This document summarizes key concepts from Chapter 8 of Psychology (9th Edition) by David Myers regarding learning. It discusses three major types of learning: classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and observational learning. For classical conditioning, it describes Pavlov's experiments with dogs and conditioning and key concepts like acquisition, extinction, and generalization. For operant conditioning, it outlines Skinner's experiments with rats in operant chambers and concepts like reinforcement schedules, shaping, and punishment. It also discusses Bandura's bobo doll experiment regarding observational learning from models.
Introductory Psychology: Learning Part II (Operant)Brian Piper
lecture 19 from a college level introduction to psychology course taught Fall 2011 by Brian J. Piper, Ph.D. (psy391@gmail.com) at Willamette University, operant conditioning
These slides are about different methods and types of learning and basically concerned about classical conditioning. Classical conditioning and its whole process is described here briefly.
6LearningRevised by Pauline Davey Zeece, University of.docxfredharris32
6
Learning
Revised by Pauline Davey Zeece, University of Nebraska-Lincoln
Learning
Acquiring new and relatively enduring information or behaviors through experience
Associative learning: Learning that certain events occur together
Events may be two stimuli or a response and its consequences.
Cognitive learning: Acquisition of mental information by observing events, watching others, or through language
2
Forms of Conditioning
Classical conditioning
One learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events
Produces respondent behavior
Operant conditioning
One learns to associate an action and its consequence.
Produces operant behavior
Conditioning - A process of learning associations.
Stimulus: Any event or situation that evokes a response.
Respondent behavior: Behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus.
Operant behavior: Behavior that operates on the environment, producing consequences.
3
Figure 6.1 - Classical Conditioning
4
Figure 6.2 - Operant Conditioning
Retrieve and Remember 1
Why are habits, such as having something sweet with that cup of coffee, so hard to break?
ANSWER: Habits form when we repeat behaviors in a given context and, as a result, learn associations—often without our awareness. For example, we may have eaten a sweet pastry with a cup of coffee often enough to associate the flavor of the coffee with the treat, so that the cup of coffee alone just doesn’t seem right anymore!
6
Classical Conditioning
Pavlov’s experiments
Pavlov’s legacy
Figure 6.3 - Pavlov’s Classic Experiment
Pavlov presented a neutral stimulus (a tone) just before an unconditioned stimulus (food in mouth). The neutral stimulus then became a conditioned stimulus, producing a conditioned response.
8
Classical Conditioning: Terms
Neutral stimulus (NS): Evokes no response before conditioning
Unconditioned stimulus (US): Unconditionally, naturally and automatically, triggers a response
Unconditioned response (UR): Unlearned and naturally occurring response to an unconditioned stimulus (US)
9
Conditioned Response and Conditioned Stimulus
Conditioned response (CR)
Learned response to a previously neutral but now conditioned stimulus
Conditioned stimulus (CS)
Irrelevant stimulus that triggers a conditioned response (CR) after association with an unconditioned stimulus (US)
Pavlov’s Experiments
Explored conditioning processes
Acquisition
Extinction
Spontaneous recovery
Generalization
Discrimination
Ivan Pavlov: “Experimental investigation…
should lay a solid foundation for a future true
science of psychology” (1927).
Retrieve and Remember 2
An experimenter sounds a tone just before delivering an air puff that causes your eye to blink.
After several repetitions, you blink to the tone alone.
What is the NS? The US? The UR? The CS? The CR?
ANSWERS: NS = tone before conditioning; US = air puff; UR = blink to air puff; CS = tone after conditioning; CR = blink to tone
12
Acquisition
I.
Acetabularia Information For Class 9 .docxvaibhavrinwa19
Acetabularia acetabulum is a single-celled green alga that in its vegetative state is morphologically differentiated into a basal rhizoid and an axially elongated stalk, which bears whorls of branching hairs. The single diploid nucleus resides in the rhizoid.
Safalta Digital marketing institute in Noida, provide complete applications that encompass a huge range of virtual advertising and marketing additives, which includes search engine optimization, virtual communication advertising, pay-per-click on marketing, content material advertising, internet analytics, and greater. These university courses are designed for students who possess a comprehensive understanding of virtual marketing strategies and attributes.Safalta Digital Marketing Institute in Noida is a first choice for young individuals or students who are looking to start their careers in the field of digital advertising. The institute gives specialized courses designed and certification.
for beginners, providing thorough training in areas such as SEO, digital communication marketing, and PPC training in Noida. After finishing the program, students receive the certifications recognised by top different universitie, setting a strong foundation for a successful career in digital marketing.
A Strategic Approach: GenAI in EducationPeter Windle
Artificial Intelligence (AI) technologies such as Generative AI, Image Generators and Large Language Models have had a dramatic impact on teaching, learning and assessment over the past 18 months. The most immediate threat AI posed was to Academic Integrity with Higher Education Institutes (HEIs) focusing their efforts on combating the use of GenAI in assessment. Guidelines were developed for staff and students, policies put in place too. Innovative educators have forged paths in the use of Generative AI for teaching, learning and assessments leading to pockets of transformation springing up across HEIs, often with little or no top-down guidance, support or direction.
This Gasta posits a strategic approach to integrating AI into HEIs to prepare staff, students and the curriculum for an evolving world and workplace. We will highlight the advantages of working with these technologies beyond the realm of teaching, learning and assessment by considering prompt engineering skills, industry impact, curriculum changes, and the need for staff upskilling. In contrast, not engaging strategically with Generative AI poses risks, including falling behind peers, missed opportunities and failing to ensure our graduates remain employable. The rapid evolution of AI technologies necessitates a proactive and strategic approach if we are to remain relevant.
it describes the bony anatomy including the femoral head , acetabulum, labrum . also discusses the capsule , ligaments . muscle that act on the hip joint and the range of motion are outlined. factors affecting hip joint stability and weight transmission through the joint are summarized.
A review of the growth of the Israel Genealogy Research Association Database Collection for the last 12 months. Our collection is now passed the 3 million mark and still growing. See which archives have contributed the most. See the different types of records we have, and which years have had records added. You can also see what we have for the future.
The simplified electron and muon model, Oscillating Spacetime: The Foundation...RitikBhardwaj56
Discover the Simplified Electron and Muon Model: A New Wave-Based Approach to Understanding Particles delves into a groundbreaking theory that presents electrons and muons as rotating soliton waves within oscillating spacetime. Geared towards students, researchers, and science buffs, this book breaks down complex ideas into simple explanations. It covers topics such as electron waves, temporal dynamics, and the implications of this model on particle physics. With clear illustrations and easy-to-follow explanations, readers will gain a new outlook on the universe's fundamental nature.
A workshop hosted by the South African Journal of Science aimed at postgraduate students and early career researchers with little or no experience in writing and publishing journal articles.
This presentation includes basic of PCOS their pathology and treatment and also Ayurveda correlation of PCOS and Ayurvedic line of treatment mentioned in classics.
Unit 8 - Information and Communication Technology (Paper I).pdfThiyagu K
This slides describes the basic concepts of ICT, basics of Email, Emerging Technology and Digital Initiatives in Education. This presentations aligns with the UGC Paper I syllabus.
Normal Labour/ Stages of Labour/ Mechanism of LabourWasim Ak
Normal labor is also termed spontaneous labor, defined as the natural physiological process through which the fetus, placenta, and membranes are expelled from the uterus through the birth canal at term (37 to 42 weeks
Read| The latest issue of The Challenger is here! We are thrilled to announce that our school paper has qualified for the NATIONAL SCHOOLS PRESS CONFERENCE (NSPC) 2024. Thank you for your unwavering support and trust. Dive into the stories that made us stand out!
6. 6
Chapter 8: Learning
Definition
Learning is a relatively permanent change in an
organism’s behavior due to experience.
Learning is more flexible in comparison to the
genetically-programmed behaviors of Chinooks,
for example.
7. 7
How Do We Learn?
We learn by association. Our minds
naturally connect events that occur in
sequence.
2000 years ago, Aristotle suggested this
law of association. Then 200 years ago
Locke and Hume reiterated this law.
12. 12
Ideas of classical conditioning originate from old
philosophical theories. However, it was the
Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov who elucidated
classical conditioning. His work provided a basis
for later behaviorists like John Watson.
Classical Conditioning
Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936)
Sovfoto
14. 14
Pavlov’s Experiments
During conditioning, the neutral stimulus (tone)
and the US (food) are paired, resulting in
salivation (UR). After conditioning, the neutral
stimulus (now Conditioned Stimulus, CS) elicits
salivation (now Conditioned Response, CR)
15. 15
Acquisition
Acquisition is the initial learning stage in
classical conditioning in which an association
between a neutral stimulus and an
unconditioned stimulus takes place.
1. In most cases, for conditioning to occur, the
neutral stimulus needs to come before the
unconditioned stimulus.
2. The time in between the two stimuli should
be about half a second.
17. 17
Extinction
When the US (food) does not follow the CS
(tone), CR (salivation) begins to decrease and
eventually causes extinction.
18. 18
Spontaneous Recovery
After a rest period, an extinguished CR (salivation)
spontaneously recovers, but if the CS (tone) persists
alone, the CR becomes extinct again.
19. 19
Stimulus Generalization
Tendency to respond to
stimuli similar to the CS is
called generalization.
Pavlov conditioned the
dog’s salivation (CR) by
using miniature vibrators
(CS) on the thigh. When he
subsequently stimulated
other parts of the dog’s
body, salivation dropped.
21. 21
Extending Pavlov’s Understanding
Pavlov and Watson considered consciousness,
or mind, unfit for the scientific study of
psychology. However, they underestimated
the importance of cognitive processes and
biological constraints.
22. 22
Cognitive Processes
Early behaviorists believed that learned
behaviors of various animals could be reduced
to mindless mechanisms.
However, later behaviorists suggested that
animals learn the predictability of a stimulus,
meaning they learn expectancy or awareness of a
stimulus (Rescorla & Wagner, 1972).
23. 23
Biological Predispositions
Pavlov and Watson believed that laws of
learning were similar for all animals.
Therefore, a pigeon and a person do not differ
in their learning.
However, behaviorists later suggested that
learning is constrained by an animal’s biology.
24. 24
Biological Predispositions
John Garcia
Garcia showed that the duration
between the CS and the US may be
long (hours), but yet result in
conditioning. A biologically adaptive
CS (taste) led to conditioning but
other stimuli (sight or sound) did
not.
CourtesyofJohnGarcia
26. 26
Pavlov’s greatest contribution
to psychology is isolating
elementary behaviors from
more complex ones through
objective scientific
procedures.
Pavlov’s Legacy
Ivan Pavlov
(1849-1936)
27. 27
1. Former crack cocaine users should avoid
cues (people, places) associated with
previous drug use.
2. Through classical conditioning, a drug (plus
its taste) that affects the immune response
may cause the taste of the drug to invoke the
immune response.
Applications of Classical
Conditioning
28. 28
Watson used classical
conditioning procedures to
develop advertising
campaigns for a number of
organizations, including
Maxwell House, making the
“coffee break” an American
custom.
Applications of Classical
Conditioning
John B. Watson
BrownBrothers
29. 29
Operant & Classical Conditioning
1. Classical conditioning
forms associations
between stimuli (CS
and US). Operant
conditioning, on the
other hand, forms an
association between
behaviors and the
resulting events.
30. 30
Operant & Classical Conditioning
2. Classical conditioning involves respondent
behavior that occurs as an automatic
response to a certain stimulus. Operant
conditioning involves operant behavior, a
behavior that operates on the environment,
producing rewarding or punishing stimuli.
31. 31
Skinner’s Experiments
Skinner’s experiments extend Thorndike’s
thinking, especially his law of effect. This law
states that rewarded behavior is likely to occur
again.
YaleUniversityLibrary
32. 32
Operant Chamber
Using Thorndike's law of effect as a starting
point, Skinner developed the Operant chamber,
or the Skinner box, to study operant
conditioning.
WalterDawn/PhotoResearchers,Inc.
FromTheEssentialsofConditioningandLearning,3rd
EditionbyMichaelP.Domjan,2005.Usedwithpermission
byThomsonLearning,WadsworthDivision
33. 33
Operant Chamber
The operant chamber,
or Skinner box, comes
with a bar or key that
an animal manipulates
to obtain a reinforcer
like food or water. The
bar or key is connected
to devices that record
the animal’s response.
34. 34
Shaping
Shaping is the operant conditioning procedure
in which reinforcers guide behavior towards the
desired target behavior through successive
approximations.
A rat shaped to sniff mines. A manatee shaped to discriminate
objects of different shapes, colors and sizes.
KhamisRamadhan/Panapress/GettyImages
FredBavendam/PeterArnold,Inc.
35. 35
Types of Reinforcers
Reinforcement: Any event that strengthens the
behavior it follows. A heat lamp positively
reinforces a meerkat’s behavior in the cold.
Reuters/Corbis
36. 36
1. Primary Reinforcer: An innately reinforcing
stimulus like food or drink.
2. Conditioned Reinforcer: A learned
reinforcer that gets its reinforcing power
through association with the primary
reinforcer.
Primary & Secondary Reinforcers
37. 37
1. Immediate Reinforcer: A reinforcer that
occurs instantly after a behavior. A rat gets
a food pellet for a bar press.
2. Delayed Reinforcer: A reinforcer that is
delayed in time for a certain behavior. A
paycheck that comes at the end of a week.
Immediate & Delayed Reinforcers
We may be inclined to engage in small immediate
reinforcers (watching TV) rather than large delayed
reinforcers (getting an A in a course) which require
consistent study.
38. 38
Reinforcement Schedules
1. Continuous Reinforcement: Reinforces the
desired response each time it occurs.
2. Partial Reinforcement: Reinforces a
response only part of the time. Though this
results in slower acquisition in the
beginning, it shows greater resistance to
extinction later on.
39. 39
Ratio Schedules
1. Fixed-ratio schedule: Reinforces a response
only after a specified number of responses.
e.g., piecework pay.
2. Variable-ratio schedule: Reinforces a
response after an unpredictable number of
responses. This is hard to extinguish because
of the unpredictability. (e.g., behaviors like
gambling, fishing.)
40. 40
Interval Schedules
1. Fixed-interval schedule: Reinforces a
response only after a specified time has
elapsed. (e.g., preparing for an exam
only when the exam draws close.)
2. Variable-interval schedule: Reinforces a
response at unpredictable time
intervals, which produces slow, steady
responses. (e.g., pop quiz.)
43. 43
Punishment
1. Results in unwanted fears.
2. Conveys no information to the organism.
3. Justifies pain to others.
4. Causes unwanted behaviors to reappear in its
absence.
5. Causes aggression towards the agent.
6. Causes one unwanted behavior to appear in
place of another.
Although there may be some justification for
occasional punishment (Larzelaere & Baumrind,
2002), it usually leads to negative effects.
45. 45
Cognition & Operant Conditioning
Evidence of cognitive processes during operant
learning comes from rats during a maze
exploration in which they navigate the maze
without an obvious reward. Rats seem to
develop cognitive maps, or mental
representations, of the layout of the maze
(environment).
46. 46
Latent Learning
Such cognitive maps are based on latent
learning, which becomes apparent only when
an incentive is given (Tolman & Honzik, 1930).
47. 47
Intrinsic Motivation
Intrinsic Motivation:
The desire to perform a
behavior for its own
sake.
Extrinsic Motivation:
The desire to perform a
behavior due to
promised rewards or
threats of punishments.
48. 48
Biological Predisposition
Biological constraints
predispose organisms to
learn associations that
are naturally adaptive.
Breland and Breland
(1961) showed that
animals drift towards
their biologically
predisposed instinctive
behaviors.
Marian Breland Bailey
Photo:BobBailey
49. 49
Skinner’s Legacy
Skinner argued that behaviors were shaped by
external influences instead of inner thoughts and
feelings. Critics argued that Skinner
dehumanized people by neglecting their free will.
Falk/PhotoResearchers,Inc.
50. 50
Applications of Operant
Conditioning
Skinner introduced the concept of teaching
machines that shape learning in small steps and
provide reinforcements for correct rewards.
In School LWA-JDL/Corbis
52. 52
Applications of Operant
Conditioning
At Home
In children, reinforcing good behavior increases
the occurrence of these behaviors. Ignoring
unwanted behavior decreases their occurrence.
56. 56
Imitation Onset
Learning by observation
begins early in life. This
14-month-old child
imitates the adult on TV
in pulling a toy apart.
Meltzoff,A.N.(1998).Imitationoftelevisedmodelsbyinfants.
ChildDevelopment,591221-1229.PhotosCourtesyofA.N.MeltzoffandM.Hanuk.
57. 57
Bandura's Experiments
Bandura's Bobo doll
study (1961) indicated
that individuals
(children) learn
through imitating
others who receive
rewards and
punishments.
CourtesyofAlbertBandura,StanfordUniversity
60. 60
Television and Observational
Learning
Gentile et al., (2004)
shows that children in
elementary school
who are exposed to
violent television,
videos, and video
games express
increased aggression.
RonChapple/Taxi/GettyImages
61. 61
Modeling Violence
Research shows that viewing media violence
leads to an increased expression of aggression.
Children modeling after pro wrestlers
BobDaemmrich/TheImageWorks
Glassman/TheImageWorks
Editor's Notes
Preview Question 1: What are some basic forms of learning?
Preview Question 2: What is classical conditioning, and how did Pavlov’s work influence behaviorism?
Preview Question 3: How does a neutral stimulus become a CS, and what are the processes of acquisition, extinction, spontaneous recovery, generalization, and discrimination in classical conditioning?
Preview Question 4: In classical conditioning, what are the processes of acquisition, extinction, spontaneous recovery, generalization, and discrimination?
Preview Question 5: Do cognitive processes and biological constraints affect classical conditioning?
Preview Question 6: Why is Pavlov’s work important?
Preview Question 7: What have been some applications of classical conditioning?
Preview Question 8: What is operant conditioning, and how does it differ from classical conditioning?
Preview Question 9: What are the basic types of reinforcers?
Preview Question 10: How do different reinforcement schedules affect behavior?
Preview Question 11: How does punishment affect behavior?
Preview Question 12: Do cognitive processes and biological constraints affect operant conditioning?
Preview Question 13: How might operant conditioning principles be applied at school, in sports, at work, and at home?
Preview Question 14: What is observational learning, and how is it enabled by mirror neurons?
Preview Question 15: What is the impact of prosocial modeling and of antisocial modeling?