qin, followed legalist teaching. The Qin rulers at
first shared power with hereditary nobles but they changed the system so
that the parts of their realm were governed by officials appointed by the
ruler.
They also organised families into groups of 5 or 10 people. The members
of each group were made responsible for each other's behavior. Legalists
believed that since people are naturally evil punishments should be severe.
The people must be made afraid of breaking the law. They also distrusted
merchants and believed that only people who owned or worked on the land
were trustworthy.
Taoism
Taoism began in China during the Zhou era. Taoists believe in the Tao,
which means the way. The Tao is an indescribable force behind nature and
all living things. Taoists believe in Wuwei or non-action, which means going
with the natural flow or way of things like a stick being carried along on a
stream. Taoism also teaches humility and compassion. Taoists worship
many different gods.
Ancient Chinese Beliefs
The Zhou period is sometimes called China's formative period because so
much of Chinese philosophy developed at that time. The Chinese form of
divination called I Ching was probably developed during the early part of
the Zhou era. The idea of Yin and Yang also appeared during the Zhou
dynasty. The ancient Chinese believed that all matter is made of 2 opposite
and complimentary principles. Yin is feminine, soft, gentle, dark, receptive,
yielding and wet. Yang is masculine, bright, hard, hot, active, dry and
aggressive. Everything is a mixture of these 2 opposites. The ancient
Chinese also believed there were 5 elements, wood, fire, earth, metal and
water. During the Zhou period the Chinese art of acupuncture was
invented.
The End of the Zhou Dynasty
In 771 the Rong, a people from the west, invaded and the Zhou moved
their capital to Luoyang. Afterwards the power of the Zhou kings declined.
The Zhou state broke up into separate states (although it was still nominally

6. a single state with a Zhou king at its head). The nobles under the Zhou king
effectively became independent rulers. The different states went to war and
the stronger ones conquered the weaker till there were only a few left.
Finally one state, the Qin, conquered its rivals and its ruler became
emperor of China. So began the Qin dynasty.
THE QIN DYNASTY IN CHINA
The first Qin emperor was determined to unite China. He called himself Qin
Shuangdi and insisted on being called the emperor of China. He introduced
standard weights and measures and even insisted that axles should be a
standard width!
There were, at that time, some local variations in Chinese writing. The
emperor insisted that all educated people must use one standard version.
Some Chinese scholars opposed the emperor and quoted from old books
to do so. Qin Shuangdi burned many of the books in China to stop them.
He ordered that all books except those on useful subjects such as
divination, medicine and agriculture should be burned. Any scholars who
opposed him were branded and sent to work as laborers on the Great Wall.
However the emperor also had 460 scholars buried alive. (Being sent to
work on the Great Wall was often a death sentence anyway as many men
died of exhaustion and exposure).
The Qin emperors also continued their legalist policies. They banned
private ownership of weapons and they ordered many aristocratic families
to move to the capital, Xianyang (where they could be easily controlled).
China was divided into 34 areas called commanderies. A civilian governor
ruled each but each also had a general in charge of the soldiers in the
region. (The Qin emperors were keen to keep civil and military power in
separate hands!). All officials were appointed by the emperor and were
answerable to him.
The Qin emperors also built roads and irrigation canals. Parts of the Great
Wall of China already existed but the first Qin emperor had them joined
together. The ordinary people were forced to work on his projects. Qin rule
was harsh and cruel punishments were common. When Qin Shuangdi died
he was buried in a tomb with over 7,000 terracotta warriors. This 'army' was
discovered in 1974.
Not surprisingly the cruel punishments introduced by the Qin emperors
together with he heavy taxes and forced labor caused much resentment. In
northern China a rebellion broke out led by 2 peasants, Chen Sheng and
Wu Yang. Later a second rebellion began further south led by Ixang Yu.

7. The northern rebellion was defeated but the southern one succeeded. The
last Qin emperor was executed. However Xiang Yu quarreled with his
lieutenant Liu Bang. A civil war began which ended when Xiang Yu was
killed and Liu Bang became the first Han emperor.
THE HAN DYNASTY IN CHINA
The Zhou dynasty was China's formative period when its philosophies
emerged. During the Han dynasty Chinese civilization crystallized. During
this era China was one of the most brilliant civilizations in the world. Han
inventions include the watermill and the chain pump (this pump was worked
by feet and helped to irrigate the rice fields).
The first Han emperor was called Gaozi. He was more humane that the Qin
emperors and he abolished many of their savage punishments. He kept
some of the legalist policies of his predecessors but he also adopted some
Confucian policies. His successors came to favor Confucianism more and
more. In 165 BC the emperor decreed that anyone wishing to become an
official must sit an exam, which would test his knowledge of Confucian
teaching. In 124 BC another emperor founded an imperial academy where
candidates studied Confucian classics (The Book of Changes, The Book of
Rites, The Book of Documents, The Book of Songs, and the Spring and
Autumn Annals). If they passed their exams they were given posts as
officials. China came to be governed by a civil service trained in Confucian
thought.
Like the Qin the Han emperors distrusted merchants and taxed them
heavily. In 119 BC the emperor made the manufacture of salt, iron and
alcohol state monopolies (previously they were the most profitable
industries).
Under the Han agriculture continued to improve partly due to an increasing
number of irrigation schemes, partly due to the increasing use of buffaloes
to pull plows and partly due to crop rotation which was introduced into
China about 100 BC.
The population of China continued to grow and a census in 2 AD showed it
was 57 million. During the Han era large amounts of silk were exported to
the west. It passed through many hands to the Roman Empire. In return
merchants brought gems, glass and vines to China. The ships rudder was
invented in China in the first century AD.
About 100 AD a man named Cai Lun invented paper (previously people
had written on silk or bamboo). Meanwhile Buddhism first reached China in
the 1st century AD but it took a long time to be accepted. During the Han

8. era Feng Shui was developed. Elements of the craft existed before then but
it was during this period that Feng Shui became a coherent philosophy.
The Fall of the Han Dynasty
After 168 AD the Han dynasty declined. Internal fighting weakened it.
(When an emperor died there was usually a struggle to see who would
replace him). The dynasty was also undermined by natural disasters and
popular discontent. Two rebellions began in 84 AD, the Yellow Turbans
rebellion and the Five Pecks of Grain rebellion. Both of these were crushed
but the generals sent to defeat them began to act independently of the
emperor. They started to fight each other. In 189 AD one general captured
the capital, Luoyang and killed 2,000 eunuchs. After that the emperor
became a puppet ruler. Generals had the real power. However the last Han
emperor was removed in 220 AD. Afterwards China split into 3 parts each
ruled by a general.
THE ERA OF DIVISION IN CHINA
After the fall of the Han dynasty China split into 3 kingdoms. The Wei
kingdom in the north, the Shu kingdom in the west and the Wu kingdom in
the south. In 263 AD the Wei kingdom conquered the Shu kingdom. In 280
the Wul kingdom was also conquered and China was briefly reunited.
However peace was short lived.
In the 1st and 2nd centuries AD a people called the Xiongnu raided
northern China. In the 2nd and 3rd centuries the Chinese emperors allowed
them to settle inside China's borders, hoping they could be assimilated.
The emperors employed the Xiongnu as soldiers. However in 304 the
Xiongnu turned on their masters. They took the city of Luoyang in 311 and
then took Changan in 316. Eventually they overran northern China. The
north of the country then split into rival kingdoms, all with non-Chinese
rulers. This period is called the 16 kingdoms.
Many Chinese fled from the north to the south of the country. However
Chinese civilization did not disappear from the north. The Xiongnu were
only a small minority of the population. Most of the people were Chinese
and they carried on as they had for centuries. In the south Chinese
emperors continued to rule but they were unable to capture the north.
Then in the late 4th century the Torba, a Turkish people from central Asia,
started taking over northern China. By 386 they had conquered it all. The
Torba then adopted the Chinese way of life. They adopted Chinese
costume and Chinese writing and many of them married Chinese people.
Their rulers learned to speak Chinese. Slowly they people were

9. assimilated. However a civil war began in northern China in 524. After a
decade of fighting the north split into 2 parts, east and west. They were
reunited in 577. In that year the Chinese invented matches. Then in 581 a
general seized the throne and quickly conquered the south.
In 589 he began the short-lived Sui dynasty. There were only 2 Sui
emperors, Wendi and Yang. The 2 Sui emperors attempted to invade
Korea 4 times. Each time they failed. They also undertook expensive public
works such as rebuilding cities and extending China's Great Canal. The
Great Canal was extended in 605-609 using forced labor so that it
connected north and south China. After Yang's death China split into
warring states again.
Changes in Society in China
The disorder in China and weakness of emperors meant the aristocracy
gained more wealth and power. At the same time many of the peasants
were reduced to serfdom. (Serfs were halfway between slaves and free
men). Often they were forced to turn to the lords for protection and the
price was serfdom.
During the Era of Division Buddhism grew in China and many temples and
monasteries were built. The Chinese upper class became more
sympathetic to Buddhism and the rulers of the north of China made it their
official religion. Taoism also developed during this period. Many Taoist
scriptures were written at that time. In 618 after several years of war the
different parts of China were reunited by the Tang dynasty
THE TANG DYNASTY IN CHINA
The Tang dynasty that lasted from 618 to 907 was one of China's greatest
eras. During this period China was probably the most advanced civilization
in the world. Under the Tang emperors the arts flourished. Chinese poetry
and lacquer making blossomed. Perhaps the greatest poet was Li-Bo (701-
762).
The Tang emperors extended their ruler over central Asia and foreign
influences seeped into China. As well as Buddhists there were Muslims in
the capital Changan. There were also Christians.
Trade and commerce also flourished under the Tang. Gunpowder was
probably invented in China around the year 900 AD. At first it was used for
rockets, grenades and bombs that were placed against the wooden gates
of enemy cities. Printing with wooden blocks was also invented in China

10. during the Tang era. The earliest printed book is the Diamond Sutra,
printed in 868 AD.
Although the first Tang emperor, Gaonzu (618-626) was enthroned in 618 it
took him another 6 years of fighting before he brought all of China under
his control. When he did China entered a period of peace and stability. One
of the most remarkable Tang emperors was the Empress Wu, the only
woman ever to rule China. She was a concubine of the emperor Gaozong
(643-683). (In those days the emperor had one wife, the empress, but he
had many concubines. One emperor had 6,000 of them!). Wu is said to
have murdered her own baby daughter then accused the reigning empress
of being the murderer. Wu then replaced her as empress. In 660 the
emperor suffered a stroke. After that Wu effectively ruled China.
When Gaozong died in 683 his son Zhongzong succeeded him, but not for
long. Wu forced Zhongzong to abdicate in favor of another son, who was
effectively her puppet. In 690 Wu did away with puppet rulers and took the
throne herself. She ruled China until 705. Then, when she was very old,
she was forced to abdicate. Wu was a very powerful woman and she was
utterly ruthless.
However from the middle of the 8th century the Tang dynasty declined. In
751 the Chinese were defeated by the Arabs at the battle of Talas River.
Afterwards China lost control of central Asia. Then in 755 a general named
An Lushan led a rebellion. It was the beginning of a civil war, which lasted
for 8 years. The civil war only ended with help from the Uighurs, a Turkish
people. The fighting caused a great deal of destruction in China. The Tang
dynasty never really recovered.
By the 9th century Buddhism had grown very influential in China. However
monks were exempt from paying taxes and the emperor Wuzong (840-846)
resented this. There was also a shortage of copper in China to make coins.
The Buddhist monks were blamed because they used so much copper to
make bronze statues, bells and chimes. In 845 Wuzong ordered that
monasteries should hand over their land and property like iron and bronze
tools. All monks under the age of 40 were ordered to return to civilian life.
Many temples were destroyed. The order was rescinded in 846 but it was a
severe blow to Buddhism in China.
Then in 874 another rebellion began. The rebels captured Gunagzhou
(Canton) and massacred foreigners. They captured the capital Changdan
in 880. However the emperor was not entirely defeated. He asked Turkish
people for help. The emperor recaptured the capital in 884. However the
power of the Tang emperors was failing. The last Tang emperor was
removed in 907. The Tang was replaced by the Song dynasty.

11. THE SONG DYNASTY IN CHINA
After 907 China split into separate states once again. The north of China
was ruled by 5 short-lived dynasties. The northeast was an independent
kingdom ruled by the Qidan Liao dynasty. The south split into 10 kingdoms.
In 960 Taizu became emperor of the north. He managed to persuade all
but 2 of the southern states to submit to him. His son Taizong captured the
remaining 2 and by 979 China was once again re-united (except for the
north-east which remained independent).
During the Song era China's economy boomed. A new form of early
ripening rice from Vietnam improved agriculture. Irrigation was also
extended. The result was a population boom. Meanwhile trade and
commerce prospered and towns and cities grew much larger. Industries
like iron, ceramics, silk, lacquer and paper making flourished. China was
probably the richest country in the world. Overseas trade also grew. The
compass had been used for divination for centuries but by the 12th century
it was being used to navigate ships.
However Song China was surrounded by powerful enemies. The result was
a suspicion and dislike of anything foreign. Buddhism declined in popularity
because it was a foreign religion. Under the Song Confucianism underwent
a revival. Educated people saw it as a way of strengthening Chinese
culture. Scholars wrote commentaries on Confucian classics and a new
philosophy called Neo-Confucianism was worked out which dominated
China for centuries.
The Song emperors created a powerful bureaucracy to rule China. The civil
service was greatly expanded. There were state schools in China where
men could study in order to sit exams for the civil service. Under the Song
the number of schools was greatly increased. China came to be ruled by an
elite of scholar-officials.
North-east China was still independent. It was ruled by the Qidan Liao
dynasty. They also ruled over a people called the Jurchen. However in
1114 the Jurchen turned on their masters and by 1125 they had captured
the entire northeast. They attacked the rest of China. In 1127 they captured
the capital, Kaifeng. The Jurchen overran all of northern China but they
were unable to capture the south.
In 1141 the Chinese emperor made a treaty with them by which they kept
the north and he kept the south. For this reason the Song dynasty is
divided into 2 periods, the Northern Song period before China was split in
two and the Southern Song period afterwards. However the Chinese soon
absorbed the Jurchen. They kept the civil service entrance exams and

12. appointed Chinese men as officials. The Jurchen also began to wear
Chinese costume and speak the Chinese language. After 1191 the Jurchen
were allowed to marry the Chinese and many of them did so. In 1206 the
southern Chinese invaded the north. However the native Chinese in the
north had grown used to Jurchen rule and they did not rise in rebellion. The
invasion was defeated.
THE YUAN DYNASTY IN CHINA
However in the early 13th century there was a new threat-the Mongols.
Under their leader Genghis Khan they raided northern China in 1213-14. In
1215 they sacked and burned Beijing. Then they turned their attention
west. After the death of Genghis Khan in 1226 the Mongols invaded
northern China and by 1234 they had conquered it all. However in the
south the Song emperors managed to hold the Mongols at bay for some
decades.
In 1264 Kublai Khan, the grandson of Genghis made Beijing his winter
capital (the summer capital was in Mongolia). In 1272 he began calling
himself Yuan or great founder. So began the Yuan dynasty. Kublai invaded
southern China in 1268 and conquered it in a campaign lasting 9 years. In
1275 the Mongols captured the strategically vital city of Xian yang. That
proved to the turning point. The old Song dynasty finally came to an end in
1279 when the Mongols won a naval battle.
However Kublai realized it would be more profitable to rule China and tax it
rather than plunder it. He also realized that in order to rule he would need
to win over the Chinese. (According to legend an adviser told him that you
can conquer China on horseback but you cannot rule it on horseback).
Kublai enlisted Chinese officials to help him rule (although the most senior
officials were all Mongols).
Nevertheless the Mongols were never absorbed by the Chinese, unlike
previous invaders. They did not accept Chinese customs. The Chinese
remained second-class citizens. Society was divided into 4 classes. The
Mongols were at the top, and then below them were other non-Chinese
people. Below them were the northern Chinese (who were more
accustomed to foreign rule) then the southern Chinese at the bottom. The
Mongols also extended the Great Canal to their winter capital at Beijing.
The period of Mongol or Yuan ruler was not a happy one for China. The
population of China fell significantly and the country became less
prosperous. In the 1350s rebellions broke out in China and Yuan rule
began to break down. In 1368 the last Yuan emperor fled to Mongolia and
the Yuan dynasty was replaced by the Ming dynasty.

13. THE MING DYNASTY IN CHINA
The first Ming emperor Hongwu captured Beijing in 1368 but he moved the
capital to Nanjing. It was some time before he ruled all of China. Not till
1387 did he rule all the country. A later emperor, Yang Lo, decided to move
the capital back to Beijing. Between 1406 and 1421 he built the great
palace called the Forbidden City. Outside it was the Imperial City was built
for officials. Outside was the outer city for the ordinary people.
Under the Ming emperors China once again became prosperous and
powerful. (Despite the inevitable famines, which occurred from time to
time). In the 16th century new crops were introduced from the Americas,
sweet potatoes, maize and peanuts. These new foods were very useful
because they would grow where other crops would not. The Ming also
rebuilt the Great Wall.
During their reign industry and trade flourished in China. Vast quantities of
cotton were spun and huge amount of porcelain were made. In the early
15th century the emperor sent ships on 6 expeditions. They sailed to India,
Arabia and the east coast of Africa. One of them brought back the first
giraffe ever seen in China. However the Ming emperors became
increasingly inward looking and tried to isolate China from the outside
world. (Perhaps the period of Mongol rule increased their distrust of
foreigners and their dislike of foreign influences). The Portuguese reached
China by sea in 1514. In 1557 they were allowed to settle in Macao.
However the emperors were determined to limit contact with Europeans.
The period of prosperity in China ended in the early 17th century. In the
1630s Ming rule began to break down. China was struck by famine and
epidemics. Rebellions broke out and the government was unable to
suppress them. The rebels took city after city. Finally in 1644 the last Ming
emperor committed suicide. However there were 2 rebel factions and the
leaders of both claimed to be emperor. Neither could restore order.
Meanwhile Northeast of China lived a people called the Manchu's (they
gave their name to Manchuria). In 1618 they began to conquer the Chinese
who lived north of the Great Wall. From 1636 their leader claimed to be the
true emperor of China and took the name Qing. In 1644 a Chinese general
believed the Manchu's or Qing were more likely to restore order in China
than the rebel leaders so he let them through the wall. They quickly
defeated the rebels, in the north, and their leader installed himself as
emperor. So began the Qing dynasty.

14. THE QING DYNASTY IN CHINA
The Qing or Manchus easily took control of northern China but it took much
longer for them to conquer the south. They did not control all of China until
1660. A rebellion occurred in 1673 but it was eventually crushed. In 1683
the Qing captured Taiwan (the last stronghold of people loyal to the Ming
dynasty). The Qing commanded all men to shave the front of their heads
and tie the hair at the back into a queue. At first the Qing confiscated much
land from the native Chinese and the two races were segregated. However
the Qing gradually adopted Chinese ways and the Chinese eventually
accepted them (to a certain extent) as a legitimate dynasty.
The Qing created a strong and prosperous state. By 1697 they had
conquered Mongolia and in 1720 Tibet was made a protectorate. The
population of China grew rapidly in the 18th century. This was partly due to
new crops introduced from the Americas. It was partly due to new forms of
rice which made it possible to grow 3 crops a year in some parts of China.
In the 18th century trade and industry boomed in China. The iron industry
prospered and vast quantities of cotton were made. China also made huge
amounts of porcelain. Much of this was exported to Europe. Increasing
amount of tea was exported to Britain. The Chinese imported some iron
goods and wool from Britain but the British had to pay for most of their tea
with silver. After 1750 they were confined to Guangzhou and were not
allowed to trade in any other port. In 1793 they sent Lord McCartney to try
and negotiate a trade treaty with the Chinese emperor. However the
emperor made it clear he was not interested in manufactured goods from
Europe and he refused to change the terms of trade.
However although China was once a very advanced civilization she was
now falling behind Europe in technology. Soon she would be weaker than
the European powers.
Worse the British found it increasingly hard to pay for tea and other goods
with silver. So they exported large amounts of opium to China. Imports of
opium were banned in 1800 and in 1813 smoking opium was made illegal.
However the British soon joined forced with Chinese smugglers. The British
ships anchored off the coast and Chinese boats took tea out to them. They
brought British goods back to the shore. Increasingly the British resorted to
exchanging opium for tea. Soon there were many opium addicts in China.
The Opium Wars
The Opium Wars were a shameful episode in British history. The Chinese
government took action to combat this menace. In 1839 an official called

15. Lin Zexu was sent to Guangzhou to stop the opium smuggling. He
commanded the British to hand over their stores of opium. Reluctantly they
obeyed. However the British government sent a fleet to blockade
Guangzhou and the ports of Ningbo and Tanjin. In 1841 a Chinese official
negotiated a treaty. He agreed to give the British Hong Kong and pay what
it cost the British to send a fleet to China. However neither side was
satisfied with this treaty and the war resumed.
The British sent a second fleet and occupied several ports. This time the
Chinese were forced to pay a much larger amount of money. They were
also forced to open 5 ports to British merchants (Guangzhou, Xiamen,
Fuzhou, Ningbo and Shanghai). British citizens were to answer only to the
British authorities if they committed any crime while they were in China.
Chinese tariffs on British goods were to be only 5%. Soon afterwards the
Chinese were forced to sign similar treaties with other European countries.
Unfortunately the Chinese had fallen behind in military technology and they
were no match for the European forces.
The first Opium War of 1840-42 was followed by a second conflict. Neither
side was satisfied with the treaty of 1842. The Chinese naturally resented
the treaty. The British accused Chinese officials of 'dragging their feet' and
obstructing trade. Conflict came to a head in 1856 when the Chinese
boarded a ship called The Arrow. In 1858 the British sent another fleet to
China and the Chinese were forced to sign another treaty. Ten more ports
were opened to trade and foreigners were to be allowed to travel around
China.
In 1859 British officials returned to ratify the treaty but they were prevented
from entering China. However in 1860 the British sent another expedition.
This time the British burned the emperor's summer palace. China was
forced to open ports in the north to trade and to pay a large sum of money
to Britain.
The Decline of the Qing Dynasty
By the late 18th century the Qing dynasty was in decline. This was partly
due to a rise in the population. The population of China began to outstrip its
resources and the peasants grew poorer. As a result rebellions broke out.
In the years 1796-1804 the White Lotus sect led a rebellion. Although that
rebellion was eventually crushed it was followed by another rebellion in
1813 led by the Eight Trigrams sect. This rebellion cost 70,000 lives before
it was defeated.
However by far the most serious rebellion was the Taipeng rebellion of
1850-1864, which is estimated to have cost 20 million lives. It was led by

16. Hong Xichuan who believed he was the Son of God and the younger
brother of Jesus. He preached a mixture of some Christian beliefs and
some Communism. His followers sold their property and put the money in a
common fund. Land was distributed among his followers. He also banned
foot binding, smoking opium and wearing the queue. His followers also
destroyed Buddhist and Taoist temples. He took Nanjing in 1853 and led a
long rebellion. It took the Qing more than a decade to crush it. Furthermore
other rebellions broke out in China. It took another 4 years to put down
bandits in the north called the Nanin. There were also rebellions by
Muslims in outlying areas. These were not defeated until 1873.
In the late 19th century the Chinese government made some attempts to
introduce European technology. None of them were very successful. In
partnership with Chinese merchants the government opened coalmines,
started a steam shipping company and opened iron works and cotton mills.
They also built a telegraph network and a small network of railways.
However all these efforts at reform met with resistance from traditional
Confucian scholars. Worse in 1893 the Empress Cixi took some money
intended for the navy and used it to build a marble ship in the shape of a
paddle steamer. China remained fundamentally unchanged in the late 19th
century, unlike Japan, which changed rapidly.
In 1894 came war with Japan. A rebellion broke out in Korea in 1894 and
Chinese troops were sent there. However the Japanese navy sank a
Chinese troop carrier, provoking war. The Japanese army and navy quickly
won stunning victories and the Chinese were forced to sign a humiliating
treaty. They were forced to cede Taiwan to Japan and to allow the
Japanese to build factories in China. China was also forced to pay a large
sum of money. Afterwards European powers took advantage of China's
weakness by forcing her to cede more territory to them.
After the shock of the Sino-Japanese war many Chinese realized that
China must modernize otherwise she would be carved up between the
foreign powers. In 1898 some officials persuaded the emperor to decree a
series of reforms. However the Empress Dowager (a retired empress) Cixi
put a stop to it. She arrested most of the reformers and executed them on
the trumped up charge that they were plotting to overthrow the government.
The Boxer Rebellion
In 1900 Chinese resentment of foreign interference boiled over into the
Boxer rebellion. It began with a secret society called the Harmonious Fists.
They hated Christian missionaries and foreign influence. The society grew

17. rapidly after 1898 and friction between them and the missionaries grew.
Afraid, the British sent 2,000 men to protect their nationals in Beijing.
However the Boxers cut the railway to Tianjin and the British were forced to
withdraw their soldiers. Cixi decided to join the Boxers and she declared
war. The foreigners in Beijing shut themselves in their buildings and the
Chinese lay siege. However a force of 20,000 European soldiers marched
into Beijing and sacked it. Afterwards the Chinese were forced to pay a
large sum of money to the Europeans as compensation.
The Fall of the Qing Dynasty
In 1901 the Empress Dowager, Cixi, changed her mind and decided some
reform was needed after all. Primary and secondary education was
changed to include western subjects. Then in 1905 the civil service entry
exams, which had been used for 2,000 years, were abolished. Some
attempt was made to reform the army and navy. In 1908 she agreed to
make the Chinese monarchy a constitutional one. In 1909 provincial
assemblies were elected. However only a limited number of men were
allowed to vote and the assemblies had little power. After 1910 there was a
national assembly but it too have very limited power. The limited reforms of
the Qing satisfied nobody and in 1911 they were swept away by a
revolution. China became a republic.
THE CHINESE REPUBLIC 1911-1949
The Revolution
In the early 20th century many people decided the only thing to do was to
sweep away the old order. Leading the revolutionaries was Sun-Yat-Sen
(1866-1925). He put forward 3 principles, nationalism, democracy and
socialism. In 1905 he formed the Revolutionary Alliance of Tongmen Hui.
Some soldiers in Wuchang with revolutionary ideals formed an organisation
called the Literary Society. In 1911 they were planning revolution. However
they accidentally set off a bomb. Realizing the government would now be
alerted they decided to start the revolution immediately.
The revolution soon gathered pace and spread across southern China.
Province after province seceded from the Qing Empire. However the Qing
turned to a man named General Yaun Shikai. This man had been a
regional governor but the Qing dismissed him, as they feared he was
growing too powerful. Now they recalled him and gave him wide powers to
crush the revolution.

18. However when his forces were repulsed at Nanjing the general decided to
change sides. He made a deal with the revolutionaries. He would make
China a republic if he could be President. Sun Yat-Sen and the other
revolutionaries feared that a divided China would be easy prey for the
foreign powers so they agreed to his terms. The Qing were persuaded to
abdicate in February 1912. Yuan Shikai became president of China. A
parliament was elected in February. The largest party were the nationalists
of Kuomintang with Sun Yat-Sen at their head.
However the general had no intention of sharing power with parliament and
soon made himself dictator. The Kuomintang were banned at the end of
1913 and parliament was closed in January 1914.
The Warlord Years
When General Yuan died in 1916 China descended into semi-anarchy.
Central government had little power and warlords controlled the provinces.
In 1916 the Japanese took over the German 'sphere of influence' in
Shangdong. After the war, in 1919, it became clear that the victorious
powers intended to let Japan keep it. This news provoked 3,000 students to
demonstrate in Beijing on 4 May 1919. They burned the Minister of
Communication's house. Although the police moved to suppress the
demonstration in Beijing similar protests took place elsewhere in China.
The protest gave rise to a movement called the Fourth of May movement
which rejected Confucian values and sought to modernize China. Although
the Kuomintang were banned in 1913 they simply moved their base to
Guangzhou and continued to operate.
In 1921 the Chinese Communist Party or CCP was founded. Communism
was based on the ideas of Karl Marx (1818-1883). According to him society
went through an inevitable series of stages ending in Communism. The
workers, he said, would inevitably rise up against the capitalists and
Capitalism would be replaced by Socialism in which the state would own
industry. However the state would 'wither away' leaving a classless society
or Communism. Needless to say the promised utopia never materialised.
One of the founders of the Communist Party was Mao Tse-Tung (1893-
1976). By 1935 he became head of the new party. At first the Communists
decided to co-operate with the Kuomintang. For a time the two joined
forces.
Meanwhile China was changing in the early 20th century. Industry was
expanding rapidly (although the country remained overwhelmingly
agricultural) and China saw a wave of strikes and labor unrest in the 1920s.
Then in 1926 the Kuomintang decided to unite China. From their base in

19. the south they sent an army of 150,000 men into the north. The warlords in
some of the northern provinces were defeated and by the end of 1926 large
parts of northern China were brought under Kuomintang control. In 1928
the Northern Expedition was renewed and in April Kuomintang forces
entered Beijing. China was reunited.
Meanwhile the Kuomintang and the Communists argued. In the autumn of
1927 Mao Tse Tung led a peasant rebellion called the Autumn Harvest
Uprising. However it was crushed. In December 1927 there was an uprising
in Guangzhou and a Communist government was very briefly established
in the city but government forces soon crushed the movement.
In 1930 the Kuomintang said that China was not ready for democracy.
Instead China became a military dictatorship led by Chiang Kai Shek. In
1930 Li Lisan led another Communist rebellion but it was easily crushed.
However in the countryside Mao Tse Tung adopted a much more
successful policy. From his base in a mountain range he carried out
guerrilla warfare. He created a well-disciplined force that conducted 'hit and
run' raids and hid whenever the enemy advanced, avoiding pitched battles.
His men were able to wear down and demoralize them. Guerrilla warfare
proved to be extremely successful in the 20th century.
In 1934 the Kuomintang attempted to encircle the Communists. Mao
decided to break out. About 90,000 soldiers escaped the trap and
embarked on a long march to the north of China. This Long March became
legendary although less than 20,000 of those who took part survived the
march. Then in 1937 Communists and Kuomintang agreed to a temporary
truce to fight the Japanese.
In 1931 the Japanese occupied Manchuria. In 1932 they created a
separate state with a puppet government called Munchuko. In 1937 the
Japanese invaded the rest of China. The invasion began with the 'rape of
Nanjing' when tens of thousands of people in that city were murdered.
Women were raped and buildings were burned. However the Japanese
were unable to conquer all of China due to its sheer size.
In the 1930s some modernization occurred in the coastal cities of China.
Many new railways were built and many more roads were metaled. The
amount of electricity generated increased 7 times over. Industrial output
was small but it was growing. Coal mining boomed. Cotton spinning also
grew. However the interior of China remained overwhelmingly agricultural.
When the Japanese invaded in 1937 Chiang Kai Shek attempted to
evacuate many people, especially skilled workers to the unoccupied areas
of China. Industrial machinery was also evacuated west. However to

20. finance the fighting the Kuomintang were forced to print money. The result
was rampant inflation which undermined their support.
The Revolution in China
In August 1945 Russia declared war on Japan. As a result Russian troops
occupied Manchuria after the Japanese surrender. When they withdrew the
Communists were left in control of Manchuria. In 1946 the civil war
resumed between Communists and Kuomintang. At first the Kuomintang
were successful and they recaptured southern Manchuria and other parts
of northern China. However the Communists turned to guerrilla warfare and
successfully harassed the Kuomintang and their lines of communication.
From the middle of 1947 the Communists were winning the war. Then in
November 1948-January 1949 the Communists won a victory at Huai-Hai.
They encircled an army of 300,000 Kuomintang and eventually forced them
to surrender. After that the Kuomintang position swiftly collapsed. The
Communists took Beijing in January 1949. In April they took Nanjing and in
May Shanghai. The remaining Kuomintang then fled to Taiwan and in
October Mao Tse Tung declared the Peoples Republic of China in Beijing.
MODERN CHINA
The Early Years of the Peoples Republic
Under the Communists industry was nationalized. The peasants were
encouraged to pool their resources and form their small farms into co-
operatives. Any opposition to the Communist regime was ruthlessly
suppressed.
In 1958 Mao launched an attempt to greatly increase output of farming and
industry. It was called The Great Leap Forward. Agricultural co-operatives
were joined together to form larger units called communes. Creches and
nurseries were set up so women could work.
Communes were encouraged to make steel in their own makeshift
furnaces. Many peasants were forced to work on water conservation works.
However the Great Leap Forward proved to be a disaster. Most of the steel
was of very poor quality and could not be used.
Worse farm output greatly declined and there was a terrible famine in
China in 1959-62. Far too much labor was diverted to making steel or
building projects leaving not enough for the harvests which in some areas
were left to rot. Worse crops fell prey to locusts. In 1958 Mao launched a
campaign to kill sparrows (because they ate grain seeds). However

21. sparrows also ate locusts and other insects. Huge numbers of sparrows
were killed and without natural predators the number of locusts greatly
increased, making the famine worse. Bad weather in 1959 and 1960 made
the famine worse still.
Yet even though there was a famine and people were starving China
continued to export grain. An estimated 36 million people in China died in
the famine. Not all died of starvation. Starving people were executed for
stealing food. It was the worst man made famine in history. However Mao
was unmoved by the famine. He said 'To distribute resources evenly will
only ruin the Great Leap Forward. It is better to let half the people die so
that the other half can eat their fill'. Nevertheless The Great Leap Forward
was a failure and it had to be abandoned. Afterwards Mao lost some of his
authority.
The Cultural Revolution in China
In 1966 to reassert his authority Mao launched the Cultural Revolution.
Students began to call themselves the Red Guard and they held rallies in
Beijing. Soon a movement began to root out old habits, beliefs and
attitudes and cause a cultural revolution. The Red Guard began to attack
intellectuals and also officials. In 1967 they forced the mayor and other
officials in Shanghai to resign. The same thing happened in other cities as
well. Many party officials were purged and removed from power.
During the Cultural Revolution religion was persecuted in China. Many
places of worship were destroyed. (Mao like all Marxists was an atheist and
he detested religion).
However in 1968 Mao realized that things were going too far. The Red
Guard was disrupting industry and agriculture. Mao ordered them to
disband. Mao himself died in September 1976.
In 1989 a mass demonstration was held in Tiananmen Square in Beijing
demanding democratic reforms. It was crushed by the Chinese army.
China's Economic Miracle
In the late 20th century China introduced a market economy. As a result
China became an amazing success story. The economy grew very rapidly
in the last years of the 20th century and by the mid-1990s China had
become an affluent society. Consumer goods like TVs and fridges became
common. In the last years of the 20th century the government switched to a
market economy. Peasants in communes were given contracts. They were
given a certain amount of land and agreed to grow a certain amount of

22. crops. If they grew any excess they could sell it. In industry factories were
given more autonomy. They were allowed to make their own agreements
with their suppliers and their customers. If they made large profits they
could pay their workers bonuses. The new slogan was 'To be rich is
glorious!'. Four special economic zones were formed in the east of China.
The result was a huge increase in Chinese industrial output and a great
improvement in Chinese standards of living.
In 2005 there was a significant sign of China's growing economic power
when Shanghai overtook Rotterdam as the largest port in the world. China
is predicted to become the world's largest economy by 2040. Today the
population of China is 1.35 billion.
A TIMELINEOF CHINA
5,000 BC The Chinese begin farming. Rice is grown in the south and millet
in the north. The Chinese make pottery.
2,000 BC The Chinese make bronze tools
c. 1,750 BC The Shang dynasty rules China
c. 1,300 BC Silk is made in China
1022 BC The Zhou dynasty takes power in China
c. 650 BC Iron is smelted in China
c. 600 BC Coins are used in China. Cavalry replaces chariots in warfare.
551-479 BC Kong-Fuzi lives
c. 300 BC The horse collar is invented in China
206 BC The Han dynasty takes power in China
165 BC The emperor decrees that anyone wishing to become a paid official
must sit an exam which will test his knowledge of Confucian teaching
2 AD A census shows the population of China is 57 million
206 BC The Han dynasty takes power in China

23. 220 AD The Han dynasty ends. China splits into rival kingdoms. This is the
Period of Division.
618-624 The Tang dynasty reunites China. Afterwards trade and
commerce flourish.
690-705 Empress Wu rules China
751 The Arabs defeat the Chinese at the battle of Talas
907 The last Tang Emperor is deposed
979 The Song dynasty takes power in China (except in the northeast)
1141 China is split in two. A people called the Jurchen rule the north.
1215 The Mongols capture Beijing
1234 The Mongols conquer all of northern China
1264 Kublai Khan makes Beijing his winter capital
1279 The Mongols finally destroy the old Song dynasty
1368 The Ming dynasty takes power in China
1406-21 The emperor builds the Forbidden City
1514 The Portuguese reach China by sea
1557 The Portuguese are allowed to settle in Macao
1644 The last Ming emperor commits suicide and the Qing dynasty takes
power
1750 Agriculture, trade and industry in China flourish
1813 Smoking opium is banned in China. However the British continue to
smuggle opium into China.
1840-42 The First Opium War is fought between Britain and China. The
Chinese are forced to accept British terms.
1856-60 The Second Opium War is fought. The Chinese are forced to
surrender even more to the British.

24. 1894 China fights with Japan. The Japanese quickly prevail as they have
industrialised while China has remained an agricultural country.
1898 Following the shock of defeat by Japan the emperor tries to introduce
reforms. However the empress dowager puts a stop to it.
1900 The Boxer Rebellion takes place. It is crushed by Europeans.
1901 The empress dowager changes her mind and introduces some
reforms
1911 Revolution sweeps China and it becomes a republic
1914 Yuan Shikai makes himself dictator of China
1916 Yuan dies and China descends into disorder
1919 Chinese students protest in Beijing. This becomes the Fourth of May
Movement to modernize China
1921 The Chinese Communist Party is founded
1928 China is reunited by the Kuomintang
1930 The Kuomintang decides that China is not ready for democracy and
Chiang Kai Shek becomes dictator
1931 The Japanese invade Manchuria
1934 The Communists undertake the Long March
1937 The Japanese invade the rest of China. Communists and Kuomintang
agree a truce to fight the Japanese. The truce ends after the Japanese
surrender in 1945.
1949 The Communists win power in China
1958 China undertakes the Great Leap Forward. It turns into a terrible
disaster and millions die in the subsequent famine.
1966 The Cultural Revolution begins
1968 Mao disbands the Red Guard
1976 Mao dies

25. 1979 A period of rapid economic growth begins in China following market
reforms
1989 A mass demonstration in Tiananamen Square is crushed by the
Chinese army
c. 1995 China becomes an affluent society
2008 The Olympic Games are held in Beijing
2013 China lands a robot craft called Chang'e 3 on the Moon